WH-CLAUSES

If you have a look at these examples, you’ll see all of them have something in common. However, they are rather different, too.

a) Who is talking to John?

b) Who is John talking to?
c) I don’t know who paid the bill.
d) The teacher who usually shouts at students was suspended.
e) The teacher, who usually shouts at students, was suspended.

WH-QUESTIONS (MAIN WH-INTERROGATIVE CLAUSES)

1. Clauses that include a wh-word are called wh-clauses. But not all of them are the same. Analyze the examples a) and b)
above and explain how they differ. Focus on:
i. Fronting of the wh-phrase
ii. Fronting of the tensed auxiliary
2. To draw the tree diagrams for both sentences we already know there is some movement here, but where does the
wh-phrase move to if the C position is already occupied by the auxiliary? And where do they move from?

We have two C positions.

C1 (lower): daughter of S’ (bar) and sister of S. Filled, in subordinate clauses by that,

whether and subordinating conjunctions. In main clauses, filled by the fronted tensed
auxiliaries.

C2 (higher): daughter of S’’ (double bar) and sister of S’. Filled, in both main and
subordinate clauses, by fronted wh-expressions.

Wh-questions ask information about the subject, the direct object, the indirect object or adjuncts. They ask questions about the
different constituents, thus they are called constituent questions.

Wh-words always occupy C2 (higher) position. When it is a real question C1 is occupied by the auxiliary. When it is an indirect
question or an echo question, the C1 position is empty.

Complementiser whether, that WH-words

Place it occupies C1 C2
It has meaning no Yes
It has a function No (just to introduce clauses) Yes (they function as DO, IO, etc.)
It moves no Yes
It leaves an empty trace behind no Yes

Exercise 1. When the wh-word moves to the front it leaves a trace behind. Put a * where the trace is.

a. Where are you from ?

b. Who do you think will win the competition ?
c. Whose poem do you suggest would be perfect for the lecture ?
d. How are you ?
e. What time does your class finish?
f. Where did you put my glasses ?
g. Who started the discussion ?
h. How often do the students have exams?
i. Who has finished the report ?

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 Important comments to remember:

✔ Every wh-clause is introduced by a fronted wh-phrase occupying the C2 position (daughter of S″, sister of S′).

✔ This wh-phrase that was fronted left a gap (of the appropriate category) in the position from which it was

fronted.

✔ This goes for all wh-clauses, whether main or subordinate.

✔ Only main wh-clauses display auxiliary-fronting as well as wh-fronting.

SUBORDINATE WH-CLAUSES

❖ SUBORDINATE INTERROGATIVE CLAUSES

Exercise 2. Let’s have a look at sentence c) I don’t know who paid the bill. Choose the correct option:

1) This is a simple / complex / compound sentence.

2) “I” is the subject of the main / subordinate clause.
3) The underlined part is the main / subordinate clause.
4) There is / isn’t a C1 and C2 slot in this sentence.
5) The subordinate clause functions as an adjunct / the direct object.

In the tree we can see that the subordinate clause “who paid
the bill” is the embedded in the main clause and functions as
the D.O. of the verb know. C2 is occupied by the wh-pronoun
who that moved from the subject position of the clause and
lives a gap there. C1 is empty because in subordinate clauses
we do not have auxiliary fronting.

Exercise 3. Practice: in the following sentences

a) Mark the subordinate clauses

b) State their function
c) Mark the gap left by the wh-word that moved.
d) State the function of the wh-word within the
clause

1) Where my glasses are is always a mystery.

2) She wasn’t sure what she should do.
3) The problem was where they could build the new school.
4) They asked why we had spent all the money.
5) The little matter of who is going to do that job is not solved yet.
6) It’s my own business what I do.
7) They never told me who broke the window.
8) I’m doubtful which museum I prefer.
9) They left the room when the class was over.
10) She explained how she recovered from her disease.

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 ❖ RELATIVE CLAUSES

✔ They are non-interrogative wh-clauses.

✔ They are always subordinate.

✔ They function as modifiers within NPs.

Exercise 4: use [ ] to mark the relative clauses. Mark * where the gap is and identify the function of the wh-word.

1. The book which I’m reading is quite boring.

2. The fool who lent you the money doesn’t know you very well.
3. This was the book whose title I couldn’t remember.
4. I will never forget the day when I passed my last exam.
5. The church where we got married is going to be demolished.
6. Sarah works with that man whose name I cannot remember.
7. That’s the car which I used to drive.
8. Is this the dress that you bought?
9. This is the computer program which I told you about.
10. The bag in which the robbers put the money was found outside the bank.
11. Is her the reason why you fired me?

✔ Most wh-words used in relative clauses are Relative Pronouns (who, which)

✔ Some of them are relative adverbs (where, when, why)

✔ Some function as determiners (whose).

Exercise 5. Read the sentences again and complete the uses:

THINGS 🡪 ______________ and that TIME 🡪 ____________

PEOPLE 🡪 who and _____________ REASON 🡪 ____________

PLACES 🡪 ___________ POSSESSION 🡪 _____________

COMPARE:

a) The conclusion that nobody had studied surprised the teacher.

b) The conclusion that I reached is that nobody had studied.
c) The thought that we should have done something differently is tormenting me.
d) The thought that occurred to me was not so crazy.

The noun-complement clauses (a and c):

● They give us central information about the head noun.

● It tells actual content of the conclusion, the thought, etc.

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 ● That cannot be replaced by which and it does not have specific function in the clause other than to introduce it.
● They are sisters to N and daughters of NOM.
● They are introduced by the complementiser that.
● The clause is incomplete in itself.
● The that-clause is sister to N in the phrase marker because it is a complement.

The relative clauses (b and d)

● They tell something else about the noun, something more peripheral.

● Also, the that can be replaced by which and it has a function within the

clause (D.O. of reached in b and subject of occurred in d).

● The relative clause is sister to NOM and daughter of a higher NOM

because it is a modifier, not a complement.

OMISSION OF THE WH-PHRASE

Exercise 6. Go back to exercise 4, read each sentence once and then read it again but without saying the pronoun.
Does it sound correct? In which sentence/sentences can you omit the pronoun and the sentence does not sound
odd? Can you think of a reason for this?

✔ Ellipsis of the wh-word is possible only when it does not interfere with the interpretation or with ease of comprehension.

✔ Fronted wh-subjects cannot be ellipted.

✔ The only wh-words that can be omitted are: who, which and that when they are not acting as subject of the clause.

USE OF THAT TO REPLACE WHICH AND WHO

There are two different approaches that explain this:

1) Traditional approach: that is a kind of relative pronoun that can replace which and who and thus, it occupies the C2
position.
2) Generative approach: that is a complementiser and occupies the C1 position. It is only permitted to make an overt
appearance in C1 position of a relative clause when the wh-phrase in C2 has been ellipted.

RESTRICTIVE VS. NON-RESTRICTIVE

Compare:

a) My brother who is a doctor lives in Paris.

b) My brother, who is a doctor, lives in Paris.
c) The students who passed the exams are on holidays.
d) The students, who passed the exams, are on holidays.

1) Do a and b have the same interpretation? How do they differ?

2) Do c and d have the same interpretation? How do they differ?

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 ✔ The difference between restrictive and non-restrictive relative clauses lies in the way they relate to the head noun within

the overall NP.

✔ Non-restrictive relative clauses are included between commas.

Look at these sentences. Why is e) wrong?

e) * The dogs which are mammals need treatment.

f) The dogs, which are mammals, need treatment.

✔ The oddity of (e) lies in the fact that restrictive relative clauses specify more exactly which of the things picked out by the

head noun are being mentioned. All dogs are mammals, so you cannot specify something that is obvious for all of them.

✔ Non-restrictive relative clauses serve to add extra (parenthetical) information, without restricting the set of things being

mentioned.

A) Restrictive Relative Clause B) Non-restrictive Relative Clause

A) The DET is sister to the whole NOM (because the determiner is determining the whole NOM, including the relative clause).
B) The NP “the dogs” is modified by an adjunct Relative Clause (non-restrictive).

Look at the examples and complete the table with a tick ✔ or a cross 🗶:

a) The rabbit, which is a mammal, can produce from 1 to 12 young each time she gives birth.
b) The rabbit that I have is white.
c) * The rabbit, that is a mammal, has a pregnancy of 31 days.
d) The rabbit I have is white.
e) * The rabbit, is a mammal, has a pregnancy of 31 days.

Restrictive Non-restrictive
1. They provide necessary information to specify the noun

2. They are between commas

3. You can use that instead of which and who

4. The relative pronoun can sometimes be omitted

IN CONCLUSION:
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 There are three kinds of clauses that can appear within NP.

A) Noun-complement clause: sister of N (within NOM)

B) Restrictive relative clause: sister of NOM (within NOM)
C) Non-restrictive relative clauses: sister of NP (within NP)

PRACTICE – you can do unit 11 of First Certificate Language Practice (Michael Vince) and the following exercises to improve your
use of Relative Clauses

https://test-english.com/grammar-points/a2/defining-relative-clauses-who-which-that-where/
https://test-english.com/grammar-points/b1/defining-and-non-defining-relative-clauses/
https://test-english.com/grammar-points/b2/relative-clauses/

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PRACTICE

A) Identify the clauses and classify them.

B) State the function of the clause in the sentence.
C) If there was movement, mark * the gap.
D) Classify the sentences in SIMPLE, COMPOUND, COMPLEX and COMPOUND-COMPLEX.

1. I know that you must be tired after your long journey.

2. The surprised customers looked at the shop assistant and she asked them who was paying the bill.

3. The students in the French class couldn’t understand what the clumsy teacher said.

4. The news that we’re having a holiday tomorrow is not true.

5. Susan prepared a delicious dinner but she couldn’t finish the dessert.

6. What the jugglers were doing seemed very difficult.

7. I bought Jack a watch because it had been his birthday before we met in New York.

8. We couldn’t tell them where the folders were since we hadn’t seen them.

9. My colleagues weren’t happy when they were informed about the fact that I had been promoted.

10. She doubts whether she will finish her book before the editor calls her again.

11. It was obvious that she didn’t like the food.

12. Unfortunately, they couldn’t find whose wallet has disappeared during the graduation party.

13. We never know where we should leave our coats.

14. The police officer was upset because I didn’t tell him who had given me the false information about the

homeless men and women.

15. Why did you tell him who I have met during my holidays?

16. Kate mentioned that Kim had believed the story immediately.

17. Before they put the water in the fridge they explained how the bottle must be boiled and disinfected until all

the germs had been killed.

18. Whether they can solve all my problems was not confirmed.