Math Methods Exam Notes Sheet Stephen Zhang 𝑑 𝑏 If the lines of two functions of the second degree or less

𝑑 𝑏 If the lines of two functions of the second degree or less are tangent, the
𝑎 𝑏 −1 − 1 𝑑 −𝑏
Linear Equations [ ] =[ 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 ] = [ ] quadratic formed by their combination must have determinant zero (one
𝑐 𝑑 𝑐 𝑎 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 −𝑐 𝑎 solution). I.e. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥) ∴ 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥) = 0 ∴ Δ = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡
Gradient of a line between 𝐴(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and 𝐵(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ): 𝑚 =
𝑦2 −𝑦1 −
𝑥2 −𝑥1 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐
𝑎 𝑏
General equation of straight line: 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏 Determinants: For a square 2 × 2 matrix 𝐴 = [ ] , det(𝐴) = 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 Difference Tables Useful tool for analysis of functions
𝑐 𝑑
Equation of line passing through (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ): 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) A matrix is singular if no inverse exists, i.e. determinant = 0 Linear 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏
Angle line makes with x-axis: 𝜃 = tan−1 𝑚 A matrix is regular if its inverse exists, i.e. determinant <> 0 X 1 2 3
1
Perpendicular gradient of m: 𝑚′ = − Solution of Simulaneous Equations A+b 2a+b 3a+b
𝑚

)2 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 = 𝑐 𝑎 𝑏 𝑥 𝑐 A a
Distance between two points: 𝑑 = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2 { ⇔ [ ] [ ] = [𝑓 ]
𝑥1 +𝑥2 𝑦1 +𝑦2
𝑑𝑥 + 𝑒𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑐 𝑑 𝑦
Midpoint of line joining two points: 𝑀=( , ) Manipulation of Matrix Equations
2 2
Quadratic 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
Matrices 𝐴𝐵 = 𝑋 ⇒ 𝐴−1 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴−1 𝑋 ⇒ 𝐼𝐵 = 𝐵 = 𝐴−1 𝑋
X 1 2 3 4
Equality: 𝐴 = 𝐵 ⇔ dim(𝐴) = dim(𝐵) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴𝑖𝑗 = 𝐵𝑖𝑗 When multiplying by inverse, multiply both sides from same direction
A+b+c 4a+2b+c 9a+3b+c 16a+4b+c
Dimension: dim(𝐴) = 𝑚 × 𝑛, m = rows, n = columns 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐶 ∴ 𝐴−1 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴−1 𝐶 ⇐ (𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡, 𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕)
3a+b 5a+b 7a+b
Addition: Defined if dim(𝐴) = dim(𝐵), (𝐴 + 𝐵)𝑖𝑗 = 𝐴𝑖𝑗 + 𝐵𝑖𝑗 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐶 ∴ 𝐴−1 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐶𝐴−1 ⇐ (𝒘𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒈, 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 𝑏𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝒍𝒆𝒇𝒕)
2a 2a
Subtraction: Same as addition, only subtracting instead.
Multiplication: Transformations/Dilations/Reflections with Matrices
𝑎 𝑏 𝑘𝑎 𝑘𝑏 Translation of a units in x-dimension and b units in y-dimension Solving by Iteration
By Scalar 𝑘[ ]=[ ]
𝑐 𝑑 𝑘𝑐 𝑘𝑑 𝑥′ 𝑥 𝑎 To solve an equation 𝑓(𝑥) = 0, rearrange into form 𝑥 = 𝑔(𝑥). Guess any value
1 [ ] = [𝑦] + [ ] for solution, and use it for x in equation 𝑔(𝑥). Use the result as the new guess.
∵ 𝑘𝐴 = 𝐵 ∴ 𝐴 = 𝐵 𝑦′ 𝑏
𝑘
Repeat until 𝑔(𝑥) ≈ 𝑥, i.e. the values converge. If results diverge, either the
By Matrix Dilation by factor a in x-dimension and b in y-dimension
function has no solutions, or try another guess.
For any two matrices 𝐴 and B, product AB only defined if 𝑥′ 𝑎 0 𝑥
[ ′] = [ ][ ]
𝑦 0 𝑏 𝑦
Dim(𝐴) = 𝑚 × 𝑛 and dim(𝐵) = 𝑛 × 𝑟. Common Graphs
Reflection: Muliply by:
The product AB will have dimensions 𝑚 × 𝑟 𝑎
−1 0 Hyperbola 𝑦= +𝑘
𝑎 𝑏 𝑒 𝑓 𝑎𝑒 + 𝑏𝑔 𝑎𝑓 + 𝑏ℎ [ ] to reflect across y-axis (𝑥, 𝑦) → (−𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑥−ℎ
[ ]×[ ]=[ ] 0 1
𝑐 𝑑 𝑔 ℎ 𝑐𝑒 + 𝑑𝑔 𝑐𝑓 + 𝑑ℎ Asymptotes 𝑥 = ℎ, 𝑦 = 𝑘
1 0
[ ] to reflect across x-axis (𝑥, 𝑦) → (𝑥, −𝑦) Truncus
𝑎
𝑦 = (𝑥−ℎ)2 + 𝑘
For element (𝑖, 𝑗) of product matrix, find out row 𝑖 in A and column 𝑗 in B. 0 −1
Multiply corresponding entries in the row and column, and the element will be [0 1
] to reflect across y=x (𝑥, 𝑦) → (𝑦, 𝑥) Asymptote 𝑦 = 𝑘
the sum of the products. 1 0
0 −1 Sqrt function 𝑦 = 𝑎√𝑥 − ℎ + 𝑘
𝐴𝐵 ≠ 𝐵𝐴, 𝐴(𝐵 + 𝐶) = 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐴𝐶, (𝐴𝐵)𝐶 = 𝐴(𝐵𝐶) = 𝐴𝐵𝐶 [ ] to reflect across y=-x (𝑥, 𝑦) → (−𝑦, −𝑥)
−1 0 Asymptote 𝑥 = ℎ
Matrix Powers
Circle (general) (𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 𝑟 2
𝐴𝑛 = 𝐴 × 𝐴 × 𝐴 … 𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 Quadratics Center (h, k)
(𝐴𝑚 )(𝐴𝑛 ) = (𝐴𝑛 )(𝐴𝑚 ) = 𝐴𝑚+𝑛 , (𝐴𝑚 )𝑛 = (𝐴𝑛 )𝑚 = 𝐴𝑚𝑛 General form: 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 Circle (alternate) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2ℎ𝑥 − 2𝑘𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0
𝐼𝑚 = 𝐼 Turning point form: 𝑦 = 𝑎(𝑥 − ℎ)2 + 𝑘 Complete square for geneeral form
Identity Matrices Turning point: (h, k)
For any square matrix A, there exists a matrix I for which 𝐴𝐼 = 𝐼𝐴 = 𝐴 Semicircle 𝑦 = √𝑟 2 − (𝑥 − ℎ)2 + 𝑘
Warning: 𝒌 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒑𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎 ≠ 𝒄 𝒊𝒏 𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎‼
This is the identity matrix. I is the matrix for which: 𝑏 𝑏2 Center (h, k)
Turning point for general fomr: (− ,− + 𝑐)
2𝑎 4𝑎
1, 𝑖 = 𝑗
𝐼𝑖,𝑗 = { Discriminant: Δ = b2 − 4𝑎𝑐
0, 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗 Functions, Domains & Ranges
That is, each element in I on the top-left  bottom-right diagonal is 1, and all Discriminant meanings: Ordered pair A pair with 2 elements (𝑥, 𝑦)
others are zero Δ = 0 → 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐴𝑁𝐷 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ ′𝑡𝑜𝑢𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 ′ 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 Relation Set of ordered pairs {(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ), (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ), … }
1 0 Δ > 0 → 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 Domain The set of x values for which relation defined
𝐼2×2 = [ ]
0 1 Δ > 0 𝐴𝑁𝐷 Δ 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 → 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 Range The set of y values for which relation defined
Inverses
Δ > 0 𝐴𝑁𝐷 Δ 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 → 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 1-to-1 function A function for which every x has unique y
For square matrices A, B of the same dimension, if AB=BA=I, A is the inverse of
Δ < 0 → 𝑛𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 (𝑠𝑎𝑦 ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑜 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑥𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑑!) I.e. y-values do not repeat
B and B is the inverse of A. The inverse of any square matrix A is denoted 𝐴−1 .
The inverse of a square 2 × 2 matrix is defined: Function A function with one y-value for every x-value
Co-domain A set that contains the range of a function
usually ℝ unless explicity specified.
 Quartic function (turning point form) 𝑦 = 𝑎(𝑥 − ℎ)4 + 𝑘 Experimental Probability Pr(𝐴) =
# 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑓𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐴
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑠
Absolute Value Relations Turning point (h, k)
IMPORTANT: SOLVE VENN DIAGRAMS USING ALGEBRA, not plain REASONING
|𝑥 − 𝑎| = 𝑏 ∴ 𝑥 − 𝑎 = ±𝑏 ∴ 𝑥 = ±𝑏 + 𝑎
(Simultaneous equations will work to find unknowns!)
𝑥 2 > 2 ∴ 𝑥 > √2 𝒐𝒓 𝑥 < −√2 Remainder/Factor Theorem
Transformations If 𝑃(𝑥) is a polynomial, the remainder of polynomial division of 𝑃(𝑥) by linear
𝑏
Karnaugh Maps/Probability Tables
Translation of h units in the x-dimension and k units in the y-dimension for factor (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏), is 𝑃 (− )
𝑎
the function 𝑓(𝑥): 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥 − ℎ) + 𝑘 𝑏 𝐴 𝐴′
If 𝑃 (− ) = 0, then 𝑃(𝑥) has linear factor (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)
Dilations 𝑎
𝑏 𝐵 𝑃𝑟(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) 𝑃𝑟(𝐴′ ∩ 𝐵) 𝑃𝑟(𝐵)
Vertical dilation by factor a of 𝑓(𝑥): 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑎𝑓(𝑥), 𝑎 > 0 Squared factor (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)2 → 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ 𝑡𝑜𝑢𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = −
𝑎
′
(𝑥, 𝑦) → (𝑥, 𝑎𝑦) Cubed factor (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)3 → 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = −
𝑏 𝐵′ 𝑃𝑟(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵′) 𝑃𝑟(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵′) 𝑃𝑟(𝐵′)
𝑎
𝑥
Horizontal dilation by factor a of 𝑓(𝑥): 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑓 ( ) , 𝑎 > 0 𝑃𝑟(𝐴) 𝑃𝑟(𝐴′) 1
𝑎
(𝑥, 𝑦) → (𝑎𝑥, 𝑦) Sums and Differences of Cubes – Identity
Reflections 𝑎3 − 𝑏3 = (𝑎 − 𝑏)(𝑎2 + 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏2 ) Addition Rule
Reflection in the x-axis 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥) 𝑎3 + 𝑏3 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎2 − 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏2 ) Pr(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = Pr(𝐴) + Pr(𝐵) − Pr(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)
Reflection in the y-axis 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑓(−𝑥) Binomial Expansion Conditional Probability
When we say a ‘reflection in the something axis’, we mean that we ‘flip’ all Pr(𝐴|𝐵) ≡ probability that A occurs given that B has already occurred
points of a relation ‘across’ the line defined by that axis, i.e. reflect in x-axis  𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 Pr(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)
(𝑎 + 𝑏) = 𝑎 + ( ) 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑏 + ( ) 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑏2 + ⋯ (
𝑛 𝑛
) 𝑎𝑏𝑛−1 + 𝑏𝑛 Pr(𝐴|𝐵) =
flip everything over the x-axis, y-values get negated. 1 2 𝑛−1 Pr(𝐵)
Quick Expansion Reference
Pr(𝐴|𝐵) × Pr(𝐵) = Pr(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) (Multiplication Rule)
(𝑎 + 𝑏)3 = 𝑎3 + 3𝑎2 𝑏 + 3𝑎𝑏2 + 𝑏3 (𝑎 − 𝑏)3 = 𝑎3 − 3𝑎2 𝑏 + 3𝑎𝑏2 − 𝑏3
Inverse Functions
(𝑎 + 𝑏)4 = 𝑎4 + 4𝑎3 𝑏 + 6𝑎2 𝑏2 + 4𝑎𝑏3 + 𝑏4
If 𝑓(𝑥) is a one-to-one function, then for each number y in the range of 𝑓(𝑥) Mutually Exclusive Events
(𝑎 − 𝑏)4 = 𝑎4 − 4𝑎3 𝑏 + 6𝑎2 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑏3 + 𝑏4
there exists a number x in the domain of 𝑓(𝑥) so that 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦 A and B are mutually exclusive events if Pr(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 0, that is, if the
We can define a function 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) for which 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = 𝑦 if 𝑓(𝑦) = 𝑥 probability of both A and B occuring is zero.
Null Factor Law
𝑑𝑜𝑚 𝑓 −1 = 𝑟𝑎𝑛 𝑓, 𝑟𝑎𝑛 𝑓 −1 = 𝑑𝑜𝑚 𝑓
𝐼𝑓 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)(𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑) = 0 Independent Events
However, for non-one-to-one functions, the domain and range of the inverse is
𝑏 𝑑 A and B are independent events if Pr(A ∩ B) = Pr(A) × Pr(B), that is
not simply equal to that of the original function swapped. 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = − , −
𝑎 𝑐 Pr(𝐵|𝐴) = Pr(𝐵). In other words, A and B are independent if the previous
I.e. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 ∴ 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = √𝑥
occurrence of either event does not affect the probability of the occurrence of
But 𝑑𝑜𝑚 𝑓 = ℝ, 𝑟𝑎𝑛 𝑓 = [0, ∞) while 𝑑𝑜𝑚 𝑓 −1 = [0, ∞), 𝑟𝑎𝑛 𝑓 −1 = [0, ∞)
Basic Shape of Cubic Function Basic Shape of Quartic Function the other. I.e. Pr(𝐴|𝐵) = Pr(𝐴) , Pr(𝐵|𝐴) = Pr(𝐵)
Finding the inverse function of 𝒇(𝒙)
For any function 𝑓(𝑥), let 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑦), that is, let 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) and swap x and y
Possibly Helpful Note
Then rearrange for y. Then let 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = 𝑦 𝑛
For integers n and k, there are 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑟 ( ) integers in the range [1, n] which are
Example 𝑘
divisible by k.
Inverse of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 3
𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑦) ⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑦 2 + 2𝑦 + 3
𝑥 = (𝑦 2 + 2𝑦 + 1) + 3 − 1 = (𝑦 + 1)2 + 2
(𝑥 − 2) = (𝑦 + 1)2 ∴ ±√𝑥 − 2 = 𝑦 + 1
∴ 𝑦 = ±√𝑥 − 2 − 1
∴ 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = √𝑥 − 2 − 1
Cubic and Quartic Functions Probability
A function of the nth degree is defined as 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑏𝑥 𝑛−1 + 𝑐𝑥 𝑛−2 + ⋯ Random Experiment An experiment for which outcome is uncertain
A function of the nth degree can have max n solutions (but possibly less) Sample Space Set of possible outcomes for an experiment
Cubic function (general form) 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑 I.e. for rolling n sided dice, {1, 2, 3 . . . 𝑛}
Cubic function (turning point form) 𝑦 = 𝑎(𝑥 − ℎ)3 + 𝑘 Event An final result of one or more experiments
Point of inflection (h, k) Simple event Consist of one outcome, i.e. ‘rolling a six’
Quartic function (general form) 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 4 + 𝑏𝑥 3 + 𝑐𝑥 2 + 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑒 Compound event More than one outcome, i.e. ‘even number