Review Booklet Grade 6 Semester 2

Written and Edited by Leo Wang 6A

Copywrite Leo Wang 2023 版权所有

A historian is someone who researches and writes about past events and people. They
investigate how people lived, what happened to them, and the events that occurred around
them. Historians search for the reasons behind events and study the facts. They use calendars
to measure time, with the Gregorian calendar being the most widely used today. It was first
introduced in 1582. Historians also use the dating of events to measure time. In the western
calendar, the years before Jesus' birth are referred to as BC or BCE, while the years after his
birth are AD or CE.

Historians divide history into blocks of time known as periods or eras. A decade is 10
years, while a century is 100 years. Prehistory refers to the time before writing was
developed, around 5000 years ago. The next thousand years are known as the Middle Ages,
while modern history begins in 1500.

A timeline is a diagram that shows the order of events within a period of time. It helps
historians focus on chronology, or the sequence of dates in which events occurred.

Archaeologists are scientists who excavate remains from the past. They dig for human and
animal bones, seeds, trees, pottery, tools, weapons, mounds, pits and canals. They gather data
through surveys on foot and by mapping locations. They also use tools such as photographs
from airplanes or satellites to gather evidence.

Primary sources are first-hand accounts from people who experienced or witnessed an
event. Examples include letters, diaries and official records. Secondary sources are created
after an event by people who did not participate in it and are often based on primary sources.
Examples include biographies, encyclopedias and history books.

Historians analyze primary and secondary sources to determine when and where they were
created and why they were created. They also examine sources for credibility and bias.

Historical events are linked by cause and effect. A cause is what makes an event happen
while an effect is what happens as a result of a cause. Historians look for these links to
explain why events happened.

In Chapter One: Tools of Discovery, archaeologists search for evidence buried in the
ground where settlements may have once existed. They excavate artifacts and fossils.
Anthropologists study human society and how humans developed and relate to one another.

The earliest period of human history is known as the Stone Age. The first part of this
period is called the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age which began around 2.5 million years ago
and lasted until around 5000 BC. Paleolithic people were the first to use technology but there
were no railways, farms or villages during this time.

Early humans spent most of their time searching for food by hunting animals, catching
fish, eating insects and gathering nuts, berries and grains from plants. Because they were
hunters and gatherers, Paleolithic people were always on the move and were known as
nomads.

They traveled in bands of 30 or more people because it was safer and easier to find food
this way. Women stayed close to the campsite while men hunted animals and made tools for
killing them.

The Paleolithic people made a life-changing discovery when they learned to tame fire. This
was a significant advancement because fire provided warmth, light in the darkness, and
protection from wild animals. Fire also allowed them to cook food and was started by rubbing
two pieces of wood together.

The last Ice Age began around 100,000 BC and the weather was dangerous. People risked
their lives from the cold and hunger but the invention of fire helped them stay warm and
survive.

Another advancement during Paleolithic times was the development of spoken language
which made it easier for people to work together and share knowledge. Early humans likely
created all types of art except written art. They painted in caves and sculpted using bone or
rock.

The change that occurred during the Neolithic Age is known as the Agricultural Revolution
and is considered one of the most important events in human history. After the last Ice Age,
people began to domesticate animals and plants for their own use. Animals provided meat,
milk, wool and transportation while people learned how to grow food which allowed them to
settle in one place.

Gradually, farming replaced hunting and gathering which marked the beginning of the
Neolithic Age or New Stone Age. It lasted until around 4000 BC. The pros of this age
included being able to stay in one place, feeding more people with a steady food supply and
better technology. The cons included less variety in their diets with more grains and less meat
being consumed.

Catal Huyuk was a settlement in Turkey where all the houses were built next to each other
with no roads. Transit between buildings was via the roof and there were small courtyards for
housing animals. Roofs were staggered to allow light in through windows.

Each house had an average size of 25 square meters or 250 square feet and was made from
dried mud. The typical house had a central living area with a smaller storeroom at one end
and a hearth for cooking and heating against one wall. Over time, as some houses fell apart,
their materials were reused to build new structures.

Windows were located in the upper section of walls while openings in the ceiling on the
south side of buildings served as entrances and exits accessible by ladder. These openings
also released smoke from the hearth.

Catal Huyuk is located approximately 40 kilometers east of Konya in Turkey. It was first
discovered and excavated by British archaeologist James Mellaart in November 1958 while
serious research resumed in September 1993 by another British archaeologist Ian Hodder.

Nineteen percent of bones found at the site were from cows while the people of Catal
Huyuk had advanced tools for their time such as obsidian and flint spearheads with precisely
drilled holes. They also had knowledge of smelting metals.

Catal Huyuk is between 8000 to 10,000 years old from the Neolithic period and was
occupied for about 1400 years with a peak population of 10,000 inhabitants. The city was
destroyed by a large catastrophic fire which hardened its clay walls preventing too much
deterioration over time.
Here's a reworded version of the text:

Mesopotamia means "the land between the rivers" and refers to the region between the
Tigris and Euphrates rivers in what is now southern Iraq. This is where one of the earliest
civilizations arose with complex societies that had cities, organized governments, art,
religion, social divisions and writing systems.

The rivers provided fertile farmland which helped people trade with each other and spread
ideas to new places. This led to the rise of cities and the development of governments which
distributed food, built buildings and other projects, created laws and maintained armies for
defense. Innovations such as writing systems and calendars were also developed.

Farming in Mesopotamia was made possible by the rivers which flooded the land with rich
soil. Farmers built dams to control the water and created irrigation ditches to water fields
away from the rivers. This led to the development of many cities in the region of Sumer.

These cities were far apart and did not communicate with each other. They were known as
city-states which were individual cities with their own governments that controlled the
surrounding land. City-states often went to war with each other and built walls for protection.

One example of Sumerian literature is the Epic of Gilgamesh which is the oldest known
story. It is a poem that tells the story of a hero who searched for a way to live forever.

Sumerian kings were originally priests and priestesses but later rulers were war heroes. The
position was passed down through families and kings ran the government and led the army.
 Life in Sumerian cities varied depending on social class. The king lived in a palace while
common people farmed and lived in mud-brick houses. Artisans specialized in making tools,
clothes and pottery while traders moved goods between cities.

Sumerians believed in many gods and built ziggurats or temples to honor each one. These
were the largest buildings in town and were known as "mountains of gods" or "hills of
heaven." Priests and priestesses ran the temples while people only went to the top for
ceremonies.

Sumerian society was divided into three social classes: upper class (priests, kings,
government officials), middle class (artisans, merchants, farmers, fishermen) and lower class
(slaves). Slaves were considered property and could be prisoners of war, criminals or people
who owed someone money.

Men could go to school, run businesses and were considered heads of households while
women had some rights such as being able to buy and sell property and run businesses.

Cuneiform was a writing system used by scribes to keep records and pass on ideas.
Advances in math and science included irrigation, wagon wheels, plows, sailboats and a new
number system based on 60 which led to 60 minutes in an hour and 60 seconds in a minute.
They also created a 12-month calendar based on the moon.

The end of Sumer came when city-states fought each other. The Akkadians, led by Sargon,
attacked Sumer and defeated it by 2340 BC creating the world's first empire. An empire is a
group of different lands under one ruler.

After Sargon's rule, another group became powerful and built the city of Babylon on the
Euphrates river. The Babylonian king Hammurabi conquered lands north and south of
Babylon creating the Babylonian Empire.

Hammurabi is best known for his law code which was a collection of laws covering
crimes, farming, business activities, marriage and family. Hammurabi's code influenced later
law codes including those of Greece and Rome.

The Assyrians came to power several hundred years after Hammurabi and lived near the
Tigris River. Their empire was known as Assyria and they built a large army in 900 BC. The
Assyrians were strong because they had a well-organized army that used iron weapons. They
heated iron ore, hammered it and rapidly cooled it to make stronger metal.

Assyrian warriors were fierce and used tactics such as building tunnels under walls and
ladders to go over them. They also used battering rams and set fire to buildings. Their
government was well-organized and their empire stretched from the Persian Gulf in the east
to Egypt's Nile River in the west.
 Nineveh, located on the Tigris River, was the capital of Assyria. The empire was divided
into provinces or political districts and roads were built to connect all parts of the empire.
Military stations were located along the roads for protection.

Life in Assyria involved worshipping many gods and using Babylonian writing.
Punishments were harsh and cruel while large temples and palaces were erected. Literature
was produced and collected with one of the world's first libraries being located in Nineveh.

The Assyrians' cruel treatment of people led to rebellions and in 650 BC they fought over
who would be the next king. The Chaldeans conquered Nineveh in 612 BC led by King
Nebuchadnezzar who controlled all of Mesopotamia from 605 BC to 562 BC. He was a
descendant of Hammurabi and made Babylon his capital which became the world's richest
and largest city at that time.

The Hanging Gardens were a terraced garden that showcased large trees, masses of
flowing vines and other beautiful plants. Water was pumped to the gardens while Babylonian
commerce involved caravans of traveling merchants or buyers and sellers.

Babylon was also a center of science where changes in the sky were studied to reveal the
will of the gods. Astronomers studied heavenly bodies and made the first sundials while also
introducing a seven-day week.

The fall of the Chaldeans came in 539 BC when the Persians captured Babylon and
established the new Persian Empire.
Chinese Translation 中文对照：
历史学家是研究和撰写过去的事件和人物的人。 他们调查人们的生活方式、发生在
他们身上的事情以及发生在他们周围的事件。 历史学家寻找事件背后的原因并研究事
实。 他们使用日历来测量时间，其中公历是当今使用最广泛的。 它于 1582 年首次
推出。历史学家也使用事件的年代来测量时间。 在西历中，耶稣出生之前的年份被称
为 BC 或 BCE，而他出生之后的年份被称为 AD 或 CE。

历史学家将历史划分为称为时期或时代的时间块。 十年是 10 年，世纪是 100 年。

史前时期是指文字出现之前的时期，大约距今 5000 年。 接下来的一千年被称为中世
纪，而现代历史则从 1500 年开始。

时间线是显示一段时间内事件发生顺序的图表。 它帮助历史学家关注年代学，或者
事件发生的日期顺序。

考古学家是挖掘过去遗迹的科学家。 他们挖掘人类和动物的骨头、种子、树木、陶
器、工具、武器、土堆、坑和运河。 他们通过步行调查和绘制位置来收集数据。 他
们还使用飞机或卫星照片等工具来收集证据。

主要来源是经历或目睹事件的人的第一手资料。 例如信件、日记和官方记录。 次
要来源是在事件发生后由未参与该事件的人创建的，并且通常基于主要来源。 例子包
括传记、百科全书和历史书。

历史学家分析主要和次要来源，以确定它们的创建时间、地点以及创建原因。 他们
还检查来源的可信度和偏见。

历史事件是有因果关系的。 原因是导致事件发生的原因，而结果是由于原因而发生
的事情。 历史学家寻找这些链接来解释事件发生的原因。

在第一章：发现工具中，考古学家寻找埋在地下的证据，那里可能曾经存在过定居
点。 他们挖掘文物和化石。 人类学家研究人类社会以及人类如何发展以及如何相互
联系。

人类历史最早的时期被称为石器时代。 这一时期的第一部分被称为旧石器时代或旧
石器时代，开始于大约 250 万年前，一直持续到公元前 5000 年左右。 旧石器时代的
人们最先使用技术，但当时没有铁路、农场或村庄。

早期人类大部分时间都通过狩猎动物、捕鱼、吃昆虫以及从植物中采集坚果、浆果
和谷物来寻找食物。 由于旧石器时代的人们是狩猎者和采集者，他们总是在迁徙，被
称为游牧民族。

他们以 30 人或更多人的队伍旅行，因为这样更安全、更容易找到食物。 妇女们呆

在营地附近，而男人们则狩猎动物并制作杀死它们的工具。

旧石器时代的人们在学会驯服火时做出了改变生活的发现。 这是一个重大进步，因
为火提供了温暖、黑暗中的光明以及免受野生动物侵害。 他们还可以通过将两块木头
摩擦在一起来生火，从而可以烹饪食物。

最后一个冰河时代开始于公元前 10 万年左右，天气十分危险。 人们冒着寒冷和饥

饿的生命危险，但火的发明帮助他们取暖并生存。

旧石器时代的另一个进步是口语的发展，它使人们更容易合作和分享知识。 早期人
类可能创造了除书面艺术之外的所有类型的艺术。 他们在洞穴中作画，并用骨头或岩
石进行雕刻。

新石器时代发生的变化被称为农业革命，被认为是人类历史上最重要的事件之一。
最后一个冰河时代之后，人们开始驯化动植物以供自己使用。 动物提供肉类、牛奶、
羊毛和交通工具，而人们则学会了如何种植食物，使他们能够在一处定居。

逐渐地，农业取代了狩猎和采集，这标志着新石器时代或新石器时代的开始。 它一
直持续到公元前 4000 年左右。 这个时代的优点包括能够留在一个地方，用稳定的食
物供应和更好的技术养活更多的人。 缺点包括饮食品种较少，谷物较多，肉类较少。

Catal Huyuk 是土耳其的一个定居点，那里的所有房屋都紧挨着建造，没有道路。

建筑物之间的交通是通过屋顶进行的，还有用于饲养动物的小庭院。 屋顶交错排列，
让光线透过窗户射入。

每间房屋的平均面积为 25 平方米或 250 平方英尺，由干泥制成。 典型的房子有一

个中央起居区，一端有一个较小的储藏室，靠墙有一个用于做饭和取暖的壁炉。 随着
时间的推移，一些房屋倒塌，它们的材料被重新用来建造新的结构。

窗户位于墙壁的上部，而建筑物南侧天花板上的开口则作为入口和出口，可通过梯
子进入。 这些开口也从炉膛中释放出烟雾。

Catal Huyuk 位于土耳其科尼亚以东约 40 公里处。 它于 1958 年 11 月由英国考古

学家詹姆斯·梅拉特 (James Mellaart) 首次发现并挖掘，而另一位英国考古学家伊恩·霍
德 (Ian Hodder) 则于 1993 年 9 月恢复了认真的研究。

现场发现的骨头中有百分之十九来自牛，而卡塔尔胡尤克人拥有当时先进的工具，
例如带有精确钻孔的黑曜石和燧石矛头。 他们还拥有冶炼金属的知识。

Catal Huyuk 距新石器时代已有 8000 至 10,000 年的历史，并被人类居住了大约

1400 年，人口高峰期为 10,000 人。 这座城市被一场灾难性的大火摧毁了，它的粘土
墙变硬了，防止了随着时间的推移而过度恶化。
这是文本的改写版本：

美索不达米亚的意思是“河流之间的土地”，指的是现在伊拉克南部的底格里斯河
和幼发拉底河之间的地区。 这里是最早的文明之一，有着复杂的社会，有城市、有组
织的政府、艺术、宗教、社会分工和书写系统。

河流提供了肥沃的农田，帮助人们相互贸易并将思想传播到新的地方。 这导致了城
市的兴起和政府的发展，政府负责分配食物、建造建筑物和其他项目、制定法律并维
持军队进行防御。 书写系统和日历等创新也被开发出来。

美索不达米亚的农业之所以成为可能，是因为河流淹没了土地，带来了肥沃的土壤。
农民修建水坝来控制水源，并修建灌溉沟渠，为远离河流的田地浇水。 这导致了苏
美尔地区许多城市的发展。

这些城市相距遥远，互不往来。 它们被称为城邦，是拥有自己的政府并控制周围土
地的独立城市。 城邦之间经常发生战争，并修建城墙以求保护。

苏美尔文学的一个例子是吉尔伽美什史诗，这是已知最古老的故事。 这是一首诗，
讲述了一位英雄寻找永生之道的故事。

苏美尔国王最初是祭司和女祭司，但后来的统治者是战争英雄。 这个职位是通过家
族传承下来的，国王管理政府并领导军队。

苏美尔城市的生活因社会阶层而异。 国王住在宫殿里，百姓耕种，住在泥砖房里。
工匠专门制造工具、衣服和陶器，而商人则在城市之间运输货物。
 苏美尔人相信许多神，并建造了金字形神塔或寺庙来纪念每一位神。 这些是镇上最
大的建筑，被称为“神山”或“天堂之丘”。 祭司和女祭司管理着寺庙，而人们只去
顶部参加仪式。

苏美尔社会分为三个社会阶层：上层阶级（祭司、国王、政府官员）、中层阶级
（工匠、商人、农民、渔民）和下层阶级（奴隶）。 奴隶被视为财产，可能是战俘、
罪犯或欠别人钱的人。

男性可以上学、经营企业并被视为户主，而女性则拥有一些权利，例如能够买卖财
产和经营企业。

楔形文字是抄写员用来保存记录和传递思想的书写系统。 数学和科学的进步包括灌
溉、马车车轮、犁、帆船和基于 60 的新数字系统，这使得一小时有 60 分钟，一分钟
有 60 秒。 他们还根据月亮创建了 12 个月的日历。

当城邦相互争斗时，苏美尔的末日到来了。 萨尔贡领导的阿卡德人进攻苏美尔，并
于公元前 2340 年击败了它，建立了世界上第一个帝国。 帝国是一个统治者统治下的
一组不同的土地。

萨尔贡统治后，另一个群体变得强大，在幼发拉底河上建造了巴比伦城。 巴比伦国
王汉谟拉比征服了巴比伦北部和南部的土地，建立了巴比伦帝国。

汉谟拉比以其法典而闻名，该法典是涵盖犯罪、农业、商业活动、婚姻和家庭的法
律的集合。 汉谟拉比法典影响了后来的法典，包括希腊和罗马的法典。

亚述人在汉谟拉比之后数百年掌权，居住在底格里斯河附近。 他们的帝国被称为亚
述人，他们在公元前 900 年建立了一支庞大的军队。 亚述人之所以强大，是因为他们
拥有一支组织严密、使用铁武器的军队。 他们加热铁矿石，锤击它并快速冷却以制造
更坚固的金属。

亚述武士凶猛，采用在墙下挖地道、用梯子越过墙等战术。 他们还使用攻城锤并放
火焚烧建筑物。 他们的政府组织严密，帝国东起波斯湾，西至埃及尼罗河。

尼尼微位于底格里斯河畔，是亚述的首都。 帝国被划分为多个省份或政治区，并修
建了道路来连接帝国的各个部分。 沿路设有军事站以提供保护。

亚述的生活涉及崇拜许多神并使用巴比伦文字。 惩罚是严厉和残酷的，同时也建立
了大型寺庙和宫殿。 位于尼尼微的世界上最早的图书馆之一生产并收集了文学作品。

亚述人对人民的残酷对待导致了叛乱，他们在公元前 650 年为谁将成为下一任国王

而发生了战争。 迦勒底人于公元前 612 年征服了尼布甲尼撒王领导的尼尼微，尼布
甲尼撒王在公元前 605 年至公元前 562 年控制了整个美索不达米亚。 他是汉谟拉比
的后裔，将巴比伦定为首都，成为当时世界上最富有和最大的城市。
 空中花园是一个梯田花园，里面有大树、大量流动的藤蔓和其他美丽的植物。 水被
抽到花园里，而巴比伦的商业则涉及旅行商人或买家和卖家的商队。

巴比伦也是一个科学中心，人们通过研究天空的变化来揭示众神的意志。 天文学家
研究天体并制作了第一个日晷，同时还引入了一周七天的制度。

公元前 539 年，迦勒底人灭亡，波斯人占领巴比伦并建立了新的波斯帝国。