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Chapter Title Anti-Heroism

Copyright Year 2023
Copyright Holder Springer Nature Switzerland AG
Corresponding Author Family Name Prusa
Particle
Given Name Igor
Suffix Ph.D. et Ph.D.
Organization/University Ambis College Prague
City Prague
Country Czech Republic AU1
 1
A

2 Anti-Heroism (Breaking Bad), bank robbers (Money Heist), cor- 25

rupt politicians (House of Cards), murderers (The 26

3 Igor Prusa Wire), hackers (Mr. Robot), misanthropes (Curb 27

AU1 4 Ambis College Prague, Prague, Czech Republic Your Enthusiasm), and many others. Having a 28

cumulative audience of millions, these TV 29

shows strongly resonated with (not only) Ameri- 30

5 Synonyms can psyche and received unprecedented critical 31

acclaim. They became the signature American 32

6 Heroic villainy; Transgressive heroism; Villain- art form, elevating their antihero protagonists to 33

7 ous heroism the status of millennial popcultural icons (Martin 34

2013). 35

Today, we live in the Age of Antiheroes 36

8 Definition (Brombert 1999; Prusa and Brummer 2022). It is 37

an age defined by a postconventional morality in 38

9 A popular form of heroism in which morally which people make moral decisions based on their 39

10 flawed protagonists lack heroic qualities while own inner morality, rather than on the official 40

11 the audiences are nonetheless encouraged to feel understanding of what is right and wrong 41

12 with and root for them. (Kohlberg 1981). It is also an Age of Contempt 42

in which people take a relentlessly negative 43

approach to authorities while crossing the line 44

AU2 13 Introduction from detached skepticism to derision, cynicism, 45

and ridicule (Barnett 2002). In this age, fiction is 46

14 In the last three decades, television in particular obsessed with filth and vice while people are more 47

15 has excelled in bringing us shows about morally fascinated by darkness than light. In such setting, 48

16 problematic characters to whom the audiences are the tradition of having a purely heroic central 49

17 drawn despite their darkness. While lacking tradi- character is no more the trend: it is now the anti- 50

18 tional heroic qualities, these characters – at times hero who is the rule rather than exception. 51

19 labeled as antiheroes – may be flawed, immoral, We find antiheroes in film, television, comic 52

20 and destructive, while some of them even resort to books and video games, but also in music, sport, 53

21 violence and murder, but they still have certain politics, and advertising. To be sure, antiheroism 54

22 qualities that the audiences find emotionally relat- is by no means a recent phenomenon: it has been 55

23 able. They include gangster bosses (The with us since the comedies and tragedies of Greek 56

24 Sopranos), serial killers (Dexter), drug dealers theater and has remained a steady feature in 57

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023

S. Allison et al. (eds.), Encyclopedia of Heroism Studies,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-17125-3_66-1
 2 Anti-Heroism

58 various types of text throughout the millennia agility). To speak with Raney and Janicke 103

59 (see, e.g., Harms 1965; Adams 1976). Impor- (2013), antiheroes are virtuous-but-flawed, 104

60 tantly, fictional antiheroes usually appear at criminal-but-redeemable, and murderous-but- 105

61 times when humanity is threatened with loss of justified. 106

62 hope, ideals, and morals (Lamont 1976). Thus, the Antiheroes speak for those who reject the qual- 107

63 antihero always holds a mirror to the state of ities of modern life (cf. Warshow 1974). They 108

64 society – she/he represents general condition and capture our interest because they capture our 109

65 universal experience of the “troubled man” while moral plight. While offering an aesthetic interpre- 110

66 personifying the chaotic changes of the (post) tation of existence beyond good and evil, anti- 111

67 modern age. heroes represent the freedom to do what one 112

wants, including committing crime. In other 113

words, the antihero is his own judicial system. 114

68 Theory However, there is a red line the antihero would 115

usually not cross, which sets him/her apart from 116

69 The morality of traditional hero narratives is cer- conventional villains (e.g., rape, unjustified kill- 117

70 tain: right is right, wrong is wrong. Protagonists ing, crimes against humanity). Antiheroes usually 118

71 are usually the good heroes while antagonists are follow their own code of ethics, such as not to take 119

AU3 72 the evil villains (Aristotle 1995). Justice is always an innocent life and not to get caught (Dexter). 120

73 served: good things happen to good (deserving) This personal code encourages a sort of vigilante 121

74 people while bad things happen to bad people justice while restraining and directing the anti- 122

75 (e.g., Raney 2011; Allison and Goethals 2015). hero’s desire to kill (Liddy-Judge 2013). 123

76 Today, however, it is no longer the case that pro-

77 tagonists are role models and paragons of virtue
78 who are brave, capable, and always do the right Transgression 124

79 thing. In the age of antiheroes, the traditional idea

80 of good and evil was replaced by moral relativism, Antiheroes are transgressive (i.e., exceeding the 125

81 cynicism, and irony. To echo Nietzsche, good and boundary of social acceptability), anomalous 126

82 evil is now an old illusion. The rebellious antihero (i.e., different from what is deemed normal and 127

83 disrupts the binary of good (hero) and evil expected), and liminal (i.e., living on the border 128

84 (villain), transcends the limitations of an all-too- between civilized and uncivilized). Transgression, 129

85 human condition, and embraces an individual anomaly, and liminality are what make the anti- 130

86 morality beyond good and evil – beyond the hero fiction enjoyable (Prusa 2016). Many anti- 131

87 ethos of sincerity, objectivity, and justice heroes, however, do not start as transgressors. 132

88 (Nietzsche 1966; Kohlberg 1981; Hassan 1995). They often embody the popular trope of “every- 133

89 Antiheroes are morally flawed protagonists man”, that is, somebody who is an all-too-human 134

90 whom we are nonetheless encouraged to feel character living his/her mundane life (e.g., Lester 135

91 with and root for (Vaage 2016, xvi). They embody Nygaard in Fargo, Larry David in Curb Your 136

92 deviations from the heroic standards: they are Enthusiasm, Walter White in Breaking Bad, Nar- 137

93 positioned in the grey area of a relativistic moral- rator in Fight Club). The human dimension is 138

94 ity, which makes them partly good and likable, important because it relates the antihero to us – 139

95 and partly evil and repellent. They are neither she/he is the same human being as we are 140

96 heroes nor villains; neither entirely good and (including our capacity for evil). We can feel 141

97 evil; often monster and victim simultaneously. empathy with antiheroes because their actions 142

98 Antiheroes imply a larger message: in this sick have meaning as actions that could be performed 143

99 world, being nasty is necessary, even noble. They by an ordinary human like us (e.g., they want what 144

100 lack traditional heroic qualities (largeness, nobil- is good for their family). Besides, experiencing 145

101 ity, grace, idealism) but they still embody certain the everyman’s actions from his/her perspective 146

102 virtues (intelligence, courage, decisiveness, triggers empathy and moral forgiveness, while a 147
 Anti-Heroism 3

148 closer insight into his/her mental and emotional (John Luther in Luther, Jack Bauer in 24, Vic 196

149 state enables identification (Kjeldgaard- Mackey in The Shield, Will Graham in Hannibal). 197

AU4 150 Christiansen 2017; Vaage 2016). In antihero fic-

151 tion, the everyman often transforms from a weak
152 victim of situation to a powerful agent of change Trauma 198

153 (see below).

154 Transgressive antiheroes navigate the tension Antiheroes are damaged goods. They usually 199

155 between social commitments and individual sen- underwent a certain boundary experience (term 200

156 timents. In other words, they are located at the by Jaspers); they are traumatized and haunted by 201

157 point where self and society meets. The main their past while struggling with inner demons. 202

158 problem of antiheroes is essentially one of iden- Antiheroes are affected by the experience of war 203

159 tity: they search for existential fulfilment and self- and torture (Travis Bickle in Taxi Driver; Jack 204

160 definition while seeking to become someone Bauer in 24), they have a traumatic childhood as 205

161 (Hassan 1995, 59; Gurung 2010). In this search, an abused orphan (Talented Mr. Ripley) or they 206

162 the antihero can be pictured as a sane man trapped witnessed their parents being killed by the mob 207

163 in an insane world (e.g., Yossarian in Catch-22) (Batman, Dexter, Punisher). Further, the despica- 208

164 and deemed abnormal and unadjusted (e.g., ble cop Vic Mackey (The Shield) is a father of two 209

165 Randal McMurphy in One Flew Over the autistic children, the gangster Al Capone 210

166 Cuckoo’s Nest). Many antihero characters are (Boardwalk Empire) has a deaf son, and the son 211

167 leading men who transgress rules, disdain author- of Walter White (Breaking Bad) suffers from cere- 212

168 ity, and behave as they wish (Jay Gatsby, Rick bral palsy. A good example of the traumatized 213

169 Blaine, Han Solo). They include the “bad cops” antihero is the gangster Tony from The Sopranos, 214

170 who either do anything to destroy their opponent who suffers anxiety attacks, struggles with his 215

171 (Dirty Harry, The French Connection), or they psychopathic mother, and has a troubled con- 216

172 misuse their position for personal gain (Bad Lieu- science (Vaage 2016, 46). Spivey and Knowlton 217

173 tenant, Internal Affairs). The antihero story can (2008) demonstrated that almost all antiheroes in 218

174 represent a journey toward power for the sake of comic fiction suffer from some psychological dis- 219

175 power (House of Cards, Godfather), or a journey order, including psychopathy (The Punisher), 220

176 against power for the sake of revolution (V for antisocial personality disorder (Wolverine), schiz- 221

177 Vendetta, One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest). oid personality disorder (Batman), multiple per- 222

178 Real-life gangsters are popular transgressors sonality disorder (Venom), narcissistic personality 223

179 because they symbolize the lawless force which disorder (Judge Dredd), clinical depression (The 224

180 uses violence to upset the social order (Billy the Crow). Even the BBC’s Sherlock is in essence a 225

181 Kid, Jesse James, John Dillinger, Al Capone). highly functioning narcissistic sociopath who 226

182 Especially the 1930s’ gangster films turned dark enjoys the murders. 227

183 criminals into charismatic antiheroes constructed Many traumatized antiheroes have an alter ego 228

184 as an object of sympathy (Public Enemy, Little and lead a double life. While reflecting the Jekyll-- 229

185 Caesar, Scarface). In 1960s, these venerated and-Hyde archetype, they act as undercover crim- 230

186 criminals were treated as popular folk heroes – inals hiding behind the public façade of 231

187 the modern Robin Hoods who steal only from the respectable profession (Breaking Bad, Dexter, 232

188 rich (e.g., Bonnie and Clyde). Even serial killers Mad Men). Walter White is a cancer-diagnosed 233

189 (e.g., Ted Bundy, Jeffrey Dahmer, John Wayne chemistry teacher and drug kingpin; Dexter is a 234

190 Gracy) were since the 1970s rendered as mythic, crime-scene analyst and serial killer; Don Draper 235

191 archetypal antiheroes that provoke feelings of fas- is a successful director in advertising company 236

192 cination, even admiration (Schmid 2015). Other and self-destructive womanizing 237

193 antiheroes are basically “good men”: they are alcoholic. These antiheroes are almost always 238

194 fierce enemies of injustice, but are emotionally driven by some obsession and they take pleasure 239

195 volatile and given to dangerously dark moods from doing something at which they excel: selling 240
 4 Anti-Heroism

241 drugs (Breaking Bad), corrupting politics (House values by experience. While functioning in a 283

242 of Cards), killing people (Dexter), cooking people world they know by experience to be irrational, 284

243 (Hannibal), hacking computers (Mr. Robot), rob- chaotic, and absurd, antiheroes may experience 285

244 bing banks (Money Heist), and trading weapons depression, anxiety, and alienation (e.g., Mr. 286

245 (Sons of Anarchy). Robot, Fight Club, Byronic characters, 287

Dostoyevsky’s characters). They are alienated by 288

peers and society, oppressed by the economic 289

246 Vendetta system, and burdened with psychological defects. 290

Their journey often starts with realizing what a 291

247 Partly motivated by their traumatic past, many ridiculous lie their whole life has been (Breaking 292

248 antiheroes turn to vendetta and vigilantism. They Bad, Joker, Falling Down, Death of a Salesman). 293

249 seek revenge on those who betrayed them, while Often, the antihero rests on victimization: she/he 294

250 reflecting the estrangement from humanity. Hav- is victimized by a shrewd society which prefers 295

251 ing its origins in Hamlet and the Elizabethan manners to values (Hassan 1995). It is usually the 296

252 revenge tragedy, the vengeful protagonist dis- first episode, in which the TVantihero is presented 297

253 covers a violation and retaliates. She/he is less as a victim of circumstance (Breaking Bad), a 298

254 interested in upholding a principle than settling a victim of trauma (Dexter) or a victim of society 299

255 personal grudge (Straw Dogs, The Taxi Driver, (Scarface). Especially the postmodern antihero – 300

256 Falling Down, Natural Born Killers). Essential such as Alex in A Clockwork Orange or Renton in 301

257 to the vigilante ideology is extralegal violence, Trainspotting – is a victim of society and of him- 302

258 personal vengeance, and lynch justice (The Pun- self: he is swallowed by the very society against 303

259 isher, V for Vendetta, Dexter, Kill Bill). These which he rebels (Gurung 2010). 304

260 antiheroes reject traditional ideas about morality The alienated antihero either completely with- 305

261 and violate the basic moral principle (Thou shalt draws from society (and becomes a passive, 306

262 not kill), but still they are admirable and fascinat- introspected nihilist), or she/he “breaks bad” and 307

263 ing to many. Their desire for revenge is often asserts his/her opposition to society (and becomes 308

264 morally justified while violence and retribution an active, violent rebel). The former is represented 309

265 are not discouraged – they are viewed as spectacle by classical nihilist antiheroes such as 310

266 and entertainment. In case of dark antiheroes (e.g., Dostoyevsky’s Narrator in Notes from Under- 311

267 Hannibal), the killing can even be portrayed as a ground who divorces from real life and is morally 312

268 moment of beauty – an intimate moment the anti- rotting in the corner (Dostoyevsky 1994). The 313

269 hero cherishes (Vaage 2016, 95). At any rate, the latter becomes reflected in “dark antiheroes” 314

270 antihero may be vengeful, violent, and criminal, such as the Devil in Milton’s Paradise Lost, the 315

271 but his/her adversaries are always shown as being Joker in Joker, or the Narrator in Fight Club. 316

272 far more evil than he is (Breaking Bad, Dexter, Importantly, dark antiheroes are often transfor- 317

273 The Shield, Justified). Owing to this moral mative heroes: the character starts out as “good” 318

274 comparatism, we perceive our antihero more wor- (normal, average, unattractive) but eventually 319

275 thy of our allegiance (García 2016). descents into “evil” by making increasingly harm- 320

ful decisions. For instance, the protagonist trans- 321

forms from an unattractive chemistry teacher to a 322

276 Alienation drug kingpin (Breaking Bad); from an army vet- 323

eran to a bloodthirsty mafia head (Godfather); 324

277 One of the reasons that antiheroes are so compel- from a nihilistic everyman to raging rebel (Fight 325

278 ling is that they are voicing the concerns of all Club); from a lonely character to a compulsive liar 326

279 alienated individuals (Liddy-Judge 2013). Anti- (Talented Mr. Ripley), from law-abiding house- 327

280 heroes are in essence existentialists: they believe wife to a criminal mastermind (Ozark), from teen- 328

281 that existence precedes essence, while it is the age thug to a glamorous psychopath (Clockwork 329

282 antihero himself/herself who determines his/her Orange), from insurance salesman to a violent 330
 Anti-Heroism 5

331 murderer (Fargo), from a traumatized comedian makes bad choices for the sake of his family, to a 373

332 to a psychopathic killer (Joker), from an anti- “bad man” who acts on his worst impulses. 374

333 terrorist detective to a wanted fugitive (24), and Some antiheroes resort to illegal business in 375

334 so forth. Even the Devil in Milton’s Paradise lost order to secure their family (e.g., The Sopranos, 376

335 is a transformative antihero who moves from the Breaking Bad, Godfather) while others murder 377

336 chief of all angels (Ezekiel 28:12–14) to a tragic and torture ruthlessly for some “greater good” 378

337 rebel exiled from Heaven. (24, Dexter, Hannibal). The antiheroes’ traumatic 379

experiences can also provide some justification 380

for their immoral actions. For instance, we may 381

338 Redemption partly justify Dexter’s desire to kill because he 382

suffered a severe trauma as a young child after 383

339 Antiheroes usually possess a certain tragic flaw he witnessed the horrific murder of his mother. 384

340 (cf. the Aristotelian hamartia) that can be their Further, the illegal actions of Walter White 385

341 undoing. Their moral flaws range from simple (Breaking Bad) are partly justified by the fact 386

342 (alcoholism, infidelity, uncontrollable temper) to that he wanted to provide for his family once 387

343 serious (violence, torture, murder). The final, ulti- cancer had taken his life. Similarly, it is easier 388

344 mate fate of the antihero is redemption or death, for us to justify Dr. House who routinely lies to 389

345 while in many cases the redemption itself is death his patients, but he does so in order to save their 390

346 (Rebekah 2019). Nonetheless, many antiheroes lives. 391

347 are often devoid of any redeeming traits (Taxi While creating a sense of intimacy with 392

348 Driver, Clockwork Orange, Scarface), while viewers, some antiheroes (House of Cards, Dex- 393

349 some of them even reject the salvation and ter) use voice-over to repeatedly justify their 394

350 God’s presence. These “satanic antiheroes” pro- actions while selling their motives to the viewer 395

351 voke admiration and respect for the grand but evil (see Schubert 2017). Other antiheroes can be jus- 396

352 being (cf. the Milton’s Devil in Paradise Lost, tified by the sheer fact that they actually reduce the 397

353 Goethe’s Mephistopheles in the Faust legends, crime rate by eliminating other criminals (Dexter, 398

354 or Bryan Fuller’s Hannibal). The darkest charac- Hannibal, Death Note). Last but not least, many 399

355 ters even proclaim that if God does not exist, then people readily justify antiheroes because they are 400

356 they are the God (Kirilov in Dostoyevsky’s performed by prominent Hollywood actors. While 401

357 Demons, Caligula in Brass’s Caligula). At any demonstrating the gift for keeping criminal char- 402

358 rate, it is not always easy to recognize if the acters charming, these actors contribute to the 403

359 antihero pays for his/her sins at the end. The iconography of antiheroism: Marlon Brando 404

360 ending of antihero fiction may provide evident (Godfather, Apocalypse Now, Last Tango in 405

361 conclusion (Matrix, Limitless, Constantine, Paris), Al Pacino (Godfather, Scarface, Dog 406

362 Money Heist), but in many other cases the ending Day Afternoon), Clint Eastwood (Dirty Harry, 407

363 is morally ambivalent and open for interpretation The Good, the Bad and the Ugly, The Man with 408

364 (The Sopranos, Breaking Bad, Matchpoint, No Name), Kevin Spacey (House of Cards, Amer- 409

365 Oldboy). ican Beauty, The Usual Suspects), Edward Norton 410

(American History X, Fight Club, 25th Hour), 411

Robert de Niro (Taxi Driver, The Godfather II, 412

366 Justification Once Upon a Time in America), and Johnny 413

Depp (Black Mass, Pirates of the Caribbean, 414

367 Antiheroes break the law, cheat, and even kill (if it Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas). 415

368 means they can succeed) but they always offer Many aforementioned antiheroes appear to 416

369 some justification for their deeds. They either challenge or mock the American Dream 417

370 justify immoral means by moral ends, or they do (McDonogh et al. 2001). Especially since the 418 AU5
371 the “right” thing for “wrong” reasons. On a moral 1960s, antiheroes questioned what the American 419

372 scale, the antihero ranges from a “good man” who Dream is really about (The Good, the Bad and the 420
 6 Anti-Heroism

421 Ugly, True Grit, Goodfellas) or they indicated that antiheroes caught or returned to stable work – 466

422 the Dream might be at its core a criminal enter- we want to see how far are they willing to go. In 467

423 prise (Bonnie and Clyde, Chinatown, Godfather). other words, we want to witness the exercise of an 468

424 Finally, some antihero fiction is funny, inten- unrestrained human will. 469

425 tionally or not. Such fiction represents a social Obviously, we are more similar to antiheroes 470

426 satire while employing irony, black humor, and than pure heroes and villains, while some of us 471

427 parody. Following Klapp (1962), antiheroes rep- secretly dream about “kicking ass” just like the 472

428 resent social “fools” whose failures are based on antiheroes do. Antiheroes speak to something in 473

429 inadequacy rather than malice (Dr. House, Pirates us that acknowledges that there is a potential 474

430 of the Caribbean, Big Lebowski, Curb Your monster in all of us. They resonate with us since 475

431 Enthusiasm, The Office). Even the darker antihero we all are good/bad, courageous/terrified, com- 476

432 dramas have strong comedic undertones passionate/ruthless, hero/villain. In their strug- 477

433 (Goodfellas, Natural Born Killers, Fargo, Pulp gles, we see our own struggles. We may look 478

434 Fiction). Interestingly, some antiheroes are fond down at antiheroes and even feel disgust, but in 479

435 of classical music – including Beethoven (A the end we may recognize that the antihero lives in 480 AU6
436 Clockwork Orange), Bach (Hannibal), Tchaikov- us all. 481

437 sky (V for Vendetta), and Wagner (Apocalypse

438 Now).
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439 Conclusion Adams, P.G. 1976. The anti-hero in eighteenth century 483
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Nietzscheian Heroism in Popular Culture,
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Psychopathy and Heroism, Quixotic Heroism,
Trickster Heroes, The Dark Triad, Vigilantism,
Anxiety and Depression, Stress and Trauma

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