LASER

NTRODUCTION

laserwas introduced to the scientific world in

Tn s the most important optical device and early 1960s and by late 1960s it was viewed
LASER is an acronym that stands forgift of 1960s. by
1 The theoretical basis for the Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of
development
Einstein in 1917, when he predicted the possibility of laser and its
predecessor maser was provided
ADTediction Einstein was put to practical use by C.H.
of of stimulated emission of radiations. In
A MASER, that is the Microwave Amplification Townes and his co-workes.
by Stimulated They
nle of maser was adapted ror the Emission of Radiations. The
CH. TQWnes, in the year 1958. Theradiations
of visible
first laser
region by A. Schawlow in
collaboration
t was Fabry Perot optical cavity resonator indevice was
developed by T.H. Maiman in the
which ruby crystal was used as year
m for light. It is often called Ruby Laser It emits red light of
an
amplifying
nen and his co-Workers developed the first gas laser using helium wavelength 6943 nm. Soon A.
konLaser. It emits visible light at wavelength 632-8 nm and also and neon gases. It is called
in the infra-red
Helium-
Daring the last 30 years, we have advanced much farther as region at 1150 nm.
T device. Coupled with fibre optics and compared to the
development of the first
semiconductor optoelectronic devices, laser is likely to
Noutionize the world of irdustry and technology in the next few
years.
LAD. ABSORPTION AND EMISSION OF
RADIATIONS
In 1916, Albert Einstein studied the
is of his study; he interaction of matter with electromagnetic
radiations. On the
proposed that the interaction of radiations with matter
dthree basic processes termed as could be explained in terms
1.Stimulated absorption.
2. Spontaneous absorption.
3 Stimulated emission.
We, now explain each of the processes in detail.
KStimulated absorption. TRA,3AKGd,)
uppose the radiations of
frequency v are incident on the matter having atoms with the ground
eve o and excited state level E,. If hv =E, - E. then the radiation photon is absorbed and the
OnS Jump from the level Eg to See 4.02.1.
E. fig.

E
PHOTON AFTER
BEFORE
ABSORPTION ABSORPTION

Fig. 4.02.1
This is called stimulated absorption only incidence of photons of a

efinite requency or energy. Each atom

or simpleabsorption. It requires
absorbs one
excited to the higher energy
photon.and is
level.

147
 148
MODERN'SOPTICS AND LASER PHYSICS (B
2. Spontaneous emission.
The excited atom ordinarydoes not continue in the higher energy státe for long. On the
itof its gives
own, out a
photon of energy v E -E, and returns to the ground state.
= other
This process does not require any stimulus (See Fig. 4
from outside. That is why it is termed as spontaneou

BEFORE E
AFTER PHOTON
EMISSIONN EMISSION

Fig. 4.02.2
The photons given out in spontaneous emission are in random directed, unrelated to any
external condition in the matter or incident radiations. intemalo
3. Stimulated emission.
As the name implies, such an emission
requires extraneous stimulation. The excited atom in t
energy state E, may not be ready to come to the ground state at the given instant. But, when a
photont
resonant energy hv = E E, passes by the atom, it immediately drops to the ground state as shownin
-

fig 4.02.3.The photon.emitted goes parallelto theincident photonand both ofthe photonsareinphas
having same frequencyas well asthestate of polarisation. Thetwo photonsare saidto becoherent
each other.

E E O PHOTON
A PHOTON

PHOTON E BEFORE
E
AFTER
ABSORPTION ABSORPTION

Fig. 4.02.3

4,03 UNIQUE PROPERTIES OF LASER

The beam of light generated by a typical lasercan have many properties that are unique. Las
generally have a narrow frequency distribution or much higher intensity, or a much greater degree a
collimation, or much shorter pulse duration. Therefore, lasers are used in compact disc player.
super market check-out scanners, in surveying instruments, and in medical applications on a surg
knife or for welding detached retinas. Lasers are also used in communications systems, in radarand
as well as many other areas.
military targetting applications,
The unique properties orlasers are described below in details:
(a) Directionality. The conventional light sources (like a bulb) emit radiation in all directions
there is no phase-correlation over wavefronts emitted by such sources. On the other hand. the ou
from a laser is almost along a particular direction with divergence primarily due to diffraction eftec
the The
aperture. For a typical laser, the beam divergence is about 1 milliradian.
diffraction of a laser beam limited by an aperture of width 'a' is shown in fig. 4.03.1. The be
size at distance Z from the waist (for large values of Z) is given by

w o AZ 4.03
 LASA
149

-----.

Fig. 4.03.1

nd the divergence semiangle (8) can be written as (see fig. 4.03.1)

and
W(Z)

Z TT WO .(4.03.2)
Thewidth of the beam at the plane Z=0 (where the phase front is plane and the beam has minimum

width)is referred to asthe waist ot the beam (wo). Thus larger the beam waist size, the smaller is t
Hergence. For a confocal system* of mirrors of radii of curvatures R 100 cmand separated by a
5000 A, the beam waist size is found to be wo 0-03x 102 m and
distance 1 m and using =

10 0-45 x 10- radian

3 14 x003x 102
90
directional.
which shows that laser beam has very small divergence or is highly
because of very small divergence and it can
(6) Intensity. The intensity of laser beam is very high
diffraction effects, a laser beam can be
te focussed to extremelysmall dimensions. Taking into account
focal length of lens and a is
focussed to a region of radius- 1fla, where 2 is wavelength of light, fis
radus of the lens or of laser beam (whichever is smaller).
lens: a 0-05 m. f=0-1m, 2 5 x 10-/ m =

For atypical =

Area of spot of light s T

(5 x 10-x0-1
3:14x 0 05

e3x 10-12 m2
plane ofthe lens is given by
Fod l 0 0 watt laser, the intensity in the focal
100 1013 Wm2
33 x
I= 10-12
A 3 x
of laser leads to many
For high pow the intensity is enormously
high. High intensity
lasers,
dustria power pulsed etc. i.e, it has very
applications such as in welding, cuttinglaser is extraordinarily monochromatic,

c) aromaticity. The ligh emitted by

mirror.
equal to radius
of curvature of each
For confo
dsystem,
separalion between concave mirrors is
 MODERN's OPTICS AND LASER PHYSICS (B.Sc.
150
have frequencies in the regio
small frequency spread Av. Let a spectral line emitted

quantity Av/v represents the

around a central frequency v, then the

smaller is the monochromaticity,

higher the value of Av/y, the
monochromaticity of the radiation. The
1010 Hz 2 x 10-5
For ordinary source
5 x 104 Hz
Av 500 Hz
well stabilized laser:
= 10-12,
For a V 5 x 10 Hz

where is frequency corresponding to the

mean wavelength A =6000 A) of the visible
of
region. Thus laser beam has high degree
solid-
monochromaticity. Even for a poor quality 100-

state laser has a band width of Av = 10 Hz (or

Al 0-01 A) is very small.
The line width of a line emitted by an
to
ordinary source is very large in comparison 50 LASER
that of a laser (see figure 4.03.2). For example,
AI SPONTANEOUS
line width of ordinary ruby source is 3A whereas EMISSION
it is only 5 x 10 Å for ruby-laser (i.e. using
same material)

Fig. 4.03.2

of monochromaticity of laser light from different sources.

The following table 4.01 gives comparison Table 4.001

FWHM1* FWHM
Source of light Wavelength Av
Al
(4)
10-7 A 7:5 x 10Hz
He-Ne laser 6328 A
= 13 x 10-2 Å 9:4 x 10 Hz
Cd-lamp 6438 A
9x 1015 Hz.
5896 A
Na-lamp and
monochromatic than sodium lamp,
is clear from the table 4.01 that He-Ne laser is 10' times
It When the laser oscillates in a single mode,
the output15
1times monochromatic than Cd-source.
on this are random
emissions arising out of a
essentially a pure sinusoidal wave. Superimposed
emission which limits the ultimate monochromaticity of
Spontaneous emissions, it is this spontaneous
laser.
which distinguishes laser from other sources is coherence.
a) Coherence: The main aspect of phase-correlation that exists in the radiation field of light
is the measure of the degree
Conerence other characteristics of laser light
The
degree of coherence.
e r radiation is characterised by high are in one way or the other are related with
the coherenc
(airectionality, intensity, monochromaticity) and (i) temporal coherence as discussed below
The coherence is of two types (i) Spatial coherence, fields at points P and P, of wavefront.
If thes
patial Coherence. Let E, and E, be the electric
have a constant phase-difference over any
time i, tne
electric fieldsat any coherence on a wavefront
two pointsbetween
there wil be spatial these two points. In actual practice, for any point P1. the pol

FWHM stands for "full width at halfmaximum."

 LASER
151
lie
P must within some finite area (called coherence area)
gOod phase-correlation. Then, distance P,P, is called surrounding the point Pj in order to nave a

The concept of
spatial-coherence can be transverse coherence length.
understood by Young's double slit (or double
hole) experiment as shown in figure 4.02.03. For
point O on the screen, the optical paths
and SSO are equal. Since S is assumed toSSO be a
point source, it would emit spherical wavefronts | d2
and S and S, would be illuminated coherently d/2
and the fringes on the screen will be of good
contrast. f a another point source S' is placed - D
near S, the interference pattern will be superposed SCREEN
on the previous due to
pattern source S. As the
SOurce S is moved slowly away from source S, Fig. 4.03.3
the contrast between fringes on the screen will become poorer due to the fact that the fringes due to S"
will be slightly displaced w.r.t.
that produced by S. For a particular separation SS', the maxima due
Source S and the minima due to source S' fall on each other to
and the interference pattern is washed
away. This will happen when

S's-S'S

--at-1-;
Sincele< D, using binomial theorem:

D+

gi
ahl

t h e r
2d
O
 MODERN'S OPTICS AND LASER PHYSICS (B.S
152
independent point sources, interference fringes of s
Thus, for anextended source made up of
contrast will be observed as long
as

D
or d<
de

des ..(4.03.3)
is called transverse
source at the slits. The distance d=
where = i s the angle subtended by the
coherence length. For the sun,
32 7
32' 180x 60
= rad = 0-01 rad
5000A, the
wavelengthl=
transverse coherence
filter which allows a narrow band around
By using a
length is given by
5x 10 m -5x 10m
d, 0-01
much less than 5 x 10 m, and illuminatedby
Ifwe have a pair of pin holes separated by distance
of contrast can be obtained on
good
a screen.
the sun, interference fringes pinhole (or slit) in
light sources, the light must be first passed through a
Using ordinary extended
order to obtain.
Temporal Coherence. If there is
a

definite phase-correlation between the

for
electric fields of light at particular point
there is said to be
an interval r, then
temporal-coherence for time r,lt is the type
of coherence in which the field point

A
at a

at a particular time and at

the same point at
time are related. The figure
Same later wave trains
4.03.5 represents a series of
emitted by an actual source.
The figure
sudden
4.03.5 clearly shows that there is
or there is a
jumps in phases after time r, limited Fig.4.03.5
definite phase-correlationfor a distance L, called
coherence-time. During this time, light travels a
period r The time r, is calledwhich is equal to
longitudinalcoherence length,
.(4.03.4
L CT
second and therefore, longitudinal coherence length is giver
For ordinary light sources t,~ 10-
by:L=cr,= 3x 108 x 10-10 =3x 10-2 m=3cm
A, the coherence length is about 30 cm, which giv
the
For red cadmium line at A =6438
T10 second.
LASER
153
case of laser source T 10 second' and therefore,
L
=cT.=3x
108 x
Using Fourier analysis, it can be shown that 10-3=3 x 10 m =300 km
a wave having coherence time t, is essentially a

Iperposition of harmonic waves in the frequency range o S where

Av =
Te ..(4.03.5)
Thus the concept of coherence time
The long coherence
is directly
connected with that of monochromaticity.
length a few km implies that laser could be used for
experiments (e.g., in Michelson's performing
interference
Note (1): The measure
inteferrometer)with large path differences.
of fringe contrast is called fringe visibility and is defined asS

V =|maxmin
max min .4.03.6)
The fringe visibility serves as a useful measure of coherence. If
Young's double slit experiment, the
fringe visibility can be taken as a direct measure of the degree of spatial coherence whereas in
interferrometer experiment the fringe visibility gives the measure of the degree of temporal Michelson-
coherence.
Note (2). The coherence is related with the
"internal ordinering" of the light source. The smaller is
the degree of coherence, the greater is the internal disorder in the source of light. Strictly
there is néither ideally coherent nor ideally incoherent waves, rather, actual speaking,
waves are partially coherent.
404.EINSTEIN COEFFICIENTS em oAA)
An atomic system is characterised
by discrete energy states, and usually the atoms exist in the lowest
energy state. An atom in the lower state may be excited to the higher energy state by absorption of e.m.
radiation of proper frequency. Such a process is called stimulated absorption or simply as
absorption.
E2 E E

BaN, ulo) AzNi2

B21NNu(o)

E E

Fig. 4.04.1
On the other hand, when the atom is in the excited state, it can make transition to a lower energy state
inrough the emission of e.m. radiation in two different ways
)The first is called spontaneous emission in which an atom in the excited state emits radiation even
t h e absence of any incident radiation. It is thus not stimulated by an incident signal but occus
Spontaneously. Further, the rate of spontaneous emission is proportional to the number of atoms in the
excited state
i n The secónd is called stimulated emission, in which incident radiation of proper
frequency triggers
an atom in an excited state to emit radiation. The rate of stimulated emission (or absorption)
ne intensity of the external field well as on the number of atoms in the upper state. depends on
The fact that there should be two kinds of emissions-spontaneous and stimulated- was
Predicted by Einstein in 1917 by the consideration of thermodynamic equilibrium between atoms first
and
 MODERN's OPTICS AND LASER PHYSICS (B,s

154 stimulated emissions are necess

showed that both
spontaneous and essary
Einstein
the radiation field. discussed below:
obtain Planck's radiation law as of atoms per
unit volume lower level I and and upner lev
in
the number radiation and get excited
Let N, and N, represent can be absorb
in the lower energy level E and can occur only ie
2 respectively. An atom called stimulated
absorption or absorption in the
This process is
energy level E.
EE The
The number
number of absorptions per unit time per unit
radiations frequency w =
h
.
presence of
volume is given by N,B12 u (w), ofsthe (4.04.1)
lower level, u(w) is the energy density
unit volume in the
where N, is number of atoms per
transition probability per unit
time from lower leve
evel
w and Bi2 represent
incident radiation at frequency
level 2. emission as well ae
1 level through spontaneous
to upper
de-excite from the upper to the lower the atom makina
The atomcan unit time of
emission, the probability per
stimulated emission. In
spontaneous
the incident radiation field and depends
is independent of the energy density of
downward transition e m i s s i o n to the lower level per unit

involved in the transition. The rate of spontaneous

only on thelevels
volume is given by ..4.04.2)
A21 N2 time for
spontaneous
emission from upper level
transition probability per unit level.
whereA1 represents unit volume in the upper
and N, is the number of atoms per
2 to lower level 1; lower level is directly proportional to the
stimulated emission, the rate of transition to the to the lower level
In case of aw. The rate of
stimulated emission
of the radiation field at frequency
energy density
per unit
volume is given by : ..(4.04.3)
B2N2 u (w) transition
Einstein's Co-efficients and represent
are known as
The quantities A2, B12
and B21 stimulated absorption and
stimulated emission
unit time for spontaneous emission,
probabilities per
respectively. transition rate must be equal to the downward transition
the upward
In thermodynamic equilibrium,
rates, i.e.
() Az1Na + B21 N2 u (a)
B2 N u
=

(B,2N- B21N2) u (o) = A21N2

A21 N2
u()B1, N - B21 N2)
..(4.04.4)

() =
A2
u
(N, /N)B12 -B21 levels at temperature T
ratio of population of the lower and the upper
From Boltzman's law, the
given by
h
expEE= exp kgT
N2
Thus, the eqn. (4.04.4) becomes:

u (w) =
A21
hw
Bi2 exp TB2
...(4.04.5
A21.
B2 By2 exp kaT
hw

B21
 LASER
155
ording to Planck's law, the energy density of
radiation is given by:
A c c o

u( w ) hw'
(w)=23 .(4.04.6)
hw

Comparing (4.04.5) and (4.04.6), we have

B12 B21 -B
4.04.7)

and A21 hw3

hws
B21 23or B?3 ...(4.04.8)
Thus, the probabilities of stimulated
absorption and stimulated emission are the same. The ratio of
the Aand B co-efficients is given by eqn. (4.04.8). The eqn. (4.04.5) can be written as
A
u (w) =
hw
BexpkpT -
A
= exp.
Bu (w) (4.04.9)
This eqn.
gives the ratio of spontaneous to stimulated emissions (in thermal
If equilibrium).
w<
k T/h. the number of stimulated emissions far exceeds the numbers of
<

emissions. On the other hand, if w >> kp T/h. the number of spontaneous emissions far spontaneous
exceeds the
number of stimulated emissions.
For normal optical [T-10
sources K and =
6000 A], we have

BT =
1-38 x 10-23 x 103 13x 1014s-1
1-054 x 10-34

and w = 2tv = 47C 2x3-14 x 3x 108

3 7 x 1015 -I
6000 x 10-10
Since w >>k T/h, hence emission is predominantly due to spontaneous transitions and, therefore.
ne
emission from
In microwave
usual light sourceis incoherent.
region, let A = 10 cm and T 300 K
=
(room temperature), we have
A
Bu(w)

1-054x 10-34 x 2x 3.14 >x 3x108

= exp.
1-38x10-x 300 x0.1
= exp. (3-9 x 104)-1
ence, spontaneous emission is much smaller than the stimulated emission. Hence, stimulated
missicn is dominant in the m.w. region. That is why MASERS were realisedpractically much earlier
han LASERRS.
 MODERN'S OPTICS AND LASER PHYSICS (B.S
168
3x
10-x 106H
o 5:4x107
Av 1010
= 18 x 106
Degree of non-monochromaticity
x106
(18*10

4.13 PROBLEM
What is the relationship beween the frequency width ard the coherence time of a monochromat

light source ? Find the coherence length of

a laser source
of monochromatic light with freauency wid
th
of 1000 Hz
Solution: The relationship between band width and coherence time is given by

A
1
Av 1000
10-3 s
Coherence length () = ct, = 3x 103 x 10-= 3x 10 m = 300 km

4.14 PROBLEM
Find the intensity produced by 100 watt laser (. = 6000 A) at the focal plane of lens offocal length
10 cm and dia. 6 cm.
P
Solution: Intensity Power
Area 2
D
100x36x 104 = 8 x 1012 Wm2
3 14x (2x6x 10 x0.1)
4,15 POPULATION INVERSION
Ordinarily, an atom may remain in the excited state for about 16 x 10- second, after which it emits
a photon and drops to some lower energy level. The emission of photons from an excited atom is
governed by well established selectionrules. These rules donot permitcertain transitions from a higher
energy leveltothe ground state. Such energy levels aretermed as metastable. Once the valence electronn
finds itself in the metastable state, itcontinues to be there for long time (about 10 s) and the atom i s
unable to return to the ground state instantaneously. The existence of metastable state is an essentia
requirement for obtaining population inversion as explained below
E E2
E- METASTABLE

hy
ww

(a) ()
Fig. 4.15.1
Suppose the atoms of the given sample of matter are irradiated by radiations of a Cea
and this resUs In stimulated absorption of photons raising the electron to higher energy level, say trom
 '

LASEA 169

the
Ound state Fo to the energy level E,. Fig. 4.15.1 (a) shows the stimulated absorption of radiations.
g r o u n ds t a t e
37
in ber
ppose,in betweenEg and E, there is an energy level E, which is metastable. The atom may drop to
SDPOund state by Spontaneously emitting the photon of same energy as was absorbed by it. Or, it may
n1o the state E by emitting a photon of energy E - E. This transition can also occur through non
atve processes. lf E, is a metastable state, theatom will continue in this state for long time. As time
on, more and more atoms will land up in the metastable state E, and ultimately the number of
ans in the state E, may be more than in Eg Thus, population inversion can be obtained.
atoms

h
The bargraph tor the population of atoms in states Eo. E and E under the conditions of thermal
euilibrium is shown in fig. 4.15.2 (a).
S
N N

N Na
No

POPULATION INVERSION
E E F2
THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM (6)
(a)
Fig. 4.15.2
when the population inversion
The fig. 4.15.2. (b) shows the bar graph for the population of atoms
is obained.
416. COMPONENTS OF THE LASER DEVICES
the principle of stimulated emission of radiations.
In laser, we obtain the amplification of light using radiations
stimulated emission produces completely coherent
It has already been explained that the The laser devices consists
which on superimposition on one another produce highly intense radiations.
detailed below:
of three components as
1:The Pump-
and helps in obtaining the population inversion.
The pump is an external source that supplies energy atom-atom collisions. The pumps can be
occur directdy or through
The excitation of the atoms may He Ne laser, we use
the Ruby laser, we use optical pumping. In the
-

optical, electrical or thermal. In the pump excites the atmos to higher energy levels
electric discharge pumping. The energy supplied by
non-radiative processes the population inversion occurs.
and through spontaneous emission through
or
inversion occurs must be very large as
the metastable energy state, in which population
The life time is
of the excited atom in any other energy state.
compared to the normal life time
2. The Laser Medium
the laser action is made to take place. It may be solid, liquid or gas. Many
It is the material in which
material used. For example, Ruby lasers, He-Ne laser, CO, laser. The
lasers are named after the
the material used. For example, the output of Ruby laser is
wavelength of the laser light depends upon nm and of
at 694:3 nm. That of
He Ne laser is at 632-8
-
CO, laser is at 10'6 um. Laser action has been
the known atoms and laser wavelength may extend from ultra-violet
observed in more than half of
region to the infra-red region.
The most important characteristic
requirement for the laser medium is that we should be able to
to the Boltzmann condiion if j and N2 be the number
obtain the population inversion in According
it.

of atoms in the energy state Ej

and E2, then

N2 ehkT
N
where hv = E - E. Therefore, N2 is in general less than N1. Because of this reason vigorous
 MODERN's OPTICS AND LASER PHYSICS (B.Sc.
170
inversion and so only certain pairs of energy
pumping may be required for sustaining the population
levels with appropriate lifetimes can be inverted.
3. The Resonator.
common principal axis. The reflection
t consists of a of plane or spherical mirrors having
pair less than 1. It
that of the other Kept somewhat
1s
coefficient of one of the mirrors is very near to 1 and beam. 1he resonator is basically
out as a laser
a part of the internally reflecting beam to escape
enables, laser medium and in the process,
a free back device, that directs the photons back
and forth through the
emission.
the number of photons is multiplied due to stimulated
OR LASER PROCESS
4.17. CONDITION FOR LASER ACTION
The laser action may be briefly described as follows
energy in a space
(cavity) containing the laser medium
photons of certain resonant
Creation
inversion and stimulated emission
interaction of photons with the atoms of laser medium -population described below.
of photons. The process can be explained with
the help of four steps as
of an atom of the laser
medium. Here E
Fig 4.15.1. shows the four energy levels E. E,, E, asEfollows:
and
is the ground level. To obtain the laser, we may proceed
Step 1. Pumping from Eg to Eg.
external source, the atoms are excited from the ground level Eg to the
By supplying energy from an

level Eg.
example, in optical pumping, the laser medium may
For
be irradiated by radiations of frequency vo
such that hvo= E3 - Eo. So, the atoms are excited by stimulated absorption.

STEP SPONTANEOUs EMISSION

META STABLE ENERGY LEVEL
E
PUMPING STEP STIMULATED EMISSION

STEPO E
SPONTANEOUS EMISSION
STEP
Eg E GROUND LEVEL

Fig. 4.17.1
Step 2. Population inversion
emission.
The atoms from the energy level E3 may drop to the metastable level E by spontaneous
excitation E, being the metastable
This occurs almost instantaneously within about 10- second of
interval of time (say about 10 s). As
level, the excited atoms stay in this state for comparatively longer
a result, soon the number of atoms in the energy level E2 becomes much larger than that in the energy
level E. So, the population inversion occurs between the energy levels E2 and E.
Step 3. Stimulated emission
emission. The
A photon energy hv =
may be emitted due to the ever present spontaneous
E2-E
from energy level E
photon will pass through the laser medium and may cause stimulated absorption
as explained eariler the rate
ot
to E or stimulated emission from energy levele E2 to E. However,
Two
stimulated emission is much greater than that of stimulated absorption, so the emission dominates.
importantcases arise
of the system as
Case 1. If the photon so emitted happens to be travelling inclined to the optic axis
 171
AEH
i1
fig.4.17.2, it gets lost through the sides. Any other photon got emitted by it by stimulation 197
in
own.

st
slso
l o s
along with it.
ient
M2 M M2
els.

ith

(a) (b) us

Fig. 4.17.2.
seed photon.
the optic axis of the system, it acts as a
the photon is travelling parallel to
Case 2. If travels along with it as shown in fig. 4.17.3.
got emitted by it due to stimulation also
The other photon
M2 M M2
M

5)

(b) M2
(a) M M
M

(d)
(c)
Fig. 4.17.3 and further
through the laser medium
the mirror M2 they
again pass
Thus, due to relapeated
After reflection from shown in fig 4. 15.3. (c) and (d). reflections at the
o c c u r s as
multiplication of
coherent photons medium because of the multiple
coherent photons through
the laser takes place. (Because, every
of the the coherent photons emission of one
passage
amplification of c a u s e s the
M2,
and a large scale level E2. it
mirors Mi an excited
atom in the energy
a coherent photon passes by
time
more coherent photon). the beam of
coherent photons
So, everytime
mirrors, say M2, is made partially reflecting.
One or the transmitted out.
strikes the mirror M2, a laser beam is where
emission from
Step 4. Return to the ground state state by spontaneous
the atoms drop to the ground in a cycle. Note,
the eneigy
c c n e r g ylevel Ej, Thus, the process repeats
be pumped to the energy level E.
they, can again
also be the ground level and in such a case
the step 4 gets
eliminated.

level Ej can

418. LASER TYPES

below:
classified in a number of ways, as explained and solid lasers.
The lasers can be Thus we have gas, liquid
to the state of laser medium. or
chemical acion
1. Classification according Thus, we have flash light,
to the number of pumping.
2. Classijication according wave
electric discharge lasers. or continuous
Thus, we have pulsed (p)
to the nature of output.
3. Classification according or
ultra-violet, visible
Thus, have
cw) lasers. w e
the light.
4. Classification
on the basis ofspectral region of
nfra-red lasers.
 A TEXTBOoo OF
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
4.8
spread is given by
The angular
122
d
mirror.
diameter of the front
where d is the
To achieve an energy density
4. The laser beam
is extremelhy intense.
be at a temperature of 100 KK
ual that
ense
to thatin
in
hot object would have to
s o m e laser beams,
a
laser is 10,000 times brighter than
It is estimated that light
from atypical 1-m W than the light
.

earth's surface.
from the sun at the

4.9 COMPONENTS OFA LASER SYSTEM

These
laser requires three components for operation.
are

excited state.
Energy source, that will raise the system to an

2. Active medium, which, when excited, achieves population inversion. The active
medium may be a solid, liquid or gas and it may be one of the thousands of materials
that have been found to laser.
3. Optical Resonator, it essentially consists of two mirrors facing each other. The
active medium is enclosed by this cavity. One of the mirrors is fully reflective while
other mirror is partially transparent. The optical cavity is made use of to make
stimulated emission possible in more number of atoms in the active medium. This
naturally increases the intensity of the laser beam.
These components are shown schematically in Fig. 4.6.

Energy Source

Active Medium

Fully reflective Partially reflective

mirror
mirror

Fig. 4.6. Main components of a laser.

Action of Optical Resonator
Initially, the active centres in the medium
are in ground state
that medium is in ground state [Fig. 4.7(a)), that we can
non-excited state. After suitable [Fi i s taken
into pumping
a
population inversion state [Fig. process the mate
4.7(6)). Spontaneous aitted in the
photons
are em
LASERS
4.9
initialstage in all
+age in: directions |Fig. 4.7(c)). To generate a coherent light
avel in a specific direction are selected while others are rejectedoutput, the photons
and to attain the
that
that Dossible
maximum p o s s amplification of light, the stimulated photons are to be made to pass
uohthe
the medium:
medium a number of times. The mirrors constituting the resonator cause the
tional selectivity. Photons that travel in random direction will pass through the
direct

resonatorran are lost [Fig. 4.7(c)]. On reaching the semi-transparent m1rror some of the
hotons are transmitted out and part of them will be reflected back.
phot
Afer reflection from the semi-transparent mirror, photons de-excite more and more atoms
IRig 4.7(d). At fully reflecting mirror, some of the photons are absorbed but a major
Dortion will be reflected. The amplified beam will move along the same path as the starting
photon [Fig. 4.7(e)] and undergoes multiple reflections at the mirrors and gains in strength.
in this way at each reflection light beam is partially transmitted and partially reflected
back into the medium.

Active centres Host material

Feflecting Semi-
miror Non Excited state transparent
(a) miror

(6) Optical pumping °

oroo o
c) Stimulated emission
or o o o 0

Spontaneous emission

(d) OpticalFeedback

ight amplificalion
(e)
o

() Datslation

amplification and
oscillations due to the action of optical resonator.
*g4.7. Light
 A TEXTB0OK OF ENGINEERING PHYSIC
4.10

Laser beam oscillation begins when the amount of amplified light becomes equal to
resonator, through the
the
mirroree
total amount of light lost through the sides of the
the medium. As the
by front
oscillations buld up to enough intened
Ehrough absorption
emerges through the mirror as a highly collimated intense beam (Laser 1light)

Fig. 4.7).
4.10 THREE AND FOUR LEVEL LASER SYSTEMS

Lasers are mainly divided into two categories:

1. Three level laser 2. Four level laser.

4.10.1 Ruby Laser

Ruby Laser is based on three energy levels and this laser consists of a pink ruby cylindrical
rod whose ends are optically flat and parallel as shown in Fig. 4.8. One end is fully silvered
and the other is only partially silvered. Upon the rod is wound a coiled flash lamp filled
with xenon gas.
Xenon flash
lamp

~ Laser
beam

Fully silvered Ruby Rod Partially silvered

mirror beam
Fig. 4.8. Schematic representation of a ruby laser.
The ruby rod is basically a Al,O, (aluminium oxide) crystal doped with 0.05%(by weight) of

chromium oxide The Al*

(Cr,Og). These "impurity' Cr* ions a
ions are replaced by C.
responsible for the pink colour (or red colour) of ruby laser.
Working. The energy levels of Cr3* ions on the crystal lattice are shown in Fig. 4.9. It
consists oft three-level system. Upper energy level 1s short-lived state

Ea Excited
state
2 Radiationless
transition

Metastable
state
5500 A
S043
3
6943 A
Pumping 6943 A
transition

Laser
transition
Ground state
Fig. 4.9. Energy level diagram ofa three level laser (ruby laser).
LASERS
4.11

ground-state energy level E,. There is an intermediate excited state level E,

hove the ground-sta
B, above metastable having a life-time of 3 x 10 sec.
which is
rmally, most of the chromium ions (Crs*) are in the ground state E,. When a flash of
light falls upon the ruby rod, the 5500 A radiation photons are absorbed by the Cr ions
light
which are pumped to the excited state B. The transition from E, to E, is the opticai pumping
transition. Now the Cr* jons on the excited ions give a part of their energy to the crystal
lattice and decay to the metastable state B, Hence the transition from E, to E, is radiation
less transition. Metastable state E, is long-lived state (life time 10 sec), hence the number
of Cr ions goes on increasing while, due to pumping, the number in the ground stateE
goes on decreasing. Thus population inversion is established between the metastable state

E, and the ground state E.

Aspontaneous photon emitted by a C* ion at E, level initiates the stimulated emissionby
theother Cr*ions in the metastable state. The wavelength of the photon (beam) is 6943 Å.
This photon travels through the ruby rod and if it is moving along the axial direction and
repeatedly reflected. This results in amplified strong laser beam of wavelength 6943 A
This stimulated transition 4 is the laser transition.
The laser beam is suficiently intense, part ofit emerges through the partially silvered end
of the crystal.
Drawbacks. There are some drawbacks in the three-level ruby laser which are as follows
1. The laser requires high pumping power because the laser transition terminates at
the ground state and more than one-half of ground state atoms must be pumped to
the higher state to achieve population inversion.
of the
2. The efficiency of ruby laser is very low because only the green component
of incident light are left
pumping light is utilized while the rest of the components
unused.
not continuous but occurs in the form of pulses of microsecond
3. The laser output is
duration.
in this laser.
4. The defects due to crystalline imperfection are also present

4.10.2 Helium Neon Laser

four-level laser and was built by Ali Javan, WBennett and
ielium Neon Laser is a

D-Herriot in 1961.
He-Ne laser is shown in Fig. 16. It consists of a
Construction. The schematic of a typical diameter 1 cm. The tube contains a mixture
about 50 cm and
ng discharge tube oflength 1 of neon at a low pressure (-1 torr).
At both ends of
about 10 of helium and part
Or parts
and parallel mirrors, one
of them beingg only partially
tube are fitted optically plane
ne mirrors is equal to an integral
number of half-wavelengths of
of the
Slvered. The spacing inversion is achieved by electric discharge.
An electrie
ne laser light. In this population
means by
eBeetrodes outside the tube connected tooa
scharge is produced in the gas by
current.
SOurce of high-frequency alternating
 ATEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING PHYSics
4.12

Helium Neon atom

atom Collision Metastable state
20.61 eV- 20.66 eV |w 6328
Metastable 6328 A (Laser transition)
state 18.70 eV
Spontaneous
emission

Electron
impact
Radiationiess
transitionh

Ground Ground
state state

Fig. 4.10.

Working. The energy level diagram of He-Ne laser is shown in Fig. 4.10. Whenthe power
is switched on, the electrons from the discharge collide with and "pump" the He and Ne
atoms to metastable states 20.61 eV and 20.66 eV respectively above their ground states.
Some of the excited He atoms transfer their energy to ground-state Ne atoms in collisions,
with the 0.05 eV of additional energy being provided by the kinetic energy of the atoms.
Thus, the purpose of the He atom is to help in achieving a population inversion in the Ne
atoms.
When an excited Ne atom passes from the metastable state at 20.66 eV to an excited state
of 18.70 eV it emits a photon of wavelength 6328 A. This photon travels through the gas
mixture and ifit is moving parallel to the axis of the tube, is reflected back and forth by the
mirror-ends until it stimulates an excited Ne atom and causes it to emit a fresh 6328 A
photon in phase with the stimulating photon. This stimulated transition from 20.66 e
level to 18.70 eV level is the laser transition.
This process is continued and when a beam of coherent radiation becomes sufficiently
intense, a portion of it escapes through the partially silvered end.

Laser beam

Active medium
Partially silvered
-Fully silvered mirror
mirror
Fig. 4.11. He-Ne laser.
LASERS

4.13
The Ne passes from the 18.70 eV level, spontaneously to
atom
nitting incoherent
emitting incoherent light inally the
hght and finally the Ne atom
atom comes
down
a lower metastable state

llision with the tube walls. This radiation from lower

collisi
to the ground state
through
state is radiationless transition. metasable state to the ground
TnHe-Ne laser, the laser transition does not terminate
at the ground level, hence the
nower needed for excitation 1s less than that in a three-level
witation from the Xenon flash lamp in a ruby laser, a He-Ne laser. Unlike the pulsed
CW stands for continuous wave). The narrow red laser operates in CW mode
markets to read the bar codes. beam of this laser is used in super-

4.10.3 Carbon Dioxide Laser

co, is a four level molecular laser which uses the transitions that
vibrational states of the carbon dioxide molecule. The important occurred between different
lasing transitions occur at
9.6 um and 10.6 um.
Fig. 4.12 shows the carbon dioxide molecule
consisting of a central carbon atom with two
oxygen atoms attached one on either side. There are three
of the carbon dioxide molecule stretch independent modes of vibration
: mode, the bending mode and the asymmetric
mode.

Stretch Mode
CO

Bending Mode

C Rotational Mode
Assymetric Mode

Fig. 4.12. Vibrational Modes of a CO, Molecule.

Construction. Fig. 4.13 shows the schematic of a carbon dioxide laser. It consists of a
discharge tube having a bore of cross-section of about 1.5 mm2 and a length of about

Water in Water our

Brewster
window

Laser
beam

Gas in Gas our

of a Carbon Dioxide Laser.
Fig. 4.13. Schematic
 A TEXTBoOK OF
4.14 INEERING PHYSICS
260 mm. The discharge tube is filled with a mixture of CO, N, and He gases
int the ratio of
1:2:3. Some water vapours are also added. The active centres are CO, molecul.
ratio
on the transitions between the vibrational levels of the electronic les lasingof
ground state. S lasing
Working. The lowest vibrational levels of the ground electron energy state of Co.
are shown in Fig. 4.14. The excited state of N, molecule is metastable
(001) vibrational level of CO molecule.
and is idndN,
When current passes through the mixture ot gases then N,
molecules get excited to the
metastable state. These excited N, molecules cannot spontaneously lose energy so at th
level number of N, molecule increases. These N, molecules return to
ground state thro
inelastic collisions with ground state CO, molecules. Due to this
to E, level. The CO, molecules
molecules OCO, are exc
Energy transfer
0.3 through
collisions
(001)
Es
1 0 . 6 um
0.2
96 um (100)
E
E -(020)
0.1
E2- (010)

Nitrogen
E Carbon Dioxide

Fig. 4.14. Energy Levels of Nitrogen and Carbon Dioxide Molecules

and Transitions between the Levels.

are also excited to E, level through collision with electrons. The (020) and (100) states
marked as E, and E, levels act as lower laser levels. The population inversion is achiev
between E, level and the levels E, and E,. The transition between E, level to , leve
produces for infra-red radiation at the wavelength 10.6 um and between E, to ,
wavelength 9.6 um. The levels E, and E, are also metastable states and C0, molecules
to lower level E, through inelastic collision with unexcited Co, molecule. This pre
increases the population at E, Thus, the de-excitation of Co, molecules at the lowe a t
level inhibits the laser action. The presence of He with Co, decreases the populatio
level E, by colliding and the lasing action continues. This laser also works in continu
mode (CW) and has efficiency upto 45%.

4.10.4 Semiconductor Lasers

Semiconductor laser differ from solid, gas and liquid lasers in several importantrespects
4.15.

Junction lasers areremarkably small(typicallyontheorderofo.1x0.1x0.3mm)g*

() They exhibit high efficiency.
(iüi) Laser output is easily modulated by controlling the junction current.
(iw) Semiconductor lasers operate at low power compared to ruby or CO, lasers.
LASERS
4.15

compete with He-Ne lasers in power output.

nction lasers
(o) J u n c

lasers are portable also.

u) These
Current

Cleaved
surface.
mirror
Electrode
GaAs
P L

GaAs Active region

Electrode

Fig. 4.15. Schematic view of GaAs semiconductor

semiconductor lasers are used as important light source
Because ofthese unique properties,
for fiber-optic communication systems.

Population Inversion ata Junction

we need population iniversion. To
achieve
As we know that for laser action to take place between
we consider ap-njunction formed
population iniversion in a semiconductor laser, band diagram
degenerate semiconductor*. Fig. 4.16shows schematic representations ofthe
laser.
under equilibrium and forward bias of a homojunction
d -
Junction
n

n
Ee-
hv

hv hv
E -E

(6)
(a)
V= 0 (6) at froward bias V>0
Fig. 4.16. Band
a n d diagram of ap-n junction
laser (a) at equilibrium
of
occurs, that is, large concentration
iCiently large bias is applied, high injection Asaresult, the region
d contains
elect and holes are injected into the transition region. c o n c e n t r a t i o nofholes
in
and a large
large conea
large concenti e l e c t r o n s in the
conduction band
thevalan atratiortof
inversion.
condition for population
valance
band, this is the required they will induce
W
When photons on the
inversion region,
ons of appropriate energy impinges cause
stimulated emisso
valance band and
electron
1lon
transition conduction band to
from the

degenerat
4.11 APPLICATIONS A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERINGP
PHYSICS
The lasers are
COmmon profitably used in almost every field including fundamental research.The
1.
applications of lasers are asfollows:
Metallic rods can be melted laser beam (laser
and joined by means of a welding)
. The laser beam is used to vaporise unwanted material during manufacture of
the
at

electronic circuits on semiconductor chips.

3.
Co,gas lasers of about 100 W output are helpful in surgery because they seal small
water in the path of their I
DIood vessels while cutting through tissue by vaporising
beams.
4. during warfare.
Lasers are used to detect and destroy enemy missiles
5. Low power semiconductor lasers are used in CD (compact disc) players, laser printers,
laser copiers, facsimile machine etc.
transmission lines in which the electrie
6. Semi-conductor lasers are ideal for fibre-optic
are first converted into a
signals that would normally be sent along coPper wires
series of pulses according to a standard code. Lasers then turn the pulses into flashes
of IR light that travel along thin glass fibres and at the other end are changed back
into electric signals.

power lasers used to bring about thermonuclear reactions which would

7. High are
become the ultimate inexhaustable power source for human civilization.
8. Lasers are also being employed for separating the various isotopes of an element
9. Lasers are used in the production of three-dimensional images of an object in
holography.
10. Laser beams have also been used in the "inertial confinement" of plasma.
11. The narrow red laser beam is used in supermarkets to read the bar codes.

4.12 INTRODUCTION TO HOLOGRAPHY

An 1947, Denis Gabor the English Physicist invented a
radically different type
photography, known as holography. Holography is a technique that allows the or
scattered from an object to be recorded and later ng
the object is in the same reconstructed so that it appears as
position relative to the recording medium as it en
recorded. The image changes as the was w
position and orientation of the viewing system
in
exactly the same way as if the object were still ehans
image (hologram) appear three dimensional. For present, thus making the recor to
Gabor in 1971. this work Nobel prize was
awaru
In holography, the
light waves reflected from an
record is called a
"hologram". The hologram has no
object are recorded. This photographic
it containe all
information about the
resemblance with thethe object,
object, althous
a
by a coherent light source, a object in a kind of optical code. When it is ed nated

The formation of three-dimensi. :l image of the illun d

image from hologram is known as
original
the
object 18 1
'reconstruction process