University of San Carlos

Department of Chemical Engineering

Talamban, Cebu City, Philippines 6000

CHE 3214L
Chemical Engineering Laboratory Investigations 1

Hydrodynamics in a Packed Absorption Column

A laboratory report submitted to

Engr. May V. Tampus

CHE 3214L Instructor

by

John Fritz V. Festejo

June 2, 2023
University of San Carlos – Department of Chemical Engineering
Form CHE 3214L-4 Laboratory Report

1. Introduction
Absorption is a process of mass-transfer in which a vapor solute in a mixture with an
inert gas is absorbed by a liquid in which the solute is soluble. Primarily, the liquid is immiscible
in the gas phase (Geankoplis et. al., 2018). One example of it is absorption of the solute
ammonia from an air-ammonia mixture by water where the solute is subsequently recovered
from the solution by distillation. Furthermore, the substance absorbed is referred to as the
“absorbate” while the substance that absorbs it is called the “absorbent” or “absorbing medium”.
Processes of gas absorption are essential in various applications in the industry, including the
removal of pollutants from exhaust gases or purification of natural gas. In general, absorption
describes the phenomenon of one substance permeating, dissolving, or being incorporated into
another substance (Britannica. 2022).
There are different equipments for absorption including different types of tray (plate)
towers like sieve tray, valve tray and bubble-cap tray, structured and random packed towers.
Discussion on packed bed towers are focused on with regards to the experiment. Packed bed
towers are commonly used for continuous countercurrent flow of vapor-liquid absorption, where
it consists of a cylindrical column that contains a gas inlet, a liquid inlet, with both a distributing
device at the top and at the bottom, that is accompanied with a gas and liquid outlet, and a
packing or filling in the tower (Geankoplis et. al., 2018). Gas enters the column below the
packed section and rises upward between the void spaces of the packings and comes into contact
with liquid that is coming down from the top of the column.
Packing/fillings in a packed bed provides the fluids in the system with a large area of
intimate contact between the two components and promote intimate contact between the liquid
and gas phase to facilitate a faster and efficient mass transfer. The packing material are typically
arranged in a structured or random fashion, where random packing includes high cost-
effectiveness, and offers quality performance, whereas a structured packing is applied to process
that requires high capacity and efficiency (MACH, 2019). There are different types of packing
like Raschig rings, Berl saddle, Pall ring, Intalox metal (IMTP), and Jaeger Metal Tri-pack. The
experimental set-up utilizes glass Raschig rings.
Every packed tower of a given type and packing size, with a distinct liquid flow has an
limit to the gas flow rate called the flooding point, where beyond the packed tower is inoperable
beyond that point. As the gas flow rate increases, the pressure drop increases proportionally to
the flow rate. There also comes a point where the gas hinders the flow of liquid wherein pools of
liquid start to accumulate in the packing, which is called the loading point, and from this point
until the flooding point, the pressure drop rises at a faster rate. Thus, efficient operation of the
packed absorption tower works best below the flooding point where optimization includes
factoring in equipment cost, processing variables, and pressure drop. The pressure drop is
characterized by Ergun’s equation. It is an empirical correlation used to estimate the pressure
drop in a packed bed which is given by,
2
150𝜇𝑣′∆𝐿 (1−𝜀)2 1.75𝜌(𝑣 ′ ) ∆𝐿 (1−𝜀)
∆𝑃 = ∗ + ∗ (1)
𝐷𝑝2 𝜀3 𝐷𝑝 𝜀3
The pressure drop is related to the fluid velocity, properties of the fluid and particles, and
the geometry of the bed. Ergun’s equation provides an approximation of the pressure drop across
the column. It is mainly applied to beds with small particles and moderate flow rates.

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Furthermore, it holds the assumption that for a bed of particles with fluid flowing through
it that the bed is assumed to be isotropic and homogeneous, and flow is in steady state. It is a
generalized equation that applies systems with flow that is either laminar or turbulent, since the
first term of the equation is the Blaze-Kozeny equation which is applicable for laminar flow at
low velocities, whereas the second term of the equation is the equation of Burke-Plummer which
is common for turbulent flow and significant at high velocities (USC Chemical Engineering.
2023).
Flooding of air-water systems in packed columns was first generalized by Sherwood,
Shipley, and Holloway (1938). The correlation is given by the equation.
𝑣 ′2 𝑎𝑣 𝜌𝐺 𝐿 𝜌
( ) 𝜇𝐿0.2 = 𝑓 (𝐺 √𝜌𝐺) (2)
𝑔𝜀𝜌𝐿 𝐿

Where av is the total packing area (m2/m3 bed), ρ is the density of the fluid (kg/m3), ε is
the fractional voids in dry packing, g is the gravitational constant. 9.18 m/s2, μ is the viscosity of
the fluid (mPa), v’ is the superficial gas velocity (m/s), and L and G are the mass rates (kg/m2s)
of liquid and gas respectively. The left-hand side of the equation is ratio of the gas kinetic energy
and potential energy in the liquid, while 𝜇𝐿0.2 is an empiricism factor. On the other hand, the
right-hand side of the equation measures the relative kinetic energy of the liquid to that of the gas.
Both are dimensionless flow parameters. Figure 1 shows the profiles of the correlation for
estimating flooding at given liquid to gas rates.

Figure 1. Correlation for estimating flooding at given liquid to gas rates (Foust et al, 1980)

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2. Objectives of the Experiment

1. Determine experimentally the pressure drop across a wet column as a function of the Air
Flow rate and compare the results with theoretically calculated values.
2. Determine through visual observation and by graphical methods the loading and the
flooding points of the packed column at pre-set values of water flow rates.
3. Construct from experimental data the loading and the flooding curves of the packed
column based on the generalized correlations proposed by Sherwood, Shipley, and
Holloway.

3. Methodology
3.1. Methodological Framework

Figure 2. Methodological Framework for Hydrodynamics in a Packed Bed Column

To achieve the objective of the experiment, the concepts and theories surrounding heat
transfer were initially reviewed to be able to get a grasp of the general idea and mechanism
that governs the experiment in the simulation such as the concept of absorption in a packed
bed column, hydrodynamics, and Sherwood, Shipley and Holloway generalized correlation
of flooding points in a packed bed column. Therefore, properly defining the objective would
be vital as it sets a goal and a direction to what is to be achieved from the experiment such
as determining the pressure drop across the column, determining the loading and flooding
points.
Familiarization of the experimental set-up the day before conducting the experiment was
important to avoid any accidents and mishandling of the equipment that may possibly break
the apparatus itself. Once the parameters of the experiment were assigned and set, the
experiment was run to produce a set of data for the given parameters. Subsequently, the raw
data was recorded along with the pictures taken for visual observation which was later

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processed to obtain the required results. Finally, the results were analyzed to answer the
objective of the experiment.

3.2. Materials
The material used for packed bed absorption column was 6L of distilled water with
properties that were a function of temperature including, its density and viscosity. Distilled
water was utilized to prevent the formation of scales inside the column as it was classified as
soft water that was free of dissolved salts of metals such as calcium, iron, or magnesium.
Since scales could influence the results of the experiment. Furthermore, the packed column
is filled with glass Raschig rings with a diameter of 9 mm.

3.3. Equipment
The equipment for the experiment uses a packed bed absorption column. This apparatus
includes the following parts:
• Sump Tank – it is a large container that stores the water that can be found at the
bottom of the apparatus. It is fastened with a lid to keep out any impurities.
Furthermore, it has an access point in the middle to stick a thermometer in to
measure the temperature.
• Valves – valves can be seen in multiple parts of the apparatus which can be open or
closed to allow or restrict the fluid to flow. Valves are located at the discharge pipe
that goes out from the sump tank, and two above the air and flow meter.
• Water Manometer – found left of the mercury manometer. It can provide the
pressure difference at different points inside the packed column by reading the height
difference of the water in the manometer.
• Air Flowmeter – provides a reading for the flowrate of air that is being pumped into
the system in liters/minute.
• Water Flowmeter – provides a reading for the flowrate of water that is being pumped
into the system in Liters per minute.
• Three-way valves – attached to tubes from the column to the manometer. Located at
different points to control what segment of the column is being measured by the
manometer.
• Absorption Column – it is made of polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA), 7.5 cm in
diameter, and 1.46 m long. Stopcocks can be located at 3 points in the column (from
top to bottom: S1, S2, and S3)
• Air and Water pump – feeds the fluid into the system.
• Main Switches – turns on the air or water pump.
•
3.4. Procedures
A. Preliminary Preparations
1. Open the valve for the discharge tube of water at all times.

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2. Fill the sump tank with distilled water up to ¾ of its volume.

3. Adjust the 3-way cocks between the column and the manometer that it reads the portion
of the column in question.
4. Record the initial and final operational temperature of air and water.
B. Pressure Drop in Wetted Column
1. Close the stopcocks on the packed column and the valves for the water and air flow.
2. Switch on the water pump and open the water flow to about 3 – 4 liters/minute and let it
run for 2 to 3 minutes. Allow the column to drain for 5 minutes afterwards.
3. Open S2 and/or S3 and take manometer readings of pressure difference across the
column for a range of airflow rates starting from 20 to 170 liters/minute.
4. Determine the density of the liquid from the literature data, considering the operating
temperatures and the acceleration due to gravity.
5. Using the conditions listed in Table 3214L-4.1 as a guide, take the manometer readings
of the pressure difference across the column for a range of airflow rates.
6. Wet the column again as instructed in steps 1 and 2.
7. Calculate the experimental pressure drop. The experimental pressure drop is given as,
∆𝑃𝐸 = 𝜌𝐿 𝑔(ℎ2 − ℎ1 ) (1)
where:
PE = experimental pressure drop
ρL = density of the fluid
g = gravitational force
h1 = initial manometer reading
h2 = final manometer reading
8. Calculate the theoretical pressure drop. Obtain accurate and reliable data on the
operational temperature of both the water and air involved in the experiment. Obtain the
length and diameter of the column being used. Once these variables are determined,
establish a set of constants. The constants are as follows:
• acceleration due to gravity, g = 9.81m/s2
• void fraction, ε = 0.63
• total packing area, av = 420m-1
Vary the airflow rate based on the specific conditions given in Table 3214L-4.1. Obtain
the density and viscosity of both the gas and liquid phases from the literature data.

Calculate the cross-sectional area of the column.

𝜋
𝐴𝑐 = 4 𝐷𝑐2 (2)
where:
Ac = cross-sectional area of the column
Dc = diameter of the column
Calculate the fluid superficial velocity.

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𝑞′
𝑣′ = 𝐴 (3)
𝑐
where:
v' = fluid superficial velocity
q' = fluid flow rate

Calculate the effective particle/packing diameter.

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𝐷𝑃 = 𝑎 (4)
𝑣
where:
Dp= effective particle/packing diameter
av = total area of packing
Calculate the theoretical pressure drop using Ergun’s equation.
2
150𝜇𝑣′∆𝐿 (1−𝜀)2 1.75𝜌(𝑣 ′ ) ∆𝐿 (1−𝜀)
∆𝑃𝑇 = ∗ + ∗
𝐷𝑝2 𝜀3 𝐷𝑝 𝜀3
where:
PT= theoretical pressure drop
v'= fluid superficial velocity
μ = fluid viscosity
ρ = fluid density
Dp = effective particle/packing diameter
L = length of the packed bed
ε = void fraction/porosity
9. Calculate the percent difference between the experimental and theoretical pressure drop.
|∆𝑃𝐸 −∆𝑃𝑇 |
%𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = ∆𝑃𝐸 +∆𝑃𝑇 ∗ 100% (5)
2
10. Generate a plot displaying the comparison between the experimental and theoretical
pressure drops in relation to the superficial gas velocity.
C. Identifying the Loading and Flooding Points
1. Through Visual Observation:
• Take photos of the loading and flooding point (when the liquid starts to accumulate
at the base of the column and when the liquid overflows at the top of the column)
• Take note of the pressure drop and the volumetric flowrates of the water and air as
well as temperature readings of the liquid and gas phase.
2. Through Graphical Method:
• Based on the packed column settings table, determine the flooding and loading point
of the packed column.
• Based on the temperature reading of the fluid, obtain literature data on the density of
the liquid, ρL.
• Obtain data on the Initial manometer reading, h1, and final manometer reading, h2.
• Measure the dimensions of the adsorption column such as the column length, ∆L .
• Vary flow rates based on packed column settings found in Table 3214L-4.1

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3. Plot the logarithmic ratio of the experimental pressure drop, from objective 1.
∆𝑃
log ( ∆𝐿𝐸 ) (6)
4. Determine the logarithmic ratio of the experimental pressure drop and column length
against the logarithm of the air flow rate. The loading point can be depicted at the point
there the slope of the line starts, whereas the flooding point can be represented when the
slope of the line becomes steep
D. Generalized Correlation for Flooding of Packed Column proposed by Sherwood,
Shipley, and Holloway (1938)
1. Take measurements of the necessary dimensions of the adsorption column, including
column length, L and column diameter, Dc.
2. Vary the conditions of the water flow rates in accordance with the packed column settings
outlined in Table 3214L-4.1.
3. Vary the air flow rates based on the provided water flow rates.
4. Record the pressure difference across the column using a manometer, while varying the
airflow rates to suit different water flow rates.
5. Calculate the Gas mass rate.
(𝜌𝑞 ′ )𝐺
𝐺= (7)
𝐴𝑐
6. Calculate the Liquid mass rate.
(𝜌𝑞 ′ )𝐿
𝐿= (8)
𝐴𝑐

7. Calculate the ratio of gas kinetic energy to liquid potential energy and the empiricism
factor.
𝑣 ′2 𝑎𝑣 𝜌𝐺
( ) 𝜇𝐿0.2 (9)
𝑔𝜀𝜌𝐿

8. Calculate the dimensionless flow parameter.

𝐿 𝜌𝐺
√𝜌 (10)
𝐺 𝐿

𝑣 ′2 𝑎𝑣 𝜌𝐺 𝐿 𝜌
9. Plot ( ) 𝜇𝐿0.2 against 𝐺 √ 𝜌𝐺 to generate a graph and to obtain the loading and
𝑔𝜀𝜌𝐿 𝐿

flooding curves.
4. Results and Discussions
4.1 Experimental Pressure Drop across a Wet Column as a function of the Airflow Rate
compared to its Theoretical Pressure Drop
Table 1. Packed Absorption Column Dimensions, and Experiment Setting and Conditions
Absorption Column

Material Acrylic (Poly(methyl methacrylate))

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Diameter, cm 7.50

Height, m 1.46

Packing

Type Raschig Rings

Material Glass

Diameter, mm 9.00

Total Packing Area, m-1 420

Void Fraction 0.63

Manometer

Type Water

Operating Conditions

Temperature, oC 29.0

Part B S2 and S3
Sampling Point
Part C S1 and S2

Air Flow Rate, L/min 20-150

Water Flow Rate, L/min 1.0 - 4.0

The conditions for the experiment, as well as the dimensions of the packed absorption
column is specified in the table above, along with the operating conditions of the experiment.
The absorption column was made from acrylic and filled with glass Raschig rings that utilize
a water-type manometer that measures the pressure drop at the specified sampling points.
These conditions and dimensions are listed in the table above.

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Figure 3. Experimental and Theoretical Pressure Difference of Increasing Air Flow at 29oC

The air flow rate varies from 20 L/min to 150 L/min. When there is no water flowing
through the column, the results showed that the highest range of feasible air flow rate is 150
L/min, with a lesser pressure difference across the column compared to a column with water
flowing through it. Maximum flow gas is available if the packing is dry and has no liquid
feed.

Table 2. Percentage Difference of the Experimental and Theoretical Pressure Drop

Air Flow Air Flow %
ΔPexp ΔPtheo % ΔPexp ΔPtheo
Rate, Rate, Difference
(Pa) (Pa) Difference (Pa) (Pa)
L/min L/min

20 0.0 52.0 200.0 150 351.7 568.0 47.0

30 19.5 63.7 106.1 140 312.7 500.3 46.2

40 19.5 80.0 121.5 130 312.7 437.2 33.2

50 39.1 101.1 88.4 120 254.0 378.9 39.5

60 58.6 126.7 73.5 110 214.9 325.2 40.8

70 97.7 157.1 46.6 100 175.9 276.2 44.4

80 136.8 192.1 33.6 90 136.8 231.8 51.6

90 156.3 231.8 38.9 80 117.2 192.1 48.4

100 156.3 276.2 55.4 70 97.7 157.1 46.6

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110 136.8 325.2 81.6 60 58.6 126.7 73.5

120 195.4 378.9 63.9 50 58.6 101.1 53.2

130 234.5 437.2 60.4 40 39.1 80.0 68.8

140 293.1 500.3 52.2 30 39.1 63.7 47.9

150 312.7 568.0 58.0 20 9.8 52.0 136.8

The experimental pressure drop for both increasing and decreasing air flow rate somehow
resembles the trend of the theoretical pressure drop in the range of 20 L/min to
approximately 85 L/min. Based on Figures 1 and 2, when the air flow rate is increased, the
pressure difference across the column also increases due to an increase in the resistance of
the packing material. However, when the airflow rate is decreased, the pressure drop also
decreases, which can be attributed to a decrease in the resistance of the packing material.

Figure 4. Experimental and Theoretical Pressure Difference of Decreasing Air Flow at 29oC

In the graph comparing the pressure difference and increasing air flow rate, it is evident
that the experimental pressure difference significantly deviates from the theoretical results.
Although packed columns are generally accompanied by turbulent gas flow, the Reynold’s
number in Table A2-2 suggests that the flow during the experiment was laminar which
resulted in lower results than what was theoretically expected. The possible sources of
experimental error might be the inaccurate reading of manometer measurements, due to some
presence of water in the valves for the manometer reading, and/or incomplete wetting of the
column.

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4.2 Flooding and Loading Points of the Packed Bed Absorption Column
At the loading point, where liquid buildup begins to be observed in the packing, the gas
starts to hinder the flow of the liquid. A flooding point is a location where the pressure drop
increases drastically. Flooding results when a significant amount of the column cross-section
is taken up by a high liquid flow rate that hinders the flow of gas in the opposite direction
due to the high liquid hold-up.

Figures 5a and 5b. Visual Observation of Loading Point (left) and Flooding Point (right)

Determining the flooding and loading point can be achieved through the actual conduct
of the experiment through visual inspection of the packed column. By progressively raising
the air flow rate at a particular water flow rate and monitoring the column until the liquid
starts to accumulate on the packing material, the loading point is identified. The formation of
small bubbles at the bottom of the column is an indication of the loading point, as shown in
the figure below. Also, the loading point can be found by visually inspecting the packing
material to see where liquid starts to accumulate and stay on the surface. On the other hand,
the presence of vigorous bubbling above the packing material at the upper part of the column
indicates flooding. By gradually increasing the water flow rate past the loading point and
monitoring the pressure drop across the column, the flooding point is identified. The point at
which liquid starts to flow back down the column, showing that the column is flooded, can
also be an indication of flooding. Flooding develops when the liquid flow rate reaches a level
where the liquid builds up on the packing material to the point where the gas flow is
restricted, increasing the pressure difference across the column. Additionally, the flooding
point is reached when the pressure starts to increase rapidly.

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Figure 6. Log-Log Scale of the Pressure Drop versus Air Flow Rate of various Water Flow
Rates at 29oC

The graph generated above shows the logarithmic values of the pressure per unit height
and the gas mass rate were obtained. The loading point is represented by the initial abrupt
change in the slope of the graph, becoming steeper. The accumulation of liquid in the
packing column causes an increase in pressure. On the other hand, a flooding point is
denoted by the final point on the graph since it is not feasible to take any more pressure
readings beyond that point. The gas flow rate reaches its loading point when it becomes
sufficiently high to restrict liquid flow. And this is where the flooding point occurs where the
pressure drop increases. The flooding point is shown through the sudden increase of
steepness of the line to the last point in the graph. The results showed that each time the
water flow rate is increased, there is a considerable increase in the pressure difference and
flooding occurred in the column at an earlier stage as opposed to when it occurred at lower
water flow rates. Flooding begins to show when the liquid flow rate through the column
exceeds the capacity of the packing to handle the flow, resulting in a significant increase in
the pressure drop across the column. This can lead to several issues such as identifying the
loading point through visual observation can be subjective and can vary depending on the
person observing the column. Additionally, the flooding point is easier to detect than the
loading point because it is more subtle and harder to distinguish.

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4.3 Generalized Correlation proposed by Sherwood, Shipley, and Holloway

Figure 7. Loading and Flooding Curves of the Packed Column Based at 29oC on the
Correlations Proposed by Sherwood, Shipley and Holloway
𝐿 𝜌
The 𝐺 √ 𝜌𝐺 component in the x-axis represents the flow parameter of the packed bed
𝐿

𝑣 ′2 𝑎𝑣 𝜌𝐺
column as It is a ratio of the liquid to gas mass rate. On the other hand, the ( ) 𝜇𝐿0.2
𝑔𝜀𝜌𝐿
component in the y-axis represents the capacity parameter of the packed bed column which is
defined by the superficial velocity, void fraction, total packing area, density of air, and
water’s density and viscosity. The area of the curve represents the region of operation,
meaning it is the conditions where the packed bed column is most efficient. Furthermore, the
graph forms a negative slope, such that as the flow parameters increase the capacity
parameter, on the other hand, decreases. When the flow parameter increases, this signifies
that the mass rate of the liquid is significantly more than the gas mass rate which decreases
the capacity parameter of the system. A decrease in the capacity parameter also means a
decrease in the capacity for the packed bed column to operate, which is what was observed in
the previous part of the experiment where, when the flow rate of the water increases, the rate
at which the pressure drop increases occurs more frequently in lower air flow rates.
5. Conclusions

The gas phase in a packed column is driven by the pressure difference experienced in the
packed column. The pressure drop is mainly caused by the presence of the packing materials
which adds resistance to the air flow, and flow rate of the air and water, which was added after.
The change in pressure of a wetted column increases as the flow rate of the air increases.
Compared to the theoretical value, the experimentally calculated pressure difference was lower
than what was expected. As the gas flow in packed columns is turbulent, however the gas flow
during the experiment exhibited a laminar flow instead which may justify the lower pressure
difference along with errors in the manometer reading.

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The loading and flooding points are vital parameters in the design and operation of
packed columns to establish the column’s maximum capacity. The points were shown visually
and graphically where the flooding and loading points in an absorption column drastically
increase the pressure drop the more water accumulates in the column. The loading and flooding
points are found at higher mass gas rates as the liquid flow rate decreases.
The experimental data for the air-water system in a packed-bed absorption column
follows the generalized correlation proposed by Sherwood, Shipley and Holloway. The flow and
capacity parameters exhibit a negative relationship, such that as the flow parameter increases
where the liquid mass rate is greater than that of the gas, the capacity parameter decreases, which
signifies a decrease in the capacity to operate. Therefore, at higher flow rates the operating
capacity of the packed bed column is greatly hindered.
References

Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia (2022, July 7). absorption. Encyclopedia Britannica.

https://www.britannica.com/science/absorption-physics

Mach Engineering (2019). Random Packing vs. Structured Packing. Retrieved from
https://www.machengineering.com/random-packing-vs-structured-packing/

Geankoplis, C.J., Hersel, A.A., and Lepek, D.H. (2018). Transport Processes and Separation Process
Principles 5th Ed. Prentice Hall

Foust, A.S., Wenzel, L.A., Clump, C.W., Manus, L., and Andersen, L.B.(1960). Principles of
Unit Operations. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

USC Department of Chemical Engineering (2023). Chemical Engineering Laboratory

Investigations 1: Lab Instruction Manual.

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ANNEX

Data Processing & Analysis Report

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