STOMACH COMPARTMENTS
Rumen- act as a site of anaerobic
fermentation
Reticulum- serve as site of microbial
action
Omasum- involves water volatile fatty
acids
Abomasum- true stomach
TERMINOLOGIES
Beef- meat from cattle 10 months of age
or over
Bull beef- beef product from uncastrated
male animal
Cow beef- beef from uncastrated male
cow
Bullock- castrated animal over 1 year old
Star cattle- animal of either sex
Veal- meat from calves within 15 weeks
Slink veal- meat from calves of early age
Feeder calves- one year of age
Yearling feeders- 1 to 2 years old sold to
feed for slaughter
Dawn calves or Springer- female animal
nearly to give birth to its calf
CLASSIFICATION OF FEEDS
Roughages- livestock feed with 18%
crude fiber when dry
Fiber- hard to digest of the feed
Legumes- plant that can take
nitrogen from the air
Grass- non legume
As feed- consumed by animal
Ash-refers to combustible residue after
incineration
Bran- refers to pericarp or seed coat of
grain during processing
Buffer- substances that can counter free
acid or alkaline concentration
Catalyst- substance that speeds up rate
of chemical reaction
Coenzymes- partner of enzymes to
produce enzymatic activity
Forage- crops use as for pasture for
feeding
Green chops- forage
Groat- grain which the hull is removed
Hay- steamed forage crop stored in dry
form
Hydrolysis- splitting of substance using
water
Inert- relatively inactive
Inorganic- doesn’t contain carbon
Kernel-refers to dehulled seed
Kilocalorie- 1000 calories
Labile- unstable
Lignin- indigestible compound that is part
of cell wall
Matrix- intracellular framework of tissue
Metabolic energy- digestible energy
minus energy of urine
Middlings- by product of flour millings
Millran- product from mill
Net energy- metabolizable energy minus
heat increment
Pulp- solid residue
Pasture- forages harvested by grazing
animals
Silage- stored in silos under anaerobic
conditions
Roughage- feed high in fiber more than
20 % with low total digestible nutrients
Rumen- first compartment in stomach
Ruminant- hoofed animal with four
compartment stomach
Ruminate- regurgitate
Self-feed- eat at will
Straw- part of mature plant
Starch- polysaccharides
Substrate- substance which enzymes act
Sucrose- table sugar, cane, beet
Synthesis- two substances forming new
compound
TDN (total digestible nutrient)- relative
energy value
Urea- white crystalline fertilizer
Viscosity- freedom of flow
Ph- degree of acidity
CREEP FEEDING OF CALVES
Creep feeding is a way of providing calves
with extra feed. Th e feed may be
grain, commercial creep feed mix, or
roughage. It is fed in a feeder in an area cows
cannot reach.
Creep feeding
• produces heavier (30 to 70 lbs. [13.6 to
31.8 kg]) calves at weaning.
• produces higher grade and more finish at
weaning.
• results in calves going on feedlot rations
better at weaning time.
• creates less feedlot stress.
• allows cows and calves to stay on
poorer-quality pasture for a longer time.
Creep feeding has the following
disadvantages:
• If calves are well-fed aft er weaning, the
weight advantage from creep feeding
is lost.
• When production testing, it is harder to detect
differences in inherited gaining
ability.
• Replacement heifers may become too fat.
• Calves that are not creep fed usually make
faster and more economical gains
aft er weaning as compared to calves that
were creep fed before weaning.
Creep feeding is generally not used if
• calves are to be fed through the winter on
roughages.
• cows are above-average milk producers.
• the calf-feed price ratio is poor.
• calves are on good pasture.
• heifers are to be kept for herd replacements.
• the milk production of the dam is to be
measured.
WHEN AND HOW TO CREEP FEED
Calves will start to eat grain at about 3 weeks
of age. They eat only small amounts
until about 6 to 8 weeks of age.
Grains alone will often meet the energy needs
of the calf. Milk and pasture provide
the protein, minerals, and vitamins the calf
needs
Commercial creep feeds are available.
Pelleted mixes are well-liked by calves.
They are easy to handle and do not blow
away in the feeder
Locate the creep feeder near the area where
the cows loaf. If salt for the cows
is put near the creep feeder, they will gather in
the area. This bringing the calves to
the area, and they will use the creep feeder.
Waterers should be located nearby.
Locate the creep feeder in the shade, if
possible.
GROWING REPLACEMENT HEIFERS
Puberty is the age at which heifers come into
heat. In an efficiently managed
cow-calf herd, heifers should reach puberty at
12 to 14 months of age.
ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION
Artificial insemination is the placing of sperm
in the female reproductive tract by
other than natural means. Th e breeder uses
an inseminating tube to deposit sperm
in the cervix and uterus of the cow.
Some of the advantages of using artificial
insemination are that it
• permits use of superior, performance-tested
bulls, in any herd.
• permits easier use of exotic breed bulls.
• improves records for performance testing.
• increases the number of cows that can be
bred to superior bulls.
• coordinates well with estrus synchronization
programs.
• reduces the spread of disease.
Some of the disadvantages of artificial
insemination are that it requires
• a trained inseminator.
• more time and supervision of the herd.
• sterile equipment.
• special handling facilities.
SYNCHRONIZATION OF ESTRUS
Th e advantages of estrus synchronization
include:
• labor involved in detecting estrus in the herd
is reduced.
• the scheduling of artificial insemination is
easier because most of the females
are in heat during a short period of time.
• more uniform calf crops are produced.
• the breeding and calving seasons are
reduced.
Some disadvantages of estrus
synchronization include:
• sometimes conception rates are low.
• the cost per head is fairly high.
• labor for artificial insemination and calving is
concentrated in a short period
of time.
• many cows are calving during the same 24 to
36 hours.
• adequate handling facilities must be
available.
BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE
1. Ayrshire - Th e Ayrshire breed
originated in the county of Ayr in the
southwestern part of Scotland.
Ayrshires are vigorous and strong.
They have excellent grazing ability.
Mature cows weigh about 1,200
pounds (544 kg). Mature bulls weigh
about 1,800 pounds (816 kg).
Ayrshires rank third among the dairy
breeds in average milk produced per
cow at 11,700 pounds (5,307 kg).
They average about 4 percent milkfat,
and rank fourth among the five dairy
breeds in average milkfat produced
per cow.
2. Brown Swiss - Th e Brown Swiss
breed originated in Switzerland (Figure
39-11). They are probably one of the
oldest of the dairy breeds. Brown
Swiss are solid brown, ranging from
light to dark. White and off -color spots
are objectionable colors. Th e nose
and tongue are black. Brown Swiss
rank second among the dairy breeds
in average milk production per cow at
12,100 pounds (5,488 kg). Th ey
average about 4.1 percent milkfat and
rank third among the dairy breeds in
average milkfat produced per cow.
3. Guernsey - Th e Guernsey breed
originated on the Isle of Guernsey,
which is located in the English
Channel off the Coast of France.
Guernsey’s rank fourth among the
dairy breeds in average milk
production per cow at 10,600 pounds
(4,808 kg). They average about 5
percent milkfat and rank second
among the dairy breeds in average
milkfat produced per cow. Guernsey’s
produce milk that is golden in color.
4. Holstein-Friesian - Th e Holstein-
Friesian breed originated in the
Netherlands. Holsteins rank first
among the dairy breeds in average
milk production per
cow at 14,500 pounds (6,577 kg).
They average about 3.5 percent
milkfat and
rank fi ft h among the dairy breeds in
average milkfat produced per cow.
5. Jersey - Th e Jersey breed originated
on the Isle of Jersey, which is located
in the English. Channel off the coast of
France. Jerseys rank fi ft h among the
dairy breeds in average milk
production per cow at 10,000 pounds
(4,536 kg). They average about 5.4
percent milkfat and rank first among
the dairy breeds in average milkfat
produced per cow.
Some general guidelines for the selection of a
breed include:
• selecting a breed that is common in the area.
• personal preference.
• market requirements for the product.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DAIRY
ENTERPRISE
1. Dairy cows must be milked at regular
intervals, two times per day, seven
days per week. Some herds are
milked three times per day. Th e dairy
cow is a creature of habit.
2. In addition to the regular milking
chores, most dairy farmers raise the
crops needed to feed the dairy herd.
Corn, small grains, hay, and pasture
are raised of the farm to feed the
cows. Some of the larger dairy
operations buy most or all of the
needed feed.
3. Th e dairy barn and milking parlor
must be kept clean. Insects must be
controlled in and around the dairy
buildings.
4. Th e dairy farmer must keep records.
Milk production records are kept to
help in culling cows and in the
breeding program. Records of
breeding and calving are kept. Crop,
animal health, and business records
are also necessary.
5. A successful dairy farmer must have
patience and be willing to work long
hours. Experience on a dairy farm is
needed. Experience may be gained
by working for a dairy farmer before
trying to start for oneself.
Some of the advantages of the dairy
enterprise are
• dairy cattle use feed roughages that
might otherwise be wasted.
• dairying provides a steady income
throughout the year.
• labor is used throughout the year.
• death losses in the dairy herd are
usually low if good management is
followed.
Some of the disadvantages of the
dairy enterprise are
• a high capital investment is needed.
• the labor requirement is high and the
operator is confined to a regular
schedule
of milking.
• training and experience are needed
before entering into the dairy
business.
• it takes a relatively long time to
develop a high-producing dairy herd.
• the demand for dairy products
appears to be dropping.
Nutrients are used by the dairy animal for the
following needs.
• Growth of the immature animal.
• Pregnancy. Needs are small during the first 6
months and large during the
last 2 or 3 months of the gestation period.
• Fattening or the regaining of normal body
weight lost in lactation and during
the dry period.
• Maintenance of the mature animal. Needs
vary according to the size of the
animal.
• Milk production. Needs vary with the pounds
(kilograms) of milk produced
and its composition.
METHODS OF FEEDING DAIRY COWS
Traditional
Th e roughages and concentrates
are generally fed separately. Roughages are
usually fed free choice in
feed bunks to the entire herd or in mangers in
stanchion barns
Advantages of traditional feeding include the
following:
• Less specialized equipment is needed.
• Th erotically each cow feeds according to
individual needs based on production.
• It permits adjusting concentrate feeding to
the stage of lactation.
• It permits challenge feeding of each cow.
Disadvantages of traditional feeding include
the following:
• It is hard to measure the amount of forage
(roughage) each cow eats. Therefore,
it is hard to balance the ration with the right
amount of concentrate for
each cow.
• Low producers are oft en overfed
concentrates.
• High producers are oft en underfed
concentrates.
• Grain feeding facilities are required in the
milking parlor.
• Th e level of dust in the milking parlor
increases.
• Cleanup of uneaten grain in the milking
parlor is required.
• Milking in the parlor may be delayed while
waiting for the cow to finish eating
the grain mixes.
• Feeding in the parlor slows down the milking.
• Cows do not stand as quietly and defecate
more during milking.
• More labor is necessary.
• Th ere is less control over the total feeding
program.
• Cost of equipment is higher.
• Careful records of individual production and
continual adjustment of
concentrate feeding to match production is
required.
Challenge or Lead Feeding
Th e practice of feeding higher levels of
concentrate to challenge the cow to reach
her maximum potential milk production is
called challenge or lead feeding.
Challenge feeding gives more concentrates to
the cow early in the lactation
period and less later in lactation.
Feeding Total Mixed Rations
A method of feeding that is becoming more
popular with modern dairy producers
is feeding a total mixed ration. A total mixed
ration is one that
has all or almost all of the ingredients blended
together. Th is ration is then fed
free choice to all the cows in a group.
Advantages of feeding a total mixed ration
include:
• each cow receives a balanced ration.
• each cow is challenged to produce to her
maximum genetic potential.
• feeds are used more efficiently.
• NPN (nonprotein nitrogen) is utilized more
effectively.
• fewer cows have digestive problems or go off
feed.
• it is not necessary to feed minerals free
choice separately from the rest of the
ration.
• rations can be changed more easily without
affecting consumption.
• less labor is required for feeding.
• problems with low milkfat test are reduced.
• costs of cow housing and feeding facilities
are lowered.
• cows that gain weight early in the lactation
period are quickly identified and
may be culled.
• weight gains usually come later in the
lactation period.
• it is possible to substitute cheaper grains and
urea in the ration because silage
tends to mask the taste and dustiness of feed
ingredients.
ROUGHAGES FOR DAIRY CATTLE
From 60 to 80 percent of the dry matt er in the
dairy ration should come from
roughages. High-quality roughages can lower
the cost of feed for the dairy herd.
Roughages used for dairy cattle rations are
hay, silage, and pasture.
Hay
Th e feeding value of any hay depends on the
kind of hay, stage of maturity
when cut, and the harvesting method. Second
and third cuttings of hay are
generally higher in nutrient value than first
cuttings. Early cut hay has a higher
feed value than hay that is more mature when
harvested. Alfalfa is the best hay for dairy
cattle use.
Green Chop
Some dairy farmers harvest forage by
chopping it daily and feeding it in bunks.
Th is harvesting method reduces fi eld losses.
A major problem is the need to
chop the forage each day, especially in bad
weather or during times of high labor
requirements for other farm operations.
Haylage
Haylage is a hay crop made into silage. The
first cutting of hay is often harvested
as haylage. Both grasses and legumes may
be used for haylage.
Sorghum Silage
Sorghum silage may be made from both
forage and grain sorghums. Th e nutrient
content is about the same as corn silage. Th e
crude protein content and
energy level is a little lower than corn silage
Coastal Bermuda Grass Silage
Coastal Bermuda grass silage has a lower
feeding value than corn silage. Storage
loss in upright silos is high.
Small Grain Silage
Small grain silage may be made from small
grains such as oats, rye, barley, and
wheat. Th e nutritive value of small grain
silages is less than corn silage.
Straw
Straw from small grains (oats, wheat, etc.) is
not recommended in rations for
cows that are milking. Th ese straws are low in
energy, protein, minerals, and
vitamins. They mainly add fi ber to the ration.
Some straw in the ration can be
used for dry cows and older heifers.
Supplement must be added if straw is used
in the ration.
Corn Stover
Corn stover is not recommended in rations for
cows that are milking. It may
be used in rations for dry cows and heifers.
Corn stover is low in protein and
carotene. Supplements must be added if corn
stover is used in the ration.
Pasture
Th e eff ective use of pasture for the dairy herd
requires good management. Th e
use of pasture reduces the labor needed for
feed and manure handling. Pastures
are an excellent source of roughage for dry
cows and growing heifers.
GRAINS FOR DAIRY COWS
Corn
Corn is the most commonly used grain in dairy
catt le rations. It is high in energy
value and is palatable. Home grown corn is
usually a cheaper energy source than
other grains.
Oats
Oats are an excellent feed for dairy cows. Th
ey are lower in energy value than
corn. Th e protein content is higher than corn.
Oats add fi ber and bulk to the grain
mix. Th ey are a litt le lower in digestibility than
corn. Oats should replace no more
than one-half of the corn in the ration.
Barley
Barley has about the same overall energy
value for dairy catt le as corn. It is a litt le
higher in protein compared to corn. Barley that
is rolled is more palatable than
when it is ground. Finely ground barley should
make up no more than 50 percent
of the grain ration.
Wheat
Wheat is high in energy and protein. Dairy catt
le like wheat. Because of price it
is not usually used in dairy catt le rations.
Wheat should make up no more than
50 percent of the grain ration.
Rye
Rye is not very palatable for dairy cows. It is
seldom used in dairy rations. If it is
used, it should not be more than one-fourth of
the grain in the ration.
PROTEIN SUPPLEMENTS
FOR DAIRY COWS
Corn Gluten Meal
Corn gluten meal is a by-product from the wet
milling of corn for starch and
syrup. It may have 40 percent or 60 percent
crude protein content; the 60 percent
meal is the most common. Th e energy
content of corn gluten meal is slightly
lower than corn grain. Because it has a lower
palatability, limit the amount of
corn gluten meal to no more than 5 pounds
(2.3 kg) per head per day.
Distillers Dried Grains
Distillers dried grains are a by-product of grain
fermentation for alcohol production.
Th e nutrient value of distillers dried grains
varies depending on the grain
used as its source. Th ey contain 23 to 30
percent protein.
Soybean Meal
Soybean meal is the by-product left when oil is
extracted from soybeans.
Soybean meal is a commonly used protein
supplement. It is economical and
an excellent source of protein. Soybean meal
is found in many commercial dairy
protein supplements. It is palatable and highly
digestible.
Soybeans
Ground, unprocessed soybeans may be used
in grain mixes for dairy cows as an
added protein source. If used, they should not
make up more than 20 percent of
the grain mix. Do not use urea in the ration if
soybeans are included.
Processing by roasting or cooking can
increase the palatability and stability
of the soybeans. Soybeans are usually too
high-priced to be used in dairy cow
Rations.
Sunfl ower Meal
Sunfl ower meal supplements range from 28 to
45 percent protein. It is a good
source of protein and phosphorus. Because it
is less palatable, it should not be
topdressed on the feed.
Linseed Meal
Linseed meal is the by-product left when oil is
extracted from fl ax seed. It is a
good protein supplement. Linseed meal is
usually higher in cost than some other
protein supplements. It is sometimes used for
fi tt ing show or sale catt le because it
adds a shine to the hair coat. Linseed meal is
palatable and slightly laxative.
Cottonseed Meal
Cott onseed meal is made from hulled cott on
seeds aft er the oil has been extracted.
It is high in protein and may be used as a
protein supplement in dairy rations.
Cott onseed meal is palatable and slightly
constipative.
Urea and Other Nonprotein Nitrogen (NPN)
Urea may be used in dairy rations to supply
some of the protein needed by cows.
Th e use of urea usually lowers the cost of the
ration. Th e nitrogen content of urea
is 46 percent. It supplies a protein equivalent
of 287 percent (46 × 6.25).
Urea has a bitt er taste and must be mixed
completely in the ration for catt le
to eat it. Too much urea in the ration can be
toxic to catt le.
BYPRODUCTS AND OTHER PROCESSED
FEEDS FOR DAIRY CATTLE
Alfalfa Meal
Alfalfa meal is made by grinding alfalfa hay.
High-quality hay produces a highquality
meal. It may be pelleted. Because of the
grinding, the fi ber content will
not help in maintaining milkfat test. Alfalfa
meal is lower in digestibility than
alfalfa hay.
Alfalfa Leaf Meal
Alfalfa leaf meal is made by grinding the
leaves of the alfalfa plant (Figure 41-4).
It is higher in protein than alfalfa meal.
Beet Pulp
Beet pulp may be plain or mixed with
molasses. It is palatable, bulky, and slightly
laxative. Beet pulp is low in protein and high in
energy. Up to 30 percent of the
ration dry matt er may be composed of beet
pulp.
Brewer’s Grain
Brewer’s grain is a by-product of the brewing
industry. It may be wet or dry.
Wet brewer’s grain contains about 80 percent
water and therefore requires the
feeding of a large amount to get the needed
dry matt er intake. On a dry matt er
basis, brewer’s grain is higher in protein and
lower in net energy compared to corn.
Th e ration must be gradually adjusted if
brewer’s grain is to be included. Wet
brewer’s grain requires special handling and
storage.
Citrus Pulp
Citrus pulp has about the same feeding value
as beet pulp. It is lower in protein
than beet pulp. It is sometimes fed when the
price is competitive.
Cottonseed, Whole
Whole cott onseed is high in fat, fi ber, and
energy but only medium in protein
content. Th e whole cott onseed is white and
fuzzy; delinted cott onseed is black
and smooth. Do not feed more than 7 pounds
(3.2 kg) per cow per day.
Corn Gluten Feed
Corn gluten feed is a by-product of the corn
wet milling industry. It is medium in
energy and protein content but high in fi ber. It
may be purchased as either a wet
or dry feed. Limit the amount of corn gluten
feed to not more than 25 percent of
the total ration dry matt er.
Hominy Feed
Hominy feed is a mixture of the starch part of
the corn kernel, the bran, and the
corn germ. It is a litt le higher than ground corn
in feeding value.
It is palatable and high in energy. Hominy feed
may be used in place of ground
corn in dairy rations.
Malt Sprouts
Malt sprouts are bitt er and need to be mixed
with other feeds. Th ey have a
medium protein level and only a moderate
amount of energy. No more than
20 percent of the grain mix should be
composed of malt sprouts.
Molasses
Both cane and beet molasses may be used in
dairy rations. Th ey are used mainly
to increase the palatability of the ration.
Molasses should be no more than 5 to
7 percent of the grain mix. Cane molasses is
more commonly used than beet
molasses. Molasses supplies energy in the
ration. It is low in protein.
Potatoes
Cull potatoes, potato meal, and potato pulp
may be used in dairy rations. Potato
meal has a high fat content. Potato pulp is
palatable and about equal to hominy
feed when it is not more than 20 percent of the
concentrate mix. Cull potatoes
are similar to corn silage in feeding value. Cull
potatoes should be chopped
when fed. Limit maximum intake to 30 pounds
(14 kg) per head per day.
Soybean Hulls
Soybean hulls, soyhulls, and soybean fl akes
are all by-product feeds from soybean
processing. Th eir fi ber content is highly
digestible and they may replace
starch in the diet. Th ey do not replace forage
fi ber. Th ese feeds should be limited
to no more than 45 percent of the grain ration.
Wheat Bran
Wheat bran adds bulk and fi ber to the
concentrate mix. It is palatable and slightly
laxative. Wheat bran is low in energy and
medium in protein content. It should
not make up more than 20 to 25 percent of the
concentrate mixture.
Wheat Middlings
Wheat middlings, also know as wheat midds,
are by-products of wheat milling
for fl our. Th ey are fi ne particles of wheat
bran, wheat shorts, wheat germ, and
other wheat products. Th ey contain a
moderate amount of energy and protein.
Th e crude fi ber content cannot exceed 9.5
percent. If used at too high a level in
dairy cow diets, they may cause a reduction in
milk production. Limit the use
of wheat middlings to no more than 20 percent
of the grain mix. Wheat midds
can be purchased as a loose meal or pellets.
Feed manufacturers oft en include
wheat midds as an ingredient in commercial
feeds and feed supplements.
Whey
Both dried and liquid whey may be fed to dairy
cows. Up to 10 percent of the
concentrate mix may be dried whey. Dried
whey may be added to silage when
the silo is being fi lled. Use 20 to 100 pounds
(9 to 45 kg) per ton of wet silage.
Liquid whey may be fed free choice. Because
of the high water content (90%)
cows must consume 15 to 25 gallons (57 to 95
liters) per day to get enough dry
BODY CONDITION SCORE
Body condition score in dairy catt le refers to
the amount of fat the animal is
carrying. Scores range from 1 (very thin) to 5
(excessive fat). Body condition
scoring is done by observing the amount of
depression around the tailhead, the
amount of fat covering the pin and pelvic
bones, and the amount of fat covering
the loin area.
Body condition score 1 is a thin animal
showing a deep depression around
the tailhead and no fat covering over the rump
and loin.
Body condition score 2
shows a shallow cavity around the tailhead
and a small amount of fat covering the rump
and loin areas.
Body condition score 3 shows no cavity
around the tailhead
and fatt y tissue over the whole rump and loin
area.
Body condition score 4
shows folds of fatt y tissue over the tailhead
and patches of fat over the rump with
fairly heavy fat covering over the loin.
Body condition score 5 shows the tailhead
buried in fatt y tissue and heavy fat covering
over the rump and loin areas.
FEEDING DRY COWS
Care must be taken not to overfeed the cow.
Overfeeding will result in cows gett ing too fat
during the dry period. Limit the
amount of corn silage fed because of its high
energy content.
Maintain a total dry matt er intake during this
period at about 2 percent of
body weight. Roughage intake must be at
least 1 percent of body weight.
If no grain was fed early in the dry period,
some should be fed during the last
2 weeks before calving
If retained placentas or metabolic disorders
such as milk fever, ketosis,
hypocalcemia, and displaced abomasum are a
problem in the herd, then feeding
a transition ration may be necessary.
Do not feed an excessive amount of calcium
and phosphorus.
If the feed sources are of poor quality, add
vitamins A and D to the ration. Th is
will increase the calf survival rate and reduce
problems with retained placenta
and milk fever.
Include trace minerals in the ration. Iodine and
cobalt are especially important
during the dry period.
FEEDING HERD REPLACEMENTS
Proper feeding of the calf from birth to
weaning is critical if death losses are
to be held to a minimum. Calves are born with
little immunity to disease.
Colostrum milk is the fi rst milk secreted by
the cow aft er calving. Colostrum
milk, as compared to regular milk, is high in
fat, nonfatt y solids, total protein,
and antibodies that protect against disease. It
is critical that the calf receives
colostrum milk within a few hours aft er being
born.
Aft er 3 days the calf may be fed whole milk or
milk replacer. Feed about 5 pounds
(2.3 kg) to small-breed calves. Large-breed
calves are fed about 7 pounds (3.2 kg).
Use milk replacer of high quality. High-quality
milk replacers are made from
dairy products rather than plant products. Milk
replacers that have the following
protein sources are preferred:
• skim milk powder • delactosed whey
• butt ermilk powder • casein
• dried whole whey • milk albumin
Plant protein sources are not as digestible as
milk protein sources. Th e following
protein sources in milk replacers are
considered to be of poorer quality:
• meat solubles • brewer’s dried yeast
• fi sh protein concentrate • oat fl our
• soy fl our • wheat fl our
• distillers dried soluble
Calves are usually fed twice a day in two equal
feedings. If the calf is weak it
may be advisable to feed it three times a day.
Divide the milk or milk replacer into
three equal amounts.
Calves are usually weaned between 4 and 8
weeks of age. With good management
and proper feeding, they may be weaned as
early as 3 weeks of age.
FEEDING AND REPRODUCTION
Underfeeding or overfeeding energy feeds to
developing heifers can lead
to reproduction problems. Underfeeding
delays the time the heifer reaches
first heat. This causes a delay in breeding and
shortens the productive life
of the cow.
Overfeeding causes fi rst heat to be reached
earlier. However, there is a greater
chance of the cow having breeding problems
later in its life. Overfed cows
become sterile at a higher rate than cows fed
proper rations. Th is also shortens
the productive life of the cow. Bulls that are too
fat have problems with sperm
production.
.
Urea feeding is sometimes blamed for
reproductive problems. Studies done
at several universities have shown that feeding
urea has no apparent eff ect on
calving interval or sterility.
Vitamin A shortage can also cause breeding
problems. Th e addition of vitamin
A to the ration will ensure that the cow’s needs
are met.
FEED INVENTORY
Th e following management decisions can be
made from the feed inventory.
• Sell extra feed.
• Buy additional feed needed.
• Put more feed (forage or corn) in the silo.
• Make adjustments in the feeding program to
fi t feeds available.
• Plan future cropping program.
MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY HERD
Good records are needed to serve as the
basis for sound management decisions.
Th e dairy farmer must have records to
analyze the business. An analysis of the
business is needed to make improvements
that will increase net income.
Th e dairy farmer should keep the following
kinds of records:
• production records on individual cows and on
the herd.
• feed use records.
• breeding and calving records.
• health records.
• cow identifi cation records.
• fi nancial records (entire farm and
enterprise).
• inventory.
Th e following are usually considered when
standardizing production records:
• length of lactation
• number of times milked per day
• age at calving
• month of year when calving
Th e standard length of lactation used for
comparing production records is
305 days.
Th e standard for number of times milked per
day is twice daily (2). Some
dairy farmers milk their cows three times per
day (3).
CULLING
Culling is permanently removing cows from the
herd. Th e most common reason
for culling is low milk production. Cows are
also culled because of reproduction
problems, diseases, udder problems, or other
miscellaneous reasons
MANAGING DRY COWS
Dry cows are those that are not producing
milk. Most cows need a dry period
between lactations.
Accurate breeding records are needed to
determine when the cow is due to
calve. Th e lactation period begins with
calving. Th e average gestation (length
of pregnancy) for dairy cows is 283 days. A
10-day variation in gestation is
considered normal.
Th e cow should be dry for 45 to 50 days. Th e
date to begin the dry period is
calculated back from the projected date of
calving.
Th ere are three ways to dry off the cow:
• Stop milking her.
• Do not milk her out completely the last few
days.
• Milk her every other day for several days.
HEAT DETECTION
Commercial heat detectors are available to
help detect heat in a herd of
cows. An example of a heat mount detector is
a KaMaR detector. Th is device is
glued to the tailhead of each cow. It contains a
red dye capsule that releases the
dye when the cow is mounted by another
animal. It requires 4 to 5 seconds of
continual pressure to release enough dye to
stain the pad red.
Another type of commercial heat detector is
the chin-ball marking device. It is
a special halter with a cone-shaped unit
containing a stainless steel ball-bearing
att ached to the underside of the halter. It
contains a marking fl uid that is available
in several colors. When the cow is mounted,
the fl uid leaves a visible color on the
cow’s back. Th is method requires isolating the
cow in question along with several
others from the herd for detection.
An implanted computer chip has been
developed by researchers at Washington
State University that helps determine when a
cow is in heat. Th e computer chip is
enclosed in a case that is pressure sensitive
and is implanted beneath the skin on
the tailhead of the cow. Th e device records
when the cow is mounted. A reader
device that may be hand-held or mounted in
an area that cows pass through
reads the computer chip. Th e information is
fed into a computer that provides a
printout showing which cows are in heat. Th e
implant lasts for the lifetime of the
cow. Implanting is done by a veterinarian.
TIME OF BREEDING
Conception is highest when insemination is
done 12 to 18 hours before ovulation.
Breed cows in the aft ernoon when they are
observed in standing heat that
morning. When standing heat is observed in
the aft ernoon, breed the cow the
next morning. It is bett er to breed late (up to 6
hours aft er standing heat) than to
breed in the fi rst half of the heat period.
CARE OF THE NEWBORN CALF
1. Check the calf as soon as it is born to
be sure it can breathe.
2. Wipe any mucus or fetal membrane
from its nose.
3. Usually, the cow will lick the calf clean
right aft er birth (Figure 42-2). If
 not,dry the calf with a cloth, towel, or
clean burlap sack.
4. Dip the navel cord in a 7 percent
tincture of iodine solution to prevent
infection.
5. A healthy calf will be on its feet within
15 to 20 minutes aft er it is born. It will
be nursing within 30 minutes. A weak
calf must be helped to its feet and be
held so it can nurse. Th e newborn calf
must receive colostruM milk if it is
going to live. It may be necessary to
hand feed a weak calf colostrum milk
using a clean nipple bott le. If the calf
is too weak to nurse, use a stomach
tube to feed the colostrum milk.
DEHORNING
It is recommended that all calves be dehorned
at 1 to 2 weeks of age. It is easier and less
dangerous to dehorn young calves rather
than waiting until they are older.
An electric dehorner is
the best way to destroy the horn growing
tissue. It may be necessary to clip the
hair around the horn if the horn butt on is hard
to fi nd.
Allow the iron to reach a cherry red heat
before using it. Hold the animal
tightly and touch the hot iron to the horn butt
on. Hold it in place a few seconds.
Th e skin should show a continuous
copper-colored ring around the horn butt on.
If it does not, apply the iron again. Th e horn
butt on will drop off aft er several
weeks.
Horns may be removed chemically. Caustic
potash is used. Th is is not as
neat a method as electric dehorning. Care
must be taken not to allow any of the
chemical to run down the face or side of the
animal’s head.
Clip the hair around the horn butt on. Apply
petroleum jelly or grease around
the clipped area to keep the chemical on the
horn area. Rub the horn butt on
with the stick of caustic potash until a slight
bleeding occurs. Th e horn butt on
will drop off aft er several weeks.
Keep the calf tied for at least 1 day aft er
applying the chemical. Th is will keep
the chemical from being rubbed off onto other
calves in the area.
RAISING YOUNG BULLS
Place a ring in the nose when the bull shows
signs of becoming dangerous.
As the bull grows, the ring needs to be
replaced periodically with larger,
heavier rings. A bull is more easily controlled
with a staff att ached to the ring
than by a halter.
INTRODUCING THE HEIFER TO THE
MILKING HERD
About 2 weeks before calving, introduce the
heifer to the milking herd routine.
Th e heifer is easier to manage if she
becomes used to the milking parlor or
stanchion barn before she freshens. Th is also
allows the heifer to adjust to the
feeding program of the milking herd. Handle
heifers gently. Heifers that are
handled roughly are more diffi cult to manage
in the milking herd.
HOOF TRIMMING
Tools needed for hoof trimming include a hard
rubber mallet, a straight wood
chisel, a T-handle chisel, rasp, hoof nippers,
and a pair of hoof knives.
Stand the animal on a 4 8 foot, 3/4-inch sheet
of plywood. Confi ne the
animal in a stanchion or tie it securely with a
halter.
Trim the front feet fi rst so the animal gets
used to the operation. Using the
chisel, shorten the toes to the desired length.
Do not remove too much as this
will cause lameness. Use the rasp to smooth
and shape the outer surface.
To trim the sole of the foot, place the animal’s
knee on a box or a bale of hay
or straw. Clean and trim the inner sole with a
hoof knife. Use a sharp chisel to
level the sole. Do not cut too deeply into the
sole.
Check for hoof rot when trimming the feet.
Clean out cracks with a hoof
knife. Soak cracks with pine tar. If corns are
found between the toes, call a
veterinarian to treat them.
MILKING MANAGEMENT
Function of udder
Th e cow’s udder is made up of four glands
called quarters. Th e udder contains alveoli
that manufacture the milk. Th e raw material
for the
making of the milk is carried to the alveoli by
the blood. Th e alveoli contain milk
cavities. A tubule leads from each alveolus to
small ducts that lead to large milk
ducts. Th e large milk ducts empty into a gland
cistern. Th e gland cistern holds
about 16 ounces (473 cm3) of milk. Milk
passes from the gland cistern through
the teat cistern and then through the streak
canal at the end of the teat.
A narrow streak canal and a strong sphincter
muscle make the cow harder to
milk. A wider streak canal and a weaker
sphincter muscle make the cow easier to
milk. If the sphincter muscle is too weak the
cow will leak milk when the udder
is full.
Between milkings, milk is stored mainly in the
milk cavities, tubules, and small
ducts. Th e growth and function of the udder is
controlled by hormones.
MILK LETDOWN
Milk letdown occurs when the cow responds
by a conditioned refl ex to sensory
stimuli such as the washing of the udder. A
hormone (oxytocin) is released by
the pituitary gland.
RECOMMENDED MILKING PRACTICES
1. Follow a regular routine. Dairy cows
respond with higher production when
milked regularly at about the same times each
day.
2. Prepare the cow for milking. Prewash
extremely dirty udders with a hose
or bucket of warm water containing a
detergent. Th en wash the udder with
warm water containing a sanitizing agent such
as chlorine or iodine. Use
disposable paper towels. Do not dip the towel
in the sanitizing solution aft er
it has been removed from the solution.
3. Use a strip cup
4. Att ach the milking machine within 1 minute
aft er stimulating milk letdown
(Figure 43-2). Be gentle when att aching the
teat cups.
5. Remove the milking machine gently. Shut
off the vacuum at the claw or
break the vacuum seal at the top of the teat
cup by pushing down on the
top of the liner with a fi nger. Remove all four
teat cups at once. Removing
the machine in the wrong way can cause the
vacuum to vary at the teat end.
6. Dip the teats aft er milking. Use a solution
made for teat dipping. Do not use
sanitizer made for other purposes.
7. Milker’s hands must be kept clean. Wash
before starting to milk and aft er
handling any infected cow.
8. Do not try to operate too many units. Th is
will result in overmilking and can
cause udder damage.
9. Milking order. Milk heifers, cows in early
lactation, and normal cows
first. Cows with udder infections are milked
last or into a separate tank
for disposal.
MILK QUALITY
Management practices that will help to
produce high-quality milk include:
• cleanliness of cows, lots, barns, milking
parlors, milk houses, and milking
equipment.
• keeping cows healthy.
proper cooling of milk.
• using correct cleaning and sanitizing
methods on equipment.
• keeping chemicals out of milk.
• preventing off fl avors in milk.
CLEANING AND SANITIZING
MILKING EQUIPMENT
Two kinds of deposits may be found on milking
equipment. Organic deposits
come from the fat, protein, and sugar found in
milk. Mineral deposits come
from inorganic salts (such as calcium,
magnesium, and iron) that are in the water
and milk.
Milkstone is a combination of the organic and
inorganic materials.
Acid cleaners remove inorganic deposits.
Do not use household soaps or detergents to
clean dairy equipment
PREVENTING OFF FLAVORS IN MILK
customers. Milk sales go down when
customers do not like the taste of the milk.
Th e dairy farmer must follow good
management practices to prevent off fl avors
in milk.
Off fl avors in milk include:
• feed fl avors • fl at
• rancid • unclean, cowy, or barny
• foreign fl avors • high acid (sour), malty
• sanitizer, medicinal • oxidized
• salty
PLANNING THE DAIRY FACILITY
Important areas to be considered when
planning dairy facilities include the
following:
• Location of the facility
• Size of the planned herd
• Laws and regulations that apply to dairy
farms
• Source and amount of money available
• Type of milk market available
• Amount of labor available
• Kind of housing system to be used
• Kind of milking system to be used
• Feed handling system to be used
• Manure handling system to be used
• What future expansion might be desired
FREE STALL BARNS
Advantages of the free stall barn include:
• it requires less bedding than other loose
housing systems.
• cows stay cleaner compared to loose
housing.
• fewer injuries to teats and udders.
• it requires less space than for other loose
housing systems.
• it is easier to use with a milking parlor.
• it is easier to use automatic feeding
equipment.
• cow disposition is bett er.
• less disturbance from boss cows and cows in
heat.
Disadvantages of free stall barns include:
• manure is usually fl uid and therefore harder
to handle.
• some cows will not use the stalls and must
be trained to enter them.
• some systems require more daily labor for
manure handling.
MILKING IN STALL BARNS
Th ree types of milking equipment are
commonly used in stall barns—pail
milkers, suspension milkers, and pipeline
milkers.
Pail milkers are set on the fl oor beside the
cow. Th e milker claw is att ached to
the udder and draws the milk into the pail. Th
e pail must be emptied by hand
aft er each cow is milked. Th e machine is
operated by a vacuum pump with a
vacuum line installed along the top of the
stalls.
Suspension milkers are hung from a strap,
called a surcingle, which is placed
over the back of the cow. Th is type of milker is
also operated by a vacuum pump
and has a vacuum line along the top of the
stalls.

Pipeline milkers consist of a vacuum line and

a milk line that are installed
along the top of the stalls. The milker claw is
attached to the udder of the
cow. An inlet for the milker claw is usually
located between each set of two
stalls. The milk is drawn through the milk line
into the bulk tank located in
the milk house.
Pipeline milkers are more expensive than pail
or suspension milkers. More
vacuum is needed to operate the system.
However, less labor is needed in
handling the milk. Milk can be kept cleaner
when a pipeline milker is used.

MILKING PARLORS

Four types of milking parlors are

• Herringbone
• Side-opening
• Rotary or carousel
• Polygon