Biomolecule, also called biological molecule, any of

numerous substances that are produced by cells and living

organisms. or
Substances that are produced by cells and living
organisms
 Biomolecules have a wide range of sizes and structures and
perform a vast array of functions.
The four major types of biomolecules are
carbohydrates,
lipids,
nucleic acids, and proteins.
 Combined, these molecules make up the majority of
a cell’s mass.
Biological macromolecules are organic, meaning that
they contain carbon. In addition, they may contain
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, and
additional minor elements.
The word carbohydrate literally means hydrated carbons.
Chemically , carbohydrates are defined as polyhydroxy aldehydes
or kentones, or complex substances which on hydrolysis yield
polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone subunits
Carbohydrates contain the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
Carbohydrates occur abundantly in living organisms.
Cellulose of wood, cotton and paper, starches present in
cereals, root tubers, cane sugar and milk sugar are all examples
of carbohydrates
Functions:
Carbohydrates play both structural and functional roles.
Simple carbohydrates are the main source of energy in cells.
Some carbohydrates are the main constituents of cell walls in
plants and micro-organisms.
Classification of carbohydrates
Monosaccharides:
These are simple sugars.
They are sweet in taste, are easily soluble inwater,and cannot be hydrolysed into
simpler sugars.
In nature Monosaccharides with 3to 7 carbon atoms are found.

Oligosaccharides:
These are comparatively less sweet in taste, and less soluble in water.
On hydrolysis is Oligosaccharides yield from two to ten monosaccharides.
The covalent bond between two monosaccharides is called Glycosidic bond.
 Most familiar disaccharide is sucrose ( cane sugar) which on hydrolysis yields
glucose and fructose.
Polysaccharides:
Most complex and most abundant carbohydrates
They are usually branched and tasteless
They are formed by several monosaccharide units linked by
glycosidic bonds.
Polysaccharides have high molecular weights and sparingly
soluble in water.
Includes starch, glycogen, cellulose, dextrin's, agar, pectin and
chitin.
Starch
It is found in fruits, grains, seeds and tubers.
On hydrolysis, it yields glucose molecules.
Two types,
Amylose ; unbranched chains , soluble in hot water
Amylopectin; branched chains; insoluble in hot ot cold water.
Starches give blue color with iodine.
Glycogen
It is also called animal starch.
It is found abundantly in liver and muscles
It is insoluble in water, and gives red color with iodine
It also yields glucose on hydrolysis.
Cellulose
Most abundant carbohydrate in nature.
Main constituent of cell wall of plants and highly insoluble in
water.
On hydrolysis it also yields glucose molecules.
Cellulose gives no color with iodine.
 include a diverse group of compounds that are united by
a common feature.
 Lipids are hydrophobic (“water-fearing”), or insoluble in
water, because they are nonpolar molecules.
This is because they are hydrocarbons that include only
nonpolar carbon-carbon or carbon-hydrogen bonds.
They are insoluble in water but soluble in organic
solvents such as alcohol.
Lipids perform many different functions in a cell.
Functions:
Cells store energy for long-term use in the form of lipids
called fats. Due to higher proportion of C-H bonds and
very low proportion of oxygen , lipids store double the
amount of energy as compared to the same amount of
any carbohydrate.
 Lipids also provide insulation from the environment for
plants and animals. For example, they help keep aquatic birds
and mammals dry because of their water-repelling nature.
Lipids are also the building blocks of many hormones and are
an important constituent of the plasma membrane.
Lipids include fats, oils, waxes, phospholipids, and steroids.
Fats are also called triglycerides because they have
three fatty acids.
Myelin sheath formation
Lipids are divided into fats (solids at room temperature) and oils (liquids at
room temperature)
proteins
Proteins are polymers af amino acids the compounds containing carbon,
nitrogen , oxygenand hydrogen. The number of amino acids varies from a
few to 3000 or even more in different proteins cell
Proteins are made of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sometimes sulfur or
phosphorus.
Proteins are the most abundant organic compounds to be found in cells.
They are present in all types of cells and in all parts of the organisms
Functions:
Growth and repair
They build many structures of the cell.
All enzymes are proteins
As hormones, proteins regulates metabolic processes.
Some proteins( e.g haemoglobin ) work as carriers and transport specific
sunstances such as oxygen lipids metal ions, etc.
Some proteins called antibodies , defend the body against pathogens.
Blood clotting proteins prevent the loss of blood from the body after an
injury.
 There are about 20 different amino acids that are found in the human
body.
Different combinations of these amino acids will give rise to different
proteins. The shape of a protein determines its function
For example, each of the different colored circles represent a different
amino acid. They are joined in a specific sequence as shown below:

It is really important to understand here that the final 3D structure of a

protein is derived from the specific interactions between amino acids that are
joined in the protein chain.
The sequence of amino acids in the chain therefore creates the final shape of
the protein, and the shape is what gives the protein its function.
This diagram below represents how a single chain
of amino acids eventually turn into a complex 3D
protein structure with a specific function.
For example:
Enzymes have a specifically shaped active site - this is
where a specific substrate molecule fits in order for a
reaction to take place
If the shape of the active site does not match the shape
of the molecule that fits into it, the reaction will not take
place
Antibodies are proteins produced by certain types
of white blood cells that attach to antigens on the surface
of pathogens
The shape of the antibody must match the shape of
the antigen so that it can attach to it and signal it for
destruction
Peptide bond
The linkage between the hydroxyl group of carboxyl group of one amino
acid the hydrogen of amino group of another amino acid release H2O
and C-N link , to form a bon d called peptide bond.
Structure
.
of protein :
The primary structure comprises the number and sequences of amino
acids in a protein molecule.

Secondary structure:
The polypeptide chains usually coil into a helix ( spiral formation of the
basic poly peptide chain) b- pleated sheets ( formed by folding back of
the polypeptide ). Hydrogen bonds are formed among amino acids
molecules.
Tertiary structure :
Bending and folding of polypeptide chain upon itself forming a globular
shape .Three types of bonds , namely ionic , hydrogen, and disulfide (S-S
are found.

Quaternary structure :
Polypeptide tertiary chains are aggregated and held together by
hydrophobic interactions , hydrogen and ionic bonds. Hemoglobin
exhibits such a structure.
Nucleic Acid
Due to their isolation from nucleic acid their acidic nature ,
they were named nucleic acid
Nucleic acids are of two types ,
1. Deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA
2. Ribonucleic acid or RNA
Nitrogenous bases are of two types
•Single – ringed pyrimidines
Cystosine ( C)
Thymine (T)
Uracil (U)
•Double –ringed purines
Adenine (A)
Guanine (G)
DNA?
DNA is the heredity material .It controls the properties and
potential activites of a cell
Model of DNA
•James D. Watson and Francis Crick built the scale model of
DNA.
•DNA is made of two polynucleotide chains or strands which
colied opposite(antiparallel) around each other in the form of a
double helix.

•There are two hydrogen bonds between A = T pair, and three

hydrogen bonds between G = C pair.
Occurs in:
DNA occurs in chromosomes, in the nuclei of the cells and in
much lesser amounts in mitochondria and chloroplasts.
RNA
Occurs as single strand , which may be folded back on itself
, to give double helical characteristics.
The nitrogenous bases from the usual complementary
pairing:
C-G
U-A
RNA is synthesized by DNA in a process known as
transcription.
RNA is present in the nucleolus , in the ribosome's , in
the cytosol and in smaller amounts in other parts of
the cell.
There are three types of RNA, each with a different
function. These are:
Messenger RNA (mRNA) – mRNA carries information
for protein synthesis from the DNA molecules in the
nucleus to the ribosomes
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) – rRNA is a structural
component of ribosomes (the organelles that perform
protein synthesis)
Transfer RNA (tRNA) – tRNA transfers amino acids to
the ribosome. These amino acids are used to assemble a
new polypeptide chain
 Iodine solution to test for starch
Add iodine reagent to a solution or directly on a potato
or other materials such as bread, crackers ,or flour.
A blue –black color results if starch is present, then the
color will stay orange or yellow.
 Benedict’s test for reducing reagent
Benedict’s reagent is used to test for one particular reducing
sugar : glucose
Benedict’s reagent starts out aqua –blue
As it is heated in the presences of reducing sugars , it turns
yellow to orange
The “hotter” the final color of the reagent , the higher the
concentration of reducing sugar.
 Biuret test for proteins
Take 3 clean and dry test tubes.
Add 1-2 ml of the test solution, egg albumin, and deionized
water in the respective test tubes
Add 1-2 ml of Biuret reagent to all the test tubes.
Shake well and allow the mixtures to stand for 5 minutes.
Observe for any color change.
No color change ,i.e the solution remains blue; proteins are
absent (negative biuret test)
The solution turns from blue to deep purple ; proteins are
present (positive biuret test)
 DCPIP test for vitamin C
In this test, the oxidizing agent is called DCPIP
(dichlorophenol indophenols).
DCPIP is a dye . It is blue colour when in oxidizing form
and colourless in reduction form.
When DCPIP is added into vit C solution , the vitC
reduces the dye , then decolorizes the dye.
Therefore, the decolorization of DCPIP indicates the
presence of vit c
 Water : The universal solvent
 Due to its polarity , water is an excellent solvent for polar
substances.

 Ionic substances when dissolved in water, dissociate into

positive and negative ions.
 Non-ionic substances having charged groups in their
molecules are dispersed in water
 Almost all reactions in cells occur in aqueous media.
 In cells all chemical reactions are catalyzed by enzymes
which work in aqueous environment.