pH and the

Chemistry of
Respiration
pH

• is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration

in solution
• the degree of acidity or alkalinity of an
aqueous solution
 Notes to remember:
• Acid is a potential proton donor and base is a potential proton
acceptor. (Bronsted-Lowry)

• H+ ion concentration of solution is measured in terms of pH

value, which is the logarithm of the reciprocal of the H+ ion
concentration in gram moles/L
 Definition of terms
• All neutral solutions have the same pH value as water.
• Values above 7 are alkaline, that is, OH ions exceed
the H ion.
• Values below 7 are acid in reaction; the H ions exceed
OH ions.
• The determination of H ion concentration of different
solutions may be done either by electrometric method
or by the use of standard buffers and indicators
(colorimetric).
 HYDROGEN AND HYDROXYL
• H and OH determines the
acidity or alkalinity of a
particular substance.
• Acids and bases which
dissociate more readily are
capable of liberating
greater number of H or OH
ions thus called strong
acids or bases.

example: HCl
HYDROGEN AND HYDROXYL
• Those which ionize only slightly liberate
comparatively less H or OH ions and are termed weak
acids or bases.
• Water is neutral since there is equal number of H+
and OH- liberated
• H2O → H+ + OH-
 Henderson – Hasselbalch equation
• is useful for estimating the pH of a buffer solution and
finding the equilibrium pH in an acid-base reaction
• It expresses acid-base relationship and relates the pH
of a solution to the dissociation properties of the weak
acid.
 Henderson – hasselbach equation
pH= pKa+ log conjugate base
weak acid

Where: pKa= 6.1 ( combine hydration and dissociation

constants for CO2 in blood
Conjugate base= bicarbonate ( HCO3- )
Weak acid= carbonic acid ( H2CO3)
 Buffer substances
• Are those which prevent the change of the reaction of
a solution upon addition of small amounts of acids or
bases.
• Buffer solutions consist of mixtures of weak acids and
their salts or weak bases and their salts. When an
alkali is added to a buffer solution, the excess OH ion
combine with the H ions of the buffer solution to form
water. Thus,
• NaOH + NaH2PO4 → Na2HPO4 + H2O
Buffer substances
• Upon the addition of acid however, the excess H ions
combine with the negative ions to form weak acid. Thus,

• HCl + NaHCO3 → NaCl + H2CO3 (weak acid)

 Chemistry of respiration
• Respiration is referred to as the exchange of gases
between the outside air and the body.
• External respiration is the exchange occurring
between the outside air and the venous blood through
the lungs.
• Internal respiration is the exchange between the
blood and the tissues.
• The body takes up 5% oxygen and give up 4% CO2
because some oxygen are utilized for biological oxidation
and formation of water
• Nitrogen remains the same because nitrogen is supplied
by nitrogenous organic compounds ( proteins, amino acids
etc.)
Physical theory of respiration
• The exchange of gases between the outside air, the
blood and the different tissues of the body, is
governed by the physical law of diffusion.
• Gas will flow from a higher to a lower tension.
 Physical theory of respiration
Tension ( p) is the pressure exerted by gas in
solution.
example:
pCO2 – pressure of the dry gas of CO2 in mmHg with
which dissolved carbonic acid in the blood is in
equilibrium
pO2 – pressure of the gas with which dissolved oxygen
in the blood is in equilibrium
 Oxygen tension in different parts of the body
in mmHg
• Inspired air = 159 – 160 mmHg
• Alveolar air = 108 mmHg
• Venous blood = 40 – 50 mmHg
• Arterial blood = 100 mmHg
• Tissues = 20 – 50 mmHg
• Expired air = 20
• *Atmospheric air = 0.3
Conditions that affect the diffusion of oxygen
from alveolar to venous blood
• Size of the epithelial wall – the combined
thickness of the capillary wall and the
respiratory epithelium is not more than 0.004
mm
• The speed of the flow of blood – brings all
RBC’s in contact with alveolar air
• The affinity of oxygen to hemoglobin
• The Chemical Control of Respiration
• is exerted by the respiratory centers in the medulla
and upon the chemical receptors located at the
bifurcation of the common carotid arteries and at the
arch of the aorta
 Physical theory of respiration
Chemical Control of Respiration
CARBON DIOXIDE
• is the main factor regulating the rate and depth of
respiration.

Carbon dioxide in blood; rate and depth of

respiration leading to increased pulmonary ventilation

immediate elimination of CO2

Physical theory of respiration
CO2 in blood slow and shallow respiration

decreased pulmonary ventilation

decreased elimination of CO2

high
 Physical theory of respiration
• OXYGEN TRANSPORT
• 0.2 – 0.3% - amount taken by the blood plasma when
exposed to alveoli air
• Whole blood will take up around 70 – 80 times the amount
that the plasma will take
• The oxygen carrying capacity of blood ( HEMOGLOBIN)

Hb + O2 HbO2
Physical theory of respiration
• Hemoglobin
• Hemoglobin molecules can transport up to four
O2’s
• When 4 O2’s are bound to hemoglobin, it is 100%
saturated, with fewer O2’s it is partially
saturated
• Hemoglobin’s affinity for O2 increases as its
saturation increases
• Oxygen binding occurs in response to the high
PO2 in the lungs
 Oxyhemoglobin Formation

• Oxygen molecule reversibly

attaches to the heme portion of
hemoglobin
• Heme unit contains iron ( Fe+2 )
which provides the attractive
force
• O2 +Hb HbO2
Maximum amount of O2 that can combine
with HEMOGLOBIN of blood
• Normal Hb -15 gms/100 ml of blood
• Each gm of Hb can bind 1.34 ml of O2 (Hufner
factor)
• The oxygen saturation of the RBC leaving the lungs is
around 96% while that of the venous Hgb is around
64%. This implies that 32% of the oxygen has been
delivered to the tissues.
• Total O2 bound with Hb :
15x1.34 x .32=6.4 ml O2 is supplied to tissues
per 100ml of blood passing through the capillaries
Factors affecting the dissociation of oxyhemoglobin
1. Low oxygen pressure
• Whenever the pressure of O2 is low, the
oxyhemoglobin rapidly dissociates into Hgb and O2.
• HbO2 Hb + O2
2. High CO2 pressure
• Increasing pCO2 → O2 affinity of Hgb decreases →
oxyhemoglobin dissociates (Bohr effect)
Factors affecting the dissociation of
oxyhemoglobin
3. Low pH
• Acids (other than carbonic and lactic acid)
increases dissociation of oxyhemoglobin
4. Rise of temperature
• Increases dissociation
5. Presence of electrolytes
• At low oxygen tension, Hgb gives up O2 more
readily in the presence of electrolytes than it
does in pure solution.
Physical theory of respiration
Carbon Dioxide Transport
• CO2 is carried by the blood both in the cells and in
the plasma.
• 50 volumes % - CO2 content of arterial blood
• 55 – 60 volumes % - CO2 content of venous blood
• Each 100 mL of blood transports 5 – 10 mL of CO2
from tissues to lungs
 Physical theory of respiration
CO2 is carried in the blood in 3 forms:

1. in very small amount as dissolved H2CO3

• the amount is not large but is important because any
change in its concentration will cause marked alteration in
the blood pH

2. as carbamino bound CO2 (R-NH2 + CO2 R-NH-COOH)

• Formed with proteins (Hgb)
Physical theory of respiration
3. as bicarbonate combined with cations, Na
and K
• At equilibrium, formation of carbonic acid is
favored:
Carbonic anhydrase
• CO2 + H2O H2CO3

• At normal pH of blood, most of H2CO3 is present in

the form of bicarbonate:
• H2CO3 H+ + HCO3-
Blood Buffers
1. Plasma proteins – they release sufficient cations to
account for the carriage of about 10% of the total
CO2
2. Phosphates – within red blood cells – responsible
for about 25% of the total CO2 carried
3. Hgb and oxyhemoglobin – accounts for 60% of the
CO2 carrying capacity of blood
 Chemical theory of respiration
1. The wall of the RBC is a membrane permeable to
water, CO2, carbonic acid, chlorine and hydrogen ions,
but not to hemoglobin and plasma proteins and only
slightly to Na and K ions.
2. Most of the Na ions in the plasma, while those of K
are in the cells.
 Chemical theory of respiration
3. Most of the proteins in the RBC are combined
with K, the amount varying in the different stages
of the cycle.
4. In the RBC (not in the plasma) there is an
enzyme, the carbonic anhydrase, which hastens the
transformation of carbon dioxide and water into
carbonic acid and vice versa.
 Acid – base balance
• The acid – base balance depends upon the ratio of H2CO3 to
HCO3 (1:20)
• Normal metabolic activities of the body → production of
relatively large amounts of acids including carbonic, sulfuric,
phosphoric and organic acids, like lactic acid and hydroxybutyric
acids.
• Sulfur and phosphorus containing proteins →(oxidized) give rise
to H2SO4 and H3PO4
• Fruits and vegetables (rich in positive radicals like Na, K, Ca)
liberate potentially basic substances.
 Acid – base balance
The maintenance of this normal pH is brought about by several
factors
• 1. the buffer systems of the blood
• 2. CO2 elimination through the lungs
• 3. Renal excretion of acids and bases
• Under normal condition, urinary pH is about 6.0
• Under certain conditions the pH of the urine may vary from
4.5 to 8.2
• 4. Renal formation of ammonia – base conservation
 ABNORMALITIES OF ACID-BASE
BALANCE
• Metabolic Acidosis
• Produced whenever available base is decreased although the
total base may remain unchanged.
• Takes place during fasting and starvation where there is
increased mobilization of fat to provide the necessary
energy reqt → formation of ketone bodies
• Occurs in severe diarrhea where there is loss of large
amount of Na.
ABNORMALITIES OF ACID-BASE
BALANCE
• Metabolic Alkalosis
• Occurs when the alkali reserve is increased
although total base may remain unchanged.
• vomiting and loss of large amount of Cl → increased
Na to bind with HCO3
• use of diuretics and administration of large doses
of NaHCO3
 ABNORMALITIES OF ACID-BASE
BALANCE
• Respiratory Acidosis (Hypoventilation)
• Occurs in any condition in which there is interference with
the exchange of gases within the lungs so that CO2 is not
adequately blown off.
• May happen in marked narcosis from drugs, CNS depression
from any cause, emphysema and bronchiectasis
 ABNORMALITIES OF ACID-BASE
BALANCE
• Respiratory Alkalosis (Hyperventilation)
• Produced in any condition causing hyperventilation, when this
is not the result of interference with the gaseous exchange
in the lungs.
• Occurs among nervous Px who are breathing rapidly due to
some frightening symptom or situation
• Can be seen in high fevers, CNS lesions and anoxia of the
cardiac type or due to high altitudes
• The increased ventilation blows off large amounts of CO2 so
that the plasma carbonic acid concentration is decreased.