the Art of Problem Solving Introduction to Number Theory YETI en Or esnya coy celthe Art of Problem Solving Introduction to Number Theory The Art of Problem Solving Introduction Series constitutes a complete curriculum for outstanding math students in grades 6-10. The books in the series are: Introduction to Algebra by Richard Rusczyk Introduction to Counting & Probability by David Patrick Introduction to Geometry by Richard Rusczyk Introduction to Number Theory by Mathew Crawford Together these books give students a solid background in basic problem-sol mathematics and prepare them for prestigious competitions such as MATHCOUNTS and the American Mathematics Competitions. Praise for Introduction to Number Theory Thank you so much for Introduction to Number Theory. I have thoroughly enjoyed this book. It has introduced me to math that I would never have discovered on my own... have learned to not only do problems I thought were impossible, but I have learned to enjoy them. 10th grade student, Alabama Mathew Crawford is the founder and CEO of MIST Academy, a schoo! for gifted students, in Birmingham, ‘Alabama, He is former instructor and curriculum developer for the Art of Problem Solving online sehool. He is. co-author of Art of Problem Solving’s Intermediate Algebra textbook, and served on the Board of Directors of the {Ar of Problem Solving Foundation, Crawford was a perfect scorer at the national MATHCOUNTS competi 1990, and a member of the national championship team (Alabama) in 1991. He was a 3-time invitee to the Math Olympiad Summer Program, a perfect scorer on the AIME, and a 2-time USA Math Olympiad honorable mention aealz3NUMBER THEORY eas Number Theory What are integers? Which integers are interesting? What can we do with them? How do we use them? How do they relate to mathematics? How do we use them to count more easily? What numbers can ‘we make with them? How do we use them to write secret messages? How do we use them to read secret messages? How do we use them fo run computers? How do we use them to run computers more ficiently? How do they help us with physics? What do they have to do with biology? How do we use them to talk with our spacecrafts? ‘These are questions about the subject of number theory. Number theory is the study of integers. As ancient as number theory is, humans are still uncovering mysteries behind integers and learning to use them in powerful new ways. Integers: 14, -3,-2,-1,0,1,2.3,4,5,.. ‘Natural Numbers: 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,.. Prime Numbers: 2,3,5,7,11,13,17,19,23, Composite Numbers: 4,6,8,9, 10,12, 14,15, 16,... Even Numbers: «1-6-4, -2,0,2,4,6,8,10,12,.. (Odd Numbers: 1-7,-8,-3,-1,1,3,5,7,9,11, Perfect Squares: 0,1,4,9,16,25,36,49, 64,81, 100, . Negative Cubes: =1,-8,-27,~64, -125,-216, 343, Powers of 2: 1,2,4,8,16,32, 64,128, 256,512, 1024, Abundant Numbers: 12,18, 20, 24,30, 36, 40,42, 48,54, Palindromes: 11,313, 838, 3443, 7447,57875, 10000001,... Fibonacci Numbers: 1,2,3,5,8,13,21,34,55,89,, Base Numbers: 15,45, 154, 101103, 24412, Modulo 8 Residues: 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7 Each of these types of integers has stories—some that go back thousands of years. Since we use integers to describe so many things, knowing these stories helps us understand the world around us.NUMBER THEORY. Sl NOTATION—WRITING IN THE LANGUAGE OF MATHEMATICS Notations are the symbols we use when expressing an idea in writing. Mathematical notation is ich, complex, and highly useful—though often frustrating to students with less experience reading it or using it to write mathematics, Hopefully this book conveys mathematical ideas as simply as possible, and introduces new notations clearly and in a timely manner. However, we list here a number of the ‘more common notations used throughout this book to give students a basic guide to understanding the Janguage of mathematics a3 we use it for the next 300-something pages. alb ‘The vertical line is a symbol that denotes a relationship of di 4," oF “ais divisor of 6,” we write “a |b,” For example, “6 |2 ibility. Instead of writing “a divides means “6 divides 24.” ab This double-right arrow means “implies.” For instance, instead of writing "x +1 = 4 implies that x=3/wewrite"x+1=4=3=3." a! When immediately following a positive integer, this “factorial” symbol Tets us know to multiply the positive integer by all the positive integers ess than it 5! = 5-4-3-21, sed(e.) When we write gcd(e,b), we mean the greatest common divisor ofthe integers a and b. For instance, ged(8,12) = 4 lemme, b} We write lem{a,é] to mean the least common multiple of the integers a and b, For instance, Jem{8,12] = 24. max(a,b) ‘When the term “max” precedes a group of real numbers it refers to the maximum of that group of real numbers, For instance, max(1,2,3,5,8) = 8. smin(a,b) ‘When the term “min” precedes a group of real numbers, it refers to the minimum of that group of real numbers. For example, min(1,2,3,5,8) = 1 a= (mod m) When we write “a = b (mod m),” we mean that a and b are congruent modulo m. In other words, the difference between a and b is a multiple of m. For instance, since 13 ~ 1 = 12 and 6 | 12, we say that 13 = 1 (mod 6), (Note: We begin discussing modular arithmetic in Chapter 12.)HOW TO USE THIS BOOK How to Use This Book Learn by Solving Problems ‘This book is probably very different from most of the math books that you have read before, We believe that the best way to learn mathematics is by solving problems. Lots and lots of problems. In fact, we believe that the best way to leam mathematics isto try to solve problems that you don’t know how to do. When you discover something on your own, you'll understand it much better than if someone just tells it to you. Most of the sections of this book begin with several problems. The solutions to these problems will bbe covered in the text, but try to solve the problems before reading the section. If you can’t solve some of the problems, that’s OK, because they will al be fully solved as you read the section, Even if you solve all of the problems, it’s still important to read the section, both to make sure that your solution is ‘correct, and also because you may find that the book’s solution is simpler or easier to understand than your own, If you find that the problems are too easy, this means that you should try harder problems. Nobody Jeams very much by solving problems that are too easy for them. Explanation of Icons ‘Throughout the book, you will see various shaded boxes and icons. Ques “keys” to becoming a better problem solver Tmportant: This will be something important that you should learn. Tt might be a Y7_ formula a solution technique, ora caution. a pitfall.HOWTO USE THISBooK Game! Remember, math is fan This box will contain a game to thin [Sidenoter This box will contain material which, alhough intersting, snot part of] the main material of the text. It's OK to skip over these boxes, but if you read them, you might learn something interesting! [Bogus Solution: Just like the impossible cube shown (0 the let, there's something, ‘wrong with any “solution” that appears inthis box. Exercises, Review Problems, and Challenge Problems Most sections end with several Exercises. These will test your understanding of the material that was covered in the section that you just finished. You should try to solve all of the exercises, Exercises marked with a + are more dificult. ‘All chapters contain Review Problems. These are problems which test your basic understanding of the material covered in the chapter. Your goal should be to solve most oral ofthe Review Problems for every chapter—if you're unable todo this, it means that you haven't yet mastered the material, and you should probably go back and read the chapter again. Most of the chapters end with Challenge Problems, These problems are generally more difficult than the other problems in the book, and will rally test Your mastery of the material. Some of them are very, very hard—the hardest ones are marked with a x. Don’t necessarily expect to be able to solve all of the Challenge Problems on your frst try—these are difficult problems even for experienced problem solvers. If you are able to solve a large number of Challenge Problems, then congratulations, you are on your way to becoming an expert problem solver! Hints ‘Many problems come with one or more hints. You can look up the hints in the Hints section in the back of the book. The hints are numbered in random order, so that when you're looking up a hint to a problem you don’t accidentally glance atthe hint to the next problem at the same time. Itis very important that you first try to solve the problem without resorting to the hints. Only after you've seriously thought about problem and ae suck should you eek a Nn. ls, fr problems ‘which have multiple hints, use the hints one at atime; don’t goto the second hint until you've thought about the ist one. “— rereHOW TO USE THIS BOOK Solutions ‘The solutions to all of the Exercises, Review Problems, and Challenge Problems are in the separate solution book. If you are using this textbook in a regular school class, then your teacher may decide not to make this solution book available to you, and instead present the solutions hinvherself, However, if you are using this book on your own to learn independently, then you probably have a copy of the solution book, in which case there are some very important things to keep in mind: 1, Make sure that you make a serious attempt at the problem before looking at the solution. Don't use the solution book as a crutch to avoid really thinking about a problem first. You should think hhard about a problem before deciding to give up and lock at the solution. After you solve a problem, it’s usually a good icea to read the solution, even if you think you know how to solve the problem, The solution that's in the solution book might show you a quicker or ‘more concise way to solve the problem, or it might have a completely different solution method that you might not have thought of } If you have to look at the solution in order to solve a problem, make sure that you make a note of that problem. Come back toit in a week or two to make sure that you are able to solve it on your own, without resorting to the solution. Resources Here are some other good resources for you to further pursue your study of mathematics: + The other books in the Art of Problem Solving Introduction series of textbooks: = Introduction fo Algebra by Richard Rusczyk = Introduction fo Counting & Probability by David Patrick = Introduction to Geometry by Richard Rusceyk + The Art of Problem Solving books, by Sandor Lehoczky and Richard Rusczyk. Whereas the book that ‘you're reading right now will go into great detail of one specific subject area—number theory—the {rt of Problem Solving books cover a wide range of problem solving topics across many different areas of mathematics. + The wev.artofproblensolving. cox website, which contains many resources for students: = a discussion forum = online classes ~ resource lists of books, contests, and other websites = 2 UTX tutorial = and much more!HOW TO USE THIS BOOK + Alcumus, our new eee online leering system at artofproblensolving com. Alcumus fers. dents a customized leaning experience, adjusting to student performance to deliver APProPane problems and lessons. Alcumus contains (a5 of May 2011) over 3500 problems with solutions, and! complemens ths textbook along with our Introduction to Algebra and Introduction to Cowling © Probability textbooks. It offers detailed progress reports and tools fr teachers to monitor students progress. ‘You can hone your problem solving skills (and perhaps win prizes!) by participating in various Imath contests, For mid school stodets inte United Slates, he major contests are MATH: COUNTS, MOEMS, and the AMC 8. For US. high school students, some of the best-known contests are the AMC/AIME/USA())MO series of contests (Which choose the US, team for the International Mathematics Olympiad), the American Regions Math League (ARML), the Mandel bbrot Competition, the Harvard-MIT Mathematics Tournament, and the USA Mathematical Talent Search. More details about these contests are on page ix, and links to these and many other contests are available on the Art of Problem Solving website A Note to Teachers ‘We believe that students learn best when they are challenged with hard problems that at first they may not know how to do. This is the motivating philosophy behind this book. Rather than first introducing new material and then giving students exercises, we present problems at the start of each section that students should try to solve before the new material is presented. The goal is to get students to discover the new material on their own. Often, complicated problems are broken into smaller parts, so that students can discover new techniques one piece at a time. Then the ‘new material is formally presented in the text, and full solutions to each problem are expl ‘with problem-solving strategies. ed, along, We hope that teachers will find that their stronger students will discover most of the material in this book on their own by working through the problems. Other students may learn better from a more traditional approach of first seeing the new material, then working the problems. Teachers have the flexibility to use either approach when teaching fom this book. ‘The books linear in coverage. Generally, students and teachers should progress straight through the book in order, without skipping chapters. Sections denoted with a + contain supplementary material that may be safely sipped. In general, chapters are not equal in length, so different chapters may take different amounts of classroom time. ee Exral_ Occasionally, you'll see a box lke this atthe bottom ofa pages This lo an "Banal" and ‘s—— might be a quote, some biographical or historical background, - {dea to think about. SES a spreACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Acknowledgements Contests ‘We would like to thank the following contests for allowing us to use a selection of their problems in this book: ‘+ The American Mathematics Competitions, a series of contests for US. middle and high school students. The AMC 8, AMC 10, and AMC 12 contests are multiple-choice tests that are taken by cover 350,000 students every year. Top scorers on the AMC 10 and AMC 12 are invited to take the ‘American Invitational Mathematics Examination (AIME), which is amore difficult, short-answer Contest. Approximately 10,000 students every year participate in the AIME. Then, based on the results of the AMC and AIME contests, about 500 students are invited to participate in the USA Mathematical Olympiad (USAMO) or the USA Junior Mathematical Olympiad (USAJMO), teach of which is a 2-day, 9-hour examination in which each student must show all of his or her work. Results from the USAMO and USAJMO are used to invite a number of students to the Math Olympiad Summer Program, at which the US. team for the International Mathematical Olympiad (IMO) is chosen, More information about the AMC contests can be found on the AMC website at aac.naa.or9 MATHCOUNTS®, the premier contest for US. middle school students. MATHCOUNIS is a national enrichment, coaching, and competition program that promotes middle school mathe- matics achievement through grassroots involvement in every US. state and territory. President Barack Obama and former Presidents George W. Bush, Bill Clinton, George H. W. Bush and Ronald Reagan have all recognized MATHCOUNTS in White House ceremonies. The MATHCOUNTS program has also received two White House citations as an outstanding private sector initiative. MATHCOUNTS includes both a competition program and a free club program for schools; in 2009- 10 over 7,000 schools and 250,000 students participated in MATHCOUNTS. More information is available at www.mathcounts .0F9, ‘The Mandelbrot Competition, which was founded in 1990 by Sandor Lehoczky, Richard Rusczyk, and Sam Vandervelde, The aim of the Mandelbrot Competition is to provide a challenging, ‘engaging, mathematical experience which is both competitive and educational. Students compete both as individuals and in teams. The Mandelbrot Competition is offered at the national level for more advanced students and the regional level for less experienced problem solvers. More information can be found at www.mandelbrot .oF9,ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS + The USA Mathematical Talent Search (USAMTS), which was founded in 1989 by Professor George Berzsenyi. The USAMTS is a free mathematics competition open to all United States middie and high school students. As opposed to most mathematics competitions, the USAMTS allows students a full month to work out their solutions. Carefully written justifications are required for each problem, More information is available at wow samt .OF9 ‘+ The American Regions Math League (ARML), which was founded in 1976, The annual ARML competition brings together ney 2000 of the nation’s finest students. They meet, compete agains, and socialize with one another, forming friendships and sharpening their mathematical skills. The contest is written for high school students, although some exceptional junior high students attend each year. The competition consists of several events, which include a team round, a power question (in which a team solves proof-oriented questions), an individual round, and two relay rounds. More information is available at wav. arml. com ‘The Harvard-MIT Mathematics Tournament, which isan annual math tournament for high schoo! students, held at MIT and at Harvard in alternating years. Itis run exclusively by MIT and Harvard students, most of whom themselves participated in math contests in high school. More information is available at web .mit -edu/tont/. How We Wrote This Book “This book was written using the TEX document processing system. We must thank the authors of the ‘various ISTgX packages that we used while preparing this book, and also the brilliant authors of The BTEX ‘Companion for writing a reference book that is not only thorough but also very readable. The diagrams were prepared using METAPOST, a powerful graphics language which is based on Knuth’s METAFONT. About Us “This book isa collaborative effort ofthe staffof the Art of Problem Solving. Mathew Crawford was the lead author for this book, and wrote most of the text. Several draft ofthis book were read by Richard Rosceyk, Dr. David Patick, Naoki Sato, Tim Lambert, and Amanda Jones—all of whom made many hheipfal suggestions, Solutions were writen by Mathew Crawford with help from Will Nygard anc! Ruozhou (Joe) ia. Many ofthe diagrams were created by Richard Ruseryk and Brian Rice. Amanda Jones designed the cover and also the Egyptian hieroglyphics. Special thanks to Meena Boppana, Revi Boppana, Cordon Dilger, Larry Evans, and several anonymous students for alerting us to errors in the first edit Websites Information about source material, some problems, and errata are provided at inetp://wav_artofproblensolving.con/BookLinks/IntroliunberTheory/1inks.php ——CONTENTS Number Theory How to Use This Book Acknowledgements 1 integers: The Basics 1 Introduction 0.5.6.4 12. Making Integers Out of Integers 13 Integer Multiples . 14 Divisibility of Integers 15. Divisors = 16 Using Divisors 1.7 Mathematical Symbols 18 Summary 2 Primes and Composites 21 Introduction... ese eos 22 Primes and Composites 23. Identifying Primes 24 Identifying Primes 25 Summary . 3 Multiples and Divisors 3.1 Introduction : 32 Common DivisorsCONTENTS = 33. Greatest Common Divisos (GCDs) 5 34 Common Multiples 2 35 Remainders 3.6 — Multiples, Divisors, and Arithmetic . 2 37 The Euclidean Algorithm s 38 Summary o 4 prime Factorization tad 4.1 Introduction S 42 Factor Trees. . . . a 43 Factorization and Multiples... cd 44 Factorization and Dibisors , 2 45 — Rational Numbers and Lowest Terms 8 46 Prime Factorization and Problem Solving B 47 Relationships Between LCMs and GCDs « 0 48° Summary os 5 divisor Problems 91 51 Introduction a 52 Counting Divisors « Bs 53 Divisor Counting Problems a 54% Divisor Products 10 55 Summary 104 6 - speciat Numbers 109 61 Introduction... « ie 62 Some Special Primes ie 63 Factorial, Exponents and Divisbility . ° 64. Perfect, Abundant, and Deficient Numbers ie 65 Palindromes : se 66 Summary as 7 Algebra with Integers ss 74 Introduction a = FyCONTENTS 72 Problems 6.602020 were 125 73. Summary . sghncnidda? 8B Base Numbers Bray 81 Introduction : susaryen ania 307A 82 Counting in Bundles eeea Ik 83 Base Numbers aetarea 8 Be 84 Base Number Digits 5 M8 85 Converting Integers Between Bases “isd 86x Unusual Base Number Problems : 155 87 Summary . 161 9 Base Number Arithmetic 165 9.1 Introduction... avn maastpsihiede ee 92 Base Number Addition += 165 93. Base Number Subtraction = 168 94 Base Number Multiplication 370 95 Base Number Division and Divisbilty «6... see eevee essen ee ee WR 95, Gimmmyeics ices visa coasted mreW es aeacree eae TONS 10 units digits ed 10. Introduction... . SSH RESeTRPo 7 102 Units Digtsin Arithmetic. eraimeveaniasane oT 103 Base Number Units Digits. =... « oe - ~ 184 104 Unit Digits Everywhere! eEnITso LaTrononise Theos aRcrsorase AIRE! 105 Summary... nud uieeibem BbaGatm sania Gsienias ta) 100) 11 Decimals and Fractions 195 11.1 Introduction G01 Leeaeearayrenienns viiceemes emeaien 1S 112 Terminating Decimals «6.6.6 e + Bae 1 195 113. Repeating Decimals... egal essa iis Hsia 201 114 Converting Decimals to Fractions... ++ ais anes 115 Save Numbersand Decimal Bguialens «+--+ seer ese ree eB 116 Summary 0... ees wrasse teceretavsotenvases ted iat? vilCONTENTS — 12 introduction to Modular Arithmetic ay 12.1 Introduction 217 122 Congruence 28 123 Residues. . . ate 124 Addition and Subtraction “ 125 Multiplication and Exponentiation oe 126 Pattems and Exploration + BB 127 Summary 22 13 Divisibility Rates ae 131 Introduction. 227 132 Divisiblity Rules . 247 13.3% Divisibility ne eh gee bee Bs 134 Summary iommidadaand 258 14 Linear congruences 261 14.1 Introduction 261 42 Modul versa Sinpltins Congo: 262 143 Solving Linear Congruences en as 144 Systems of Linear Congruences 2... on 145 Summary . « 278 15 number sense ~ 151 Introduction oa 152. Familiar Factors and Divisibilty J 153. Algebraic Methods of Arithmetic = 154 Useful Forms of Numbers oe 155. Simplicity . en 156 Summary 37 Hints to Selected Problems as Index 3n iw For Cindy Wright and Kay Tipton, two math teachers who gave me problems to solve, Their tireless dedication to their students has always been extracrdinary.{+ Hil ‘Mathematics isthe queen ofthe sciences and number theory i the queen of mathematics. ~ Carl Friedrich Gauss CHAPTER: 1 TT _ _ FY sitar The Basics 1.1. Introduction In this chapter we give names to different kinds of integers so that we can more easily discuss them. We also review relationships between integers, their multiples and thelr divisors, These relationships are testential to nearly every aspect of number theory. We expand on these concepts throughout this book in more and moze complex ways. Definitions: The integers can be divided into three groups: positive integers, negative integers and zero: Figure 1: Integers on the Number Line L238 4 5 bon Positive Integers 0 Zero xl, -2 A 5 Ho ‘Negative Integers [importants A number with atleast one non-zero digit after its decimal point is not Y7__aninteger because we cannot count from zero to that number (orward ‘or backward) 1 unit at atime on the number lin. For instance, 25, -82.21, and m (which is equal to approximately 3.14159) are not integers.SHAPTER INTEGERS THE BASICS [Concept Integers are the numbers that we use to count both forward and backward ‘when counting whole objects such as people, pennies, cars, et. Definitions: Positive integers are often called natural numbers and you should become familiar ‘with that term if you are not already. We also sometimes call positive integers counting numbers ‘because we use them to count objects. Sometimes we refer to whole numbers, which include 0 and all positive integers. Most of the time this book deals with natural numbers, though much of the ‘material also applies to 0 and negative numbers, natural numbers: 1,2,3,4,... ‘counting numbers: 1,2,3,4,... ‘whole numbers: 0,12) OF14L+ 1414141204626 o 5 Se} RE BOY HAHA ‘Figure 12: Counting from 0to.6 ‘We use the positive integers to count upward. If we drop a marble into an empty bag, and then drop ‘Smore marbles in, one at a time, we end up with 6 marbles. The number line above shows us how many ‘marbles are in the bag after we drop each marble i. 6-1-1-1-1-1-1=6-6=0 210123456 So WIV aa 5555 Figure 13: Counting backward from 6 to.0 Similarly, we use the negative integers to count downward. If we stat with bag of 6 marbles, and remove them all one ata time, we count backward to 0, Subtracting 6 marbles is the same as adding ~6 marbles. (Concept: Negative integers describe the backward counting that resulis when sub Qame__tracting objects from a group.1.2. MAKING INTEGERS OUT OF INTEGERS 1.2 Making Integers Out of Integers ‘Weuse integers tocount. In this section we use counting toshow how adding, subtracting, or multiplying 1 group of integers always results in an integer. This fact may seem simple, but the ways in which we use it can get much more interesting and difficult (as we will seein this book’) [Problem 11: Explain why each number below is an integer by explaining what each arithmetic Joperation does to the integers on the number line 2+4 24 2 2+(-4) 2(-4) 2 2-4 2-4 2 2-(-4) 2H) 2 [Problem 12: Le¥s fake a look at the products of some integers with themselves: 1-1 = 1,2-2= 4, land 3-3 =9, Find every integer less than 100 that isthe product of some natural number multiplied by itself (Sidenote: Modern arithmetic evolved from the 14% to the 19% centuries in Europe i} along with modem systems of commerce. Printing technology using movable characters was introduced to Europe around the mid-fifteenth, ‘century, making it easier to communicate and use mathematics. Mathe- satics textbooks from the earlier part of this timespan teach arithmetic as a tool for tallying money and converting units. For instance, it was important for a trader from Holland to know both the weight and money. ‘systems of different nations in order to conduct business. ‘As mathematics, particularly arithmetic, developed in Europe, so did the scale of European economies. Europe grew wealthier following the de-_ ‘pression that followed the devastation of the bubonic plague. Merchants, bankers, and tradespeople led the rise of a middle class, leading Europe cout of the Middle Ages and into the Renaissance. A new class of wealthy ‘business people, such as the Medic family of Florence, Italy, were abe to | employ many of thearlists and architects whose workis famous for thisera. ‘While understanding of mathematics may have surged in Europe along, with financial needs, itsinfluences were clturalas well. Many of the artists land architects were themselves mathematically trained, This shows up both in theie work nd inthe methods behind their productions. Leonanto | da Vinci and Paoli Uccello used mathematical sketch work to help develop any oftheir works ofSPTER INTEGER THE BASICS ‘what each arithmetic Problem 1.1; Explain why each number below is an integer By explaining what loperation does tothe integers on the number line 244 24 24-4) 2-(-4) 2-4 2-4 2-(-4) -2:(-4) 5-43 24426 2+(-4)=-2 2-(-4)=6 ‘The dashed arrows in the last two examples show that we are subtracting the number listed below each arrow. Since addition and subtraction of integers ae just “last counting,” any time we add two integers or subtract one from another, the results an integer. (Concept “Addition and aubmaction of integers ar jst fast Ways t count Forward Qs _ and backward, tral An exper is man oko hs adel estes, ohch ea be made faa very narra fed, pons i a =Niels BohrMAKING INTEGERS QUT OF INTEGERS. ‘Now, let's look at the multiplication problems: POTS S4sa10123s4 so 78s 24 7 2:(-4) = -8 -2(-4)=8 We read 2.4 as 2 “times” 4, meaning that we move 4 units to the right of the origin, then 4 more units, We move 4 units. total of2 times. Likewise, 2 “times” ~4 results in 2 shifts of ~4 We read ~2-4 as -2 “times” 4. We use the dashed arrow to show us that we are reversing 2 shifts of 4 (resulting in 2 shifts to the left ofthe origin). Likewise, ~2 “times” ~4 reverses 2 shifts of ~4 (resulting, in 2 shifts to the right of the origin), (Concept Since Muliplication of integers ust repeated addliion,malpication @=se also fast counting. Now we take a look at the exponential powers of an integer. ‘An integer to a power that is @ whole number produces an 1 integer. This is because whole number exponents are simply P2 = 12 repeated multiplication. Since each of these exponential ex- 2.2 = 2.2 pressions after 2° = 1is simply a product of integers, they all 22 = 42 have integer values. (Concept: Since taking an integer to a power that isa whole number is repeated ‘multiplication of integers, exponentialINTEGERS: THE BASICS CHAPTER 1. INTEGERS: THEBASICS Find every integer less than 100 that is the product of some natural number multiplied. Solution for Problem 1.2: We can make a list ofthe products of natural numbers with themselves: vt pe 1 22 4 33 9 44 6 5-5 35 66 36 77 » 38 4 99 st 10-10 100 ‘As the natural number we use ges larger, so will its product with itself. We don’t need to calculate beyond 10° = 100, The largest perfect square less than 100 is 81: 0 Definitions: «A perfect square (or simply square) isan integer that is equal to some integer.to the second power. Some examples are 0,1, 4,9, 16,25, 36,49, 6,81, and 100. ‘A perfect cube (or simply cube) is an integer that is equal to some integer to the third power. Some examples are 0,1, 8, 27, 64, 125, 216,343, and 512. 216 343 512 P= 15 + A perfect power isan integer that sequal to some integer to power that iat least 2. Perfect squares and perfect cubes are examples of perfect powers. Some others are 2 & = 1296 81 @ wo 1.21. If we subtract one natural number from another, i the result always a natural number? 1.2.2 Is the product of two natural numbers always a natural number? 1.23. Ifwe divide one natural number by another, is the quotient always a natural number? 124 Find all perfect squares between 100 and 200,1.3, INTEGER MULTIPLES 1.3. Integer Multiples Suppose we counted up from 0, but instead of counting every integer, we only counted every fourth integer. Our counting list would look like this: Oise Mans STAT 8 Bs BASSO a BD ce Each number in this list is the result of adding 4 some integer number of times. Ea ~ a 1.3: How many 4’s must we add together to equal each of the following? @) 12 ) 28 ou [Problem 14; Starting at 0, count by 2's up to 50. The first few numbers in the ist are O oes Deve has 6 Bees 10 If you kept counting past 50, which of the following integers would be in the list? @ 2 (©) 101 @ 546 ©) 60 49 @ 73 © 3 (g) 250 881 @_ 100 (hy 34 94 [Problem 15: Draw a 6-row grid with 10 dots in each row. Each time you place a dot, label it with the] next smallest counting number that you haven't already used as follows: osee ee Figure 14: Counting by 10's INow, suppose you continued adding rows to your grid until there were 100 rows. Which of the following integers would label a dota the end ofa row? @ 7 10 @ 40 ) 7 70 ® 79 © 9 @ 19 & 23 (a) 100 th) 331 @ 950 Extral_ | Matlematicss the scevce of what is clear by itself. ~ Carl Jacobi =SPSTEN Teen THESIS Problem 13 How many Ws must we add together to equal each of the following? @ 12 © 2 (©) 44 ‘Solution for Problem 1.3: We ean simply add 4's together until they equal 12, 28, and 44: 12 = 44444 a4 2B = 44hedsdsaraed 74 Mos Aededededtdededeaeatd = 4d ‘We see that 12,28, and 44 are each a product of 4 with an integer because multiplication of integers is just repeated addition ofan integer In fact, we can reverse this process of multiplication using division. We can determine the number (of 4's it takes to make 12, 28, and 44 by dividing 4 into each: 3 7 u apie +(e sa 2 28 4 7 TT a 4 v ‘Once again we see that it takes 3 added 4's to make 12, it takes 7 added 4’s to make 28, and it takes 11 added 4's to make 44. 0 Concept Malipicaton of two integers ithe tame as repented addition of ether Ouvo_ one ofthe integers. [Problem 1a: Starting at 0, count by 2s up (050. The frst few mumbersin the list are (OF 224 6h 6 200) lf you kept counting past 50, which of the following integers will be inthe list? (@) 52 101 @ 546 (by 60 @ 149 @ 73 © 3 ®) 20 () 881 (@ 100 (hy 344 (994 Solution for Problem 1.4: We begin by taking a look atthe first 25 integers in our list after 0: 2 4 6 8 w v2 u 6 1B 20 2 MU 6 8 3% ar a ee ae) 2 4 % 48 50INTEGER MULTIPLES Counting by 2's is the same as adding 2's Each sum ean be expressed as the product together one at a time to determine each ‘of 2 and another integer: next number in our list: 2=2 2a 4 = 242 22 6 = 24242 23 2424242 24 242424242 28 ‘The number of 2's we add together can be any natural number. In other words, we can multiply 2 by any natural number to get a number in our list. Ultimately we are making a list of all the positive leven numbers and excluding the positive odd numbers. In Problem 1.3 we saw that we could divide by 4 to find the number of 4's needed to add up to 12, 28, and 44. Similarly, we can divide each integer by 2 to find the number of 2's that need to be added together to form each integer in this problem. Let’s take a look ata few examples: 6 30 375 2[r 21a 2[5 4 60 6 12 wT 1s 2 4 oO “To 0 Axnumber that appears in our list must be twice some integer. This means that when we divide it by 2, the quotient is an integer. For instance, 52 and 60 appear in our list, but 75 does not. Division also ‘shows us that 100, 250, 344, 546, and 994 appear in the lis, but the rest of the given integers do not. Now that we are done with the solution, do you see a relationship between the integers in our list and their units digits? We will discuss this relationship in great detail ate in the book! © Notice that we could also count backward by 2's to include negative integers: oe Boa he De Oe De hi Oi B We could express each of the numbers in our list as 2 multiplied by another integer: 2-4) = 8 2(-3) 22) = 4 2() = 2 20 = 0 21 = 2 22 = 4 230 = 6 24 = 8 Counting by 2's in both directions, we list every integer that is equal to 2 multiplied by another integer. We call such integers multiples of 2. For instance, ~6, 6,22, and 48 are all multiples of 2: 2-222 and 2-26 =48,CHAPTER 1. INTEGERS: THE BASICS ‘We can also count by 3s to make list of multiples of 3 Bh = ee OD 3-(-1) a 300 = 0 31 02 3 3205 6 33 = 9 OH ‘Here's another look at this list of multiples of 3: ool 6 For any integer n we can list multiples of n: A Bo AD ee eee Dee Mee Bt ae Bit ee A ove For a negative integer n, this lst is in reverse order. For 1 = 0, all the members of the list are 0. Definition: A multiple of an integer is the product of that integer with any integer. [Imporfant: For any integers m and n, their product mit YQ mubpleotn For example, 3:9 = 27, 027 isa multiple of 3 and a multiple of 9. ‘both a multiple of manda [Frobrear Sr WHch of the Tollowing nega are maliples of 07 (@) 70 @ 10 490 &) 2 © 170 @ 79 © 9 @ 12 tk) 823 (@) 100 hy) 33 950 Solution for Problem 1.5: An integer is a multiple of 10 ifits (Of the numbers in thelist above, the multiples of 10 are 70, 100,110, 170, 490, and 980, ‘You might have noticed that the multiples of 10 have unit quotient upon division by 10 is an integer. digits of 0. This fact will be dis in greater detail later in this book. Pethaps you already see why thiss the result of caren ee acess with 10 digits. © ‘using a numbersystem a - r 13 1s22amulilet 132 seamuliple of? 133 Is-Iamulileotr 134 ts2Bamulipleof-19 01.4, DIVISIBILITY OF INTEGERS 135. Find the 10 smallest positive multiples of 7 136 Find the 10 smallest positive multiples of 10. 137 Find the 5 smallest postive multiples of 13 138 Find the 5 largest negative multiples of 13. 1.3.9 Make a list of the first 10 positive multiples of 4 and a list ofthe first 10 positive multiples of 6 Find the smallest positive integer that is a multiple of both 4 and 6. 1.3.10 Find the smallest positive integer that is a multiple of both 4 and 7. 1.4 Divisibility of Integers Ifyouunderstand multiples, you understand divisibility. Divisibility isthe same concept froma different point-of-view. Think about that as you work on the problems in this section. Problem 1 Perform the indicated arthansic and delennine whether or not each of the folowing] values represents an integer w@ ¢ o = ® 3 oF © 2 w 3 @ ¥ @ 343 o = Fo Extral Few mathematicians have shown an ability to recognize relationships and patterns ssteree among integers as Indian mathematician Srinivasa Ramanujan did. British mathe ‘matician G. H. Hardy once came to visit Ramanujan in the hospital. Hardy mentioned that he had ridden in a taxi numbered 1729 and remarked that 1729 was a dull num: ber, Ramanujan disagreed and pointed out that 1729 is the smallest integer that can be expressed as a sum of two positive cubes in two different ways: 1729 =18 +P =10° +9? TTCHAPTER 1. INTEGERS: THE BASICS = = © (a els ols 8! © 7 ‘As we see here, division of one integer by another sometimes results in an integer and sometimes does not. 0 fnition: We ay that an integers divsibleby an integer n when the quotient is an integer. Otherwise, we say that m is not divisible by n. In Problem 1.6 we saw that 5 is not divisible by 2, that 14 is not di by7, and that 3is not divisible by 5. le by 3, that ~40 isnot divisible [Important WeKknow that -n = 0forany integer n,s0 01s maliple of cory integer. Also, # isundefined for any integer n, sono integer i divisible by 0. @1.4, DIVISIBILITY OF INTEGERS ‘We can see some examples of divisiblity in Problem 1.6: j= 2 4s divisible by 2 ge4 12is divisible by 3. = -A5is dvisbleby?. Bea -36iis divisible by 9. ae 20{s avtsbleby 10, ge sisdvbleby Divisibility and multiplicity are relly the same. For instance, 12is a multiple of 3 and 124s divisible bby 3. In general, ifm is divisible by n, then we have the equation where kis an integer. The denominator of the fraction cannot be 0, son # 0. If we multiply both sides of this equation by 1 we see that mi = 1k; showing us that m is a multiple of n Vv When # 0, te statement, “mis divisible by r,” means exaclly the same thing as the statement, “ms a multiple of m.” Let’ takea second lookat the parts of Problem 1.6 where fractions reduce to integers. Each numerator is the product of the denominator and the quotient: 4-22 4 isa multiple of 2 R= 34 12isa multiple of 3, “38 = 7-(-5) ~35is a multiple of 7. 36 = 94-4) 36 is a multiple of 9. 30 = -10-3 ~30 is a multiple of -10. 3534 3s a multiple of 3 3(CHAPTER 1__ INTEGERS: THE BASICS. LAA_Determine which of the following integers are divisible by 6. @ © 3 ® 12 © o © B @ 7 @ 2 198 142 Determine which of the following integers are divisible by 11- @ 1 (©) 3% © 2 © 0 © B (77 @ 20 (hy 198 143. IsSdivisible by2? 14d sSdivisible by 4? 145. 1s 40 divisible by 8? 146 15-44 divisible by 8? 1A7 1360 divisible by 12? 148 Is 100 divisible by 12 1.49 Is 100 divisible by 102 15. Divisors ‘When we say, “12 is a multiple of 3,” we mean that there is an integer that we can multiply by 3 that results in a product of 12. Since 12s divisible by 3, we call 3a divisor of 12, a [Problem 1.7: (@) Show that 12s divisible by each of 1,2,3,4,6,and 12, (b) Show that 12 is a multiple of each of 1,2,3, 4,6,and 12. Problem 18: {(@) Find all natural numbers that are divisors of 6. (b) Find all natural numbers that are divisors of 18. listing all the answers. (2. Explain how we could know that all the answers from (a) must also be answers to (6) wit %1,5, DIVISORS [[Definition: When an integer n is divisible by another integer d, we say that dis a divisor of n, | Divisors are also known as factors. lImportant: Negative integers can be divisors f00! One of the divisors of 6 is -2 because : which is an integer. teers), but it i In introductory number theory, we usually talk about natural numbers (positive important to understand that most number theory concepts apply to all integers. (Problem 17: (@) Show that 12 is divisible by each of 1, 2,3, 4, 6,and 12. (©) Show that 12 is a multiple ofeach of 1,2,3,4,6,and 12 ‘Solution for Problem 1.7: The wo parts ofthe problem are the same, so we solve them both at once. Fist, soxporinen diehton es onamer ie pablo oe ea: 2 2 B 2 2 7 2 3 é B Since each fraction reduces to an integer, 12s divisible by each of 1,2,3,4, 6, and 12. This isthe same de saying that 1 2 3-4,6,and 12 ae divisor of 12: 2-1 1226-20 =4-3 B= 4 12=2-6 9 2= 2 a When san integer we can ily atineger yo produce This eas that when dina drvon of nls nmap ofd. Ukewse, when nis multiple of dis a divisor of m Important’ When d ¢ 0, the following statements all mean the same thing: YD @ risamutpleota (b) mis divisible by 4 (0. disa divisor of. (d)_ddivides n. Important’ Foran integer n we know that mend, ‘This means that any integer other than 0s a divisor of itself. 5CHAPTER 1. INTEGERS: THE BASICS. Definition: A proper divisor of an integer nis positive divisor of n other than n itself, For instance, 1,2,3, 4, and 6 are proper divisors of 12, but 12s not a proper divisor of 12. Some integers have only a few divisors while some have many. For instance, 60 has 12 positive divisors (and 12 negative divisors), but 82 has only 4 positive divisors (and 4 negative divisors). nt, ie [importants An interesting and sometimes useful facts that every integer other than V7 dis acivisorof0, We know thisis tru because for any integer # 0 S20. ” ‘The quotient is always 0, which is an integer, s0 is a divisor of 0. [Important: Since there are no multiples of a positive integer n between O and n, we know that n cannot be a divisor of any integer between O and n. This ‘means that when hunting for the positive proper divisors of a positive integer m, we must only test the integers between 0 and m. For instance, ‘we need not test to see whether 36 isa divisor of 14 because “4 oc gc, ‘meaning 14/36 is not an integer and 14 is not divisible by 36. Testing the integers 1 through 14, we find that 1, 2,7, and 14 are all the positive divisors of 14 Problem 18: a (a) Find all the positive divisors of 6. (b) Find all the positive divisors of 18. (©) Explain how we could know that any divisor of 6 must be a divisor of 18 without listing all of their divisors. Solution for Problem: L8: The positive divisors of6 are 1, 2,3, and 6, The positive divisors of 18 are 1,2, 3, 6,9, and 18. Wie se that each divisor of 6 is also a divisor of 18, Let's examine how 6 and 18 are related: 18 P=3 0 3-628 We now see that 6 is a divisor of 18 and that each divisor of 6is a divisor of 18. For ins divisor of 6 and also of 18 tance, 2is a Might it always be true for natural numbers a, b, and c that when a is a divisor of b and bis adi of e, then a is a divisor of ? TF1.5. DIVISORS We are examining three different statements and we want to see ifthe first two together always make the third one true. Let’s take a look at what each means: “ais a divisor of," means “>is an integer” “bis adivisor ofc,” means “5 isan integer.” “ais a divisor ofc,” means “< is an integer.” If the first two of these statements make the third one true, then there must bea relationship between the statements. It turns out that the product of the first two fractions equals the third: Since § and § are both integers, their product § must also be an integer! Since § isan integer divisor ofc ‘The resull is that when we identify 6 asa divisor of 18, we know that any divisor of 6 must also be a divisor of 18. 0 . We can also think of Problem 1.8 (in terms of relationships between multiples. If bis a multiple ofa and cis a multiple of then cis a multiple of, For instance since 18s a multiple of 6, and 6s @ multiple of 3, we know that 18 is a multiple of 3. W=3-6 6=2-3 18=(-2)-3 bb bem c= (mma Problem 1.8 (c) was just one situation where a In general, when ¢ is a multiple of b, we know that m is an integer. When b is a multiple of a, we iknow that mis an integer. Since m and n are both integers, their product mm is an integer. Since c equals the product of a and an integer is a multiple of a. b= 6,and c= 18. important! The following statements all mean the same thing. More importantly, V7 understandng them wil help us solve many number theory problems. « Ifaisa divisor of band bis a divisor of c then a is a divisor ofc. «© Ifbis divisible by a and c is divisible by b, then c is divisible by a. a Tb is amultiple of a and cis a multiple of & then c is a multiple ofa. lin mathematics to soe the same facts expressed in mulple “helps us understand ideas better and apply them to a wider Reta Quito 7CHAPTER 1. INTEGES THE BASICS Ra 1.8.1 List all ofthe positive divisors of each of the following integers. @) 4 (a) 10 @ 16 @ 20 o) 7 () 13 (h) 16 (k) 21 © 8 ou @ 9 Qa 1.6 Using Divisors Now that we have covered the basics of divisors and divisibility, we begin to take a closer look into how these concepts are useful [Problem 1: Take a look at the following problems ‘There are 21 people at a party and 63 cupcakes. Can all the cupcakes be passed out such that each} [Partygoer receives the same number of cupcakes? (2) Rewrite this problem using the word “divisor.” (b)_Answer the question by solving the divisor problem you come up with for part (a). [Problem 1.10: Take 30 toothpicks and make a single pile out of them. Because you can make 1 pile }of30 toothpicks, 1 is a divisor of 30. From the 30 toothpicks you can also make 2 ples with an eq ua number of toothpicks in each ple. This means that 2s also a divisor of 30. Determine the positive livisors of 30 by finding all the different integers that can be the number of equally sized piles that| contain a total of 30 toothpicks. How are divisors useful to us? Divisors help us understand relationships between integers. Take a look atthe following example: [Problem 1.9: There are 21 people a pariy and 63 cupcakes. Can all the cupeakes be passed out such that each partygoer receives the same number of cupcakes? | Solution for Problem 1.9: In order to answer a question like this one we must first determine what the problem is asking. The problem is asking whether or rot 63 objets ca be divided into 21 equal groupe, Ts isthe same as asking i 69/21 is an integer. Finally, we can rewrite the problem asa divisor frocleme Is21 a divisor of 632 Be sure you understand why this question is asking the same thing asthe cupeake problem Tne answer to the cupeake question is ys, we can pass out all the cupcakes such tha each person ges the same numberof them (without breaking up individual cupcakes). Since 63/21 =, whi non w1.8. USING DIVISORS Integer, we know that 63 is divisible by 21 and also that 21 isa divisor of 63. Each person at the party ‘gets 3 cupcakes. 0. Its important to understand how problems suchas Problem 1.9 can be translated into the language of ‘mathematics so that we can use mathematics to solve problems we encounter in life. While Problem 1.9 is a relatively simple example of such area life problem, the process of recognizing the mathematics behind stich examples isa key to learning how to explore more challenging and more interesting real life problems. (Concept: Begin working word problems by translating them into the language of| (@=ss __ math. This allows you to apply mathematical tools to the problem. Problem 1.10: Take 30 toothpicks and make a single pile out of them. Because you can make 1 pile .0f30 toothpicks, 1 isa divisor of 30. From the 30 toothpicks you can also make 2 piles with an equal ;number of toothpicks in each pile. This means that 2 is also a divisor of 30. Find all the different integers that can be the number of equal piles of toothpicks out ofthe original 30. Solution for Problem 1.10: We begin by translating this problem into the language of mathematics. The {0a is to find possible numbers of groups containing equal numbers of toothpicks where the total in all the groups is 30. In other words, we are ooking forthe postive divisors of 30. Now that we have tumed this word problem into a math problem, we hunt for the positive divisors of 30. We can test 30 for divisibility by al the positive integers from 1 to 30. The division is left to the reader. The positive divisors of 30 are 1, 2, 3, 5,6, 10, 15, and 30. If you found other answers or did not find all of these, itis a good idea to check your work to see where you made a mistake. Of course, checking your work is easiest when you have organized your work! © a ~ 1.6.1 A grocer puts 18 apples in n bags such that each bag contains the same number of apples. If there is more than one apple in each bag and fewer than 18, what are the possible values of n? 1.6.2. The 120 teachers in your school district are having a meeting at which they are to be separated into equal-sized groups having at least three but no more than 12to group. How many different group sizes are possible? (Source: MATHCOUNTS) [Extrat [pert through hard work, ~ Jaime Escalante 3SHAPTER 1, INTEGERS: THE BASICS 1.7. Mathematical Symbols ‘Concept’ One of the goals of mathematics is tosimplify difficult ideas so that we can) lunderstand and use them more easily. ‘Wie use symbols to help us more easily express mathematical calculations and ideas. For instance, instead of writing, “the sum of 4 and 8is 12," we write, 4+ 8 = 12.” Similarly, when we say that a number ms a divisor of another number , we can write that as m {1 This notation will be used often throughout this book. For example, instead of saying, “6 i a divisor of 18," we will simply write “6118.” ‘We could also say that mis nota dlvisor of by writing m fn. For instance, we can write, "7s nota divisor of25° more simply a8 °7 £25." Imagine how much you would have to write to explain some arithmetic problems in words! For instance, . 1 was takes alot longer to write using only words: “Eighteen to the third power divided by the three to the sixth power equals eight.” ‘The advantage of symbolic math only gets greater as the problems become more complex. When ‘you've read through a few chapters in this book, imagine how difficult it would be to explain some of the problems without using mathematical symbols. In Section 1.5, we noted the following: “If bis divisible by a and cis divisible by , then cis divisible by a.” We rewrite this more compactly “Ifa band bc, thera |e.” 1.7. Show whether each of the following statements is true or false. @) 4118 (@) 349 (“515 ©) 9/3 (5414 ® 1812 (©) 7149 () 3184 (9184 (@) 4/12 () 12172 @ 417 LL SSS ee "steal We Hae fo recent the wheel every once ina while, not because we need a ak Of oheclsy bud er because ive need aot of iventors ~ Bruce Joyce 201.8 Summary In Chapter 1 we took look at integers and their basic properties. Hopefully you are already getting an idea of how rich the study of integers can be and how knowing the properties of integers can help us solve many problems. As you learn more about number theory, the complexity of problems that you can solve using number theory should grow, and the types of problems should become more interesting (and their solutions more valuable). Let's review the basic vocabulary we use when discussing integers: Definitions: + Natural numbers, counting numbers, and positive integers all refer to the integers on the Positive side of zero (0) on the number line ‘+ Negative integers refer tothe integers tothe left of zero (0) on the number line + The whole numbers are the integers that are either 0 or positive. + A perfect square isan integer that is equal to some integer to the second power. + A perfect cube is an integer that is equal to some integer tothe third power. «© A perfect power is an integer that is equal to some integer to a power that is at least 2. Perfect ‘squares and perfect cubes are examples of perfect powers © A.multiple of an integer is the product of that integer with any integer. + An integer m is divisible by another integer when the quotient ™ is also an integer. # An integer d is a divisor of an integer 1 if and only if m is divisible by d. Divisors are also known as factors. ‘* A proper divisor of an integer 1 is a positive divisor of u that is not m. [Important For any integers mand n, thelr product nin is both a muliple of mand] Y__ ruspleotn. [importants When d=, the following statement all mean the same thingy) VY © nisamutipte or (&) nisdivisibleby d. | (9) disa divisor of n. a (@) ddivides n. aCHAPTER 1. INTEGERS: THE BASICS —————_——— Lets taka look be at some ofthe most important facts and concepts from Chapter I: [Concepts Integers are the numbers we use for counting indivisible objects such as Gems prot pres clone, Vivon tn of negative integers asthe ones We ‘use to count backward when subtracting objects from a group. A number) tvtht lest ne nena digit fee cial point isnot a integer ‘because we cannot count to that number (forward or backward) 1 unit at) cn thenabe Le, Integers on the Number Line ‘Viewing the integers in terms of counting on the number line helps us understand how arithmetic relates integers Concept: Addition and subtraction are fast counting, Multiplication is fast addition Exponentiation is fast multiplication. This means that addition, subtrac- | tion, and multiplication of integers are just methods of fast counting and, is undefined) is also fast counting. that taking an integer to a power that isa whole number (except 0°, which i This understanding of arithmetic as fast counting helps us recognize fundamental relationships between integers: Canaspe Ths alloving Wena aval ean nan he Bane NG «Matsa divisor fb and isa dvcr of then aia. divisor of. «bis divisleby and cis dvishe by hen cs divisible by 0. + Ifblsa multiple ofe ae cis amutiplof then cis amuliple of] (Q==S _ iifferent ways. This can both help us understand idess better and apply them toa greater number af problems, # Hal band dlc, thena lc. [Concept Tks often helpful in mathematics to see the same facts expressed in Bo) Wealso got taste of number theory word problems that help us understand how to apply’ we lea to real problems. @=we _tnath, Thisallows you to apply the tools of math to solve the problem. the math [Goncept Begin working word problems by Wanslating Wem fo the anguage ae |REVIEW PROBLEMS. ———.- $$ aaa Bi PROBLEMS, Mathematics helps us to be practical problem solvers! Learning to tum word problems into math Problems allows us to connect the math we know with the world in which we live. Itis also true that we ‘use words to teach and lean mathematics, so learning how to translate between words and mathematics ‘makes learning mathematics easier. (Concept: One of the goals of mathematics is to simplify difficult ideas o that we ean| @=es_ understand and use them more easly. We often use notation in statements such as 4+3 = 7 and 7 | 42 to represent ideas or facts that take longer to explain with words. Once we are comfortable with these notations it becomes easier to ‘organize and express our thoughts about mathematical ideas. This also makes it easier to learn more and more complex mathematics. 1.11. Find all the perfect squares between 200 and 300. 1.12 Answer each of the following. (@) 1584 divisible by 3? () 1584 divisible by 142 (©) 15193 divisible by 177 (4) 1s 1080 divisible by 182 (©) 1593. multiple of -2? (1593.0 multiple of 37 () 15-140 multiple of 7? (h) 15 142 multiple of 77 (1530 multiple of 7 (15300. multiple of 4? 143 List the 8 smallest positive multiples of 9. 1114 Find al ofthe positive divisors of each ofthe following integers. (a) 25 © 7 &) 26 (@) 28 1.15 State whether each of the following are true or false. fa) 3173 © 4t182 (@) 6|1182 (&) 31273 (@) 411182 (1442186 EyCHAPTER 1. INTEGERS: THE BASICS oo, JES > 1.16 Lucius, Sarah, Brandon, and Scott take Algebra together. On their first exam, Lucius got a 94, Sarah got a91, Brandon got a 95, and Scotts score was between 81 and 87 inclusive. If the average ofall four of their scores is an integer, what was Scott’s score on the first exam? 1117 Find all the perfect cubes between 1000 and 2000, Hints: 146 1.18 Whats the largest integer whose cube is less than 10,000? (Source: MATHCOUNTS) Hints: 41 1.19 How many integers between 1 and 100 ate perfect powers? 1.20 How many integers 1-9 are divisors ofthe five-digit number 24,516? (Source: MATHCOUNTS) 221 Is 11111 divisible by 417 1.22 Is 11111 divisibleby 377 123. Find the smallest natural number thats not ad 1 oF 5040, 1.24 The diameter ofa citcle is @ whole number. The area of the circle is between 100 and 120 square ‘units, What is the number of units in the circle’s diameter? (Source: MATHCOUNTS) Hints: 116 TExtral_ No matter how one may think himself accomplished, zen Re sts out Yo Toa ew 7 sma science, or the bicycle, he has entered anew rea as truly as ihe were child newly born into the world, ~ Frances Willard, How I Learned o Ride the BicycleDIDI! by ‘Mathematicians ave tried in vain to this day fo discover some order in the sequence of prime numbers, and we Ine reason to believe that it fsa mystery into wick the human mind will never penetrate. ~ Leonhard Euler CHAPTER 2 brie and Composites 2.1 Introduction ‘There is a very special group of integers known as prime numbers. Prime numbers provide us with fascinating and practical ways to solve a wide variety of number theory problems, many of which we examine in this book. As we shall see, prime numbers allow us to express integers in unique ways and organize their useful properties. We could barely begin to scratch the surface of number theory without an understanding of prime numbers. While discussing primes, we also identify composite numbers, which make up most of the rest of the natural numbers. 22 Primes and Composites =z > Problem 2: Which ofthe following integers have no positive divisors besides 1 and themselves? @ 2 @ 6 ® 10 © 3 © 7 @ 1 © 4 ® 8 ® 2 @ 5 9 o 3 Recall that 1 is a divisor of every natural number and that every natural number is a divisor of itself. wCHAPTER 2. PRIMES AND COMPOSITES This means that every natural number greater than 1 has at east two positive divisors. Definition: A prime number (or simply prime) is a natural number p > 1 whose only rr visors are 1 and p clusive are Thich ofthe integers from 2 to 13 Solution for Problem 2.1: We can determine whether oF nota natural number 1 (that is greater than 1) is prime by testing to see whether any integer between 1 and mis a divisor of . If m has no divisors between I and itself then Land are its only two postive divisors, meaning m is prime. (@) There are no integers between 1 and 2, 802s prime. ©) 2isnota divisor of, s03is prime (©) 2isadivisor of 4 s04is not prime. (2) None of 2,3, oF 4 are divisors of 5, so is prime. (©) 2isa divisor of 6, s06 snot prime None of 2, 3, 4,5, or 6 are divisors of 7, so 7 is prime. (g) 2isa divisor of 8, s0 8 is not prime. () Bisa divisor of9, $09 is not prime @ 2isa divisor of 10,:0 10s not prime @ None of2,3,4.5, 6,7,8,9, oF 10 are divisors of 11,5011 i prime. (8) 2isa divisor of 12, s0 12s not prime. (None of2,3,4,5, 6,7, 8,9, 10, 11, of are divisors of 13,5013 is prime. ‘Wesee that 2, 3,5,7, 11, and 13 are all the prime numbers from 2to 13 inclusive. Notice that in some cases we did not list all the divisors of each integer that proved not tobe prime. ‘Our goal was only to determine whether or not there were any divisors other than 1 and the integer itself. 0 Definition: A composite number (or simply composite is a natural number with some positive divisor besides 1 and citself. In Problem 2.1 we saw that each of 4,6, 8,9, 10, nd 12 are composite numbers because each of them hhas atleast one positive divisor other than 1 and themselves: Notice that each composite number has a divisor between 1 and itself. This enables us to express ‘any composite number as a product of two (not necessarily different) divisors that are both between 1 and the composite number itself. 282.2. PRIMES AND COMPOSITES Important’ A composite number © can be written as the product of wo natural v numbers that are both between 1 and itself: ab, Where a and b are (not necessarily distinc) divisors of the composite number ‘Some other examples of composites include 14, 15, 16, and 18. Each of these numbers is composite bbecause each can be expressed as the product of two integers (divisors) greater than 1. For instance, 5. M=2-7) and I [importants 1 is the only natural number that is neither prime nor composite. Tt Y__bwsonly one positive divisor—itel, This is one reason why 1 isa very special number. Em ~ 2.2.1. State whether each of the following integers is prime or composite. @ 19 @ 23 ow ) 20 2 Q 8 © 2 &®) 2 w® 29 @ 2 hy 26 a 30 22.2 How many even natural numbers are prime? 2.2.3. Jon teaches a fourth grade class at an elementary school where class sizes are always atleast 20 students and at most 28. One day Jon decides that he wants to arrange the students in their desks in a rectangular grid with no gaps. Unfortunately for Jon he discovers that doing so could only result in one straight line of desks. How many students does Jon have in his class? 224 Explain why every positive multiple of a composite number is also composite. Johann Wolfgang Von Goethe ‘Extra Moiritains cannot be surmounted except by winding paths. essHAPTER 2. PRIMES AND COMPOSITES 2.3 Identifying Primes I E> - Froblem 22: Spe ence 9 10 nu 2 2B 4 1 16 7 18 19 2 2 2 2B 2 2 % 2 2B 29 30 31 32 33 34 3536-37 383940 41 42 43 44 45 «46 «47 «484950 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 5B 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 9 89 1 2 7 74 7 7% 7 78 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 8B 90 91 92 93 94 95 9 97 98 99 100 Follow the instructions and the grid above will reveal information about the integers. 1, Circle the number 2. 2. Cross out all of the multiples of 2 that are greater than 2 43, Circle the smallest number that is neither circled nor crossed out. 4. Cross out al of the multiples of the integer you circled in step 3 that have not already been| crossed out. 5, Repeat steps 3 and 4 until all ofthe numbers on the grid ate either circled or crossed out. What have we determined about each integer in the grid? TExtral) The face ofthe water, in time, becaie n wonderfil book =a Ok hal ums a dead Ses a ae ara cherished seeretsas clearly as ifit uttered them with voice, And i was not « book tobe red once fad throu aside, for it hata ret story to el every day. ~ Mark Twain, Life n the Mississippi2.3, IDENTIFYING PRIMES | Fane ‘What did you determine while circling and crossing out numbers in the grid on the last a | Solution for Problem 2.2: psas e789 0 a ee) AR BMS eT BM ‘Much of our study of divisibility and divisors 3! 32-33 4 35 35 7 38 #40 revolvesaroundprimes. Inthedagramtothe 1 @ © 4 6 & @ @ 8 9 right we begin with the integers greaterthan 5, 32 9 st S67 38 3% © 1 upto 100. asus ecaen Annan wena no ne eus Kom Bw ee @r:ese7ra5w nn wos 7 om azeas x7 a» » ‘The smallest natural number in this list s2, 9 2 MM 35 4 7 Ww Since 2 has no divisors between Land itself 9 @ 8 4 6 Ko 8 HH Chow could), 2 he smallest prime, We os sk KT Ow ARBDA BRT ADB ed ee ee) Next we take alook at multiples of2 greater = @ 3X 3X7 Xs M then 2 Each of these multiplesof2has2asa 0 Xu X BX vw > divisor, so each is composite. Now we cross. 21 Mo MS M7 MH Gutesch ofthese composite multiples f2: 51 os Mo MMH OM bf = & ox oX 6X eK OM ae SOM SK TM OM eee aK OM EK OM OH oe = i ax DKK THM : ak SM EM TK OM - 1K 3 MS MT MOGHAPTER 2 PRIMES AND COMPOSTES @@xsxrxx™ nee XK MO XK EM KM DM Now we see that 3 mustbe prime. Itisnota » ™ x x © % 7 X MM mulipleol2andsoithasnodivsonbetween 0 X © XM Mo X 0M itsell. We eile 3 and cross out all of 5 2M AMD KKK 7 HMM KK EK EM KM OM aK MK OH DO @@x@x7 xxx nx Dx KM MOM We skipped 5 so itis amultiple ofneither2 XX 2 XM XX» > nor 3. Itcould not be a multiple of forelse st XM XM 7 MH it would also bea multiple of 2. Sine Shas 1 eo MX KX 7 MBM divisors between 1 and itself, itis the next nods terested tened XY 3 HC XXX 9 all ofthe composite multiples of5. CRKK RK MK AH DK MK TH HM XK OK KK 1 MOM or EO @@Ox@x@xxx XB eK 7 9 E XK BM MMR HM OM , aK MM X KKK 1 primeis7, sowe cross out49,77,and ila HRP RK 7 that have not been crossed out previously. X % 9 XX KX Mo OM MM KOM nH DKK KKM OM KM DM MK KM OK HEC oF OC DO2.4. IDENTIFYING PRIMES II We continue this process untilwermoutof _ QQ x @xX © xX x x ‘numbers in our list. Eventually each one ot @ X @) X XX @ X@ x them is either circled or crossed out. The X X @) XX X X X ©) X circled numbers are prime numbersand the G) x x % XX ©) XX SovintmabescnpenmI OS ee Ne MM ‘This process works because it tests ose each integer is the multiple of some integer between? X X @ XM XX X@X cand itself. QR KK KOM HX @x@xxxxx@x Xx O@X KX XOX KD HK v0 We can perform this process with larger lists of integers starting from 2. In this way we identify which integers in the list are prime and which are composite. This process is known as the Sieve of Eratosthenes after the Greek mathematician Eratosthenes who devised the algorithm in about 230 BC. a [Concept Keep in mind that tis farmore important to understand how the processof] | the Sieve works than to remember (or even spell!) Eratosthenes. Identify-| ingand decrbing prime nunbesare very ipporantinimathemats We| willleam hove touse primes ohelp solve all kinds of interesting problems whether or not we remember the names of ancient Greek mathematicians. [Sidenoter A sievelsa utensil ofwiremesh or closely perforated metal used to separate] dlifferent kinds of matter. Smaller material passes through the holes while | larger material is stopped by the sieve. This silting device lends its name to the Sieve of Eratosthenes, which sifts through the integers, sorting out the primes and composites. | 234 Identify the primes between 100 and 200 by extending the Sieve of Eratosthenes that we have already begun above. 23.2 Whats the largest prime number less than 200, none of whose digits are composite? 24 Identifying Primes II ‘The Sieve of Eratosthenes helps us determine which natural numbers ina list are prime. Still, we might be able to find an even quicker method! We all like it when math gets easier, so it’s worth looking for sich, amethod. aTCHAPTER 2. PRIMES AND COMPOSITES =a >> Probie 2 (@) Find the smales prime divisor 09 (®) Find the smallest prime divisor of 15. (©) Find the smallest prime divisor of 16. (@) Find the smallest prime divisor of. (©) Find the smallest prime divsar of 5 (0) Find the smallest prime divisor of. (g)_Find the smallest prime divisor of 91. Probiem 2a: (@) Find the smallest composite number not divisible by 2 (6) Find the smallest composite number divisible by neither 2 nor 3 (Q. Find the smallest composite number nt divisible by any of2,3, or 5 (@ Fora prime number pind the smallest composite number that has no prime divisor ess than p. [Problem 2.5: When determining whether or nota natural number is prime, is it necessary to test for visibly by every integer between 1 and the natural number itself” Explain your answer. sees Harvard University undergraduate Will Nygard helped write the solutions manual for this textbook. When looking for primes within a particular range of integers, he likes Se en ey oe ee a multiple of 2, 3, 5, and 7. Counting upwards and downwards from 420 by 2's, he identifies other composite multiples of 2: Counting upwards and downwards by 3's, he identifies other composite multiples of 3: oe AM AA 66, AIT oo ADD 0. ABB... 426 6. 429 Counting upwards and downwards by 5's, he identifies other composite multiples of 5: 405... 410 AIS. ADD... 5... 430... 438 ‘Counting upwards and downwards by 7's, he identifies other composite multiples of 7: 22 399 M06 oo TB 6. AO AO BM AAD From these (extended) ists, Nygard determines that all ofthe integers from 410 to 420 are composite except possibly 419 and 421. This cuts down on a lot of work. If you don't yet see why this works, keep reading and think about it again later, 22.4, IDENTIFYING PRIMES II (@) Find the smallest prime divisor of 9. () Find the smallest prime divisor of 15. (©) Find the smallest prime divisor of 16 (@) Find the smallest prime divisor of 25. (©) Find the smallest prime divisor of 35, (9. Find the smallest prime divisor 0f 49, (@)_Find the smallest prime divisor of 91. e number as Solution for Problem 2.3: When using the Sieve of Eratoathenes, we cross out each compos 5000 as we identify its a multiple of some prime. In other wonds, we eross out each composite when we identify its smalfes prime divisor. When a composite multiple ofa prime phay an even smaller prime divisor, the composite number is already crossed out by the time we identify paw a prime and cross out multiples of p. @ 9 In Problem 2.2, we found that 9 and 15 are componite when @) 15 ‘we identified 3 a8 a prime and crossed offal its larger multiples. © 16 We found that 16 was composite when we crossed off multiples @ 2 of the smallest prime, 2. When we identified 5 a8 a prime, © 3 we crossed off 25 and 35. Finally, we identified 7 a8 prime and crossed both 49 and 91 off thelist of possible primes. The smallest positive prime divisors are bolded at ett ‘Important: When performing the Sieve of Eratosthenes, we cross oui each composite] Y_rumberwhile crossing ouallthemolipls ofits mallet prime divisor, composite number that has no prime divisors Solution for Problem 2.4: We begin by taking a look at a few examples. We do this by looking back through the process of the Sieve of Eratosthenes from Section 2.3. We identified 2 as prime and then crossed out al its composite multiples. In doing so, we discovered that the smallest composite natural number is 4. We then identified 3 as prime, The first composite multiple of 3 we then crossed out was 9, This ‘means that 9is the smallest composite number that has no prime divisor smaller than 3. Next, we identified 5 as prime. The smallest composite multiple of 5 we then crossed out was 25. ‘This means 25 is the smallest composite number that has no prime divisor smaller than 5, ‘Wealso identified 7 as prime, The smallest composite multiple of 7 we then crossed out was 49. This ‘means 49 is the smallest composite number that has no prime divisor smaller than 7. Have we noticed anything?CHAPTER2 PRIMES AND COMPOSITES [Concepts When faced witha challenging problem, play around with simple exam] | ples. ‘They often provide clues that help us discover the solution to the Whole problem. 2 4 3 9 5 3 7 » Teappears that the smallest composite number that has no prime divisors less than piss. Now we think about whether or not this apparent pattern works for all primes. In order to answer this question, we think about what makes composites different from primes. Every composite (such as p?) can be expressed as the product of two (not necessarily different) divisors, both of which are between 1 and itself such as pp). Ifa composite number ¢ has a divisor that is less than p, then i has some prime divisor q where 2.3. Find the remainder when the sum of the six smallest primes is divided by the seventh, 214s The number 13s prime. If you reverse the digits you also tin a prime number, 31. What is the larger of the pair of primes that satisfies this condition and has a sum of 110 (Source: MATHCOUNTS) Hints: 86 2.15 Whatis the smallest prime divisor of 5 +77? 2:16 A group of 25 pennies s arrange into thre ples such that each pile contains a diferent prime ‘number of pennies. What is the greatest number of pennies possible in any of the three piles? (Source: MATHCOUNTS) Hints: 120 2.174 A two-digit prime number is randomly selected. What is the probability that its digits sum to 9 (Source: MATHCOUNTS) 2184 Is 9409 prime? Hints: 52 2.19% What are the 5 smallest prime numbers greater than 1000? Hints: 102, 2.20% What is the frst year in the twenty-first century that is a prime number? (Gource: MATHCOUNTS) Hints: 20, (Sidenote: Primes in Arithmetic Progression Qh Thereare instances of three or more prime numbers that form an arithmetic progression. Here are afew examples (each progression goes from left to| hi sight): fe 2 B, 19 19, 31, 43 13, 43, 73, 103, 5M, 17, B, 29 Theresa 10-term arithmetic progression of primes starting with 199 whose common difference is 210. Many other such arithmetic sequences can| bbe found among the primes. Mathematicians using computers found a| sequence of 10 consecutive primes in arithmetic progression. Each of those] primes is $3 digits long! At the time of the printing ofthis book (May 2008), the longest known arithmetic progression of primes includes 25 primes— the smallest prime in the sequence is 6171054912832631, Jn 2004, mathematicians Ben Green and Terence ‘Tao proved that there ‘exist arithmetic sequences of primes of arbitrary length. However, thei Proof is nonconstructive: Green and Tao proved that such sequences of primes exist, but their proof doesn’t say how to find them.: =-Aan Cit-ARs AR ik ene ilg i we-C HS CHAPTER, 3 oF] Multiples and Divisors 3.1 Introduction We have already discussed multiples and divisors and learned how to use them to identify prime and composite numbers. In this chapter we continue to explore the many relationships between integers, their multiples, and their divisors. 3.2. Common Divisors Problem 34: (@) Find all of the positive divisors of 20, (b) Find all ofthe positive divisors of 30. (©) Which positive integers are divisors of both 20 and 30? [Problem 52: Mike has 24 red balls and 36 green balls that he places into several boxes, Each box contains the same number of balls and there are at least 2 bas in each box. If all the balls in any box| are the same color, what are the possible numbers of balls in each box? Definition: A divisor of every integer in a group is a common divisor of those integers. 3S