Machine Vision and Applications (1990) 3:159-167
Machine Vision and
A Camera Calibration Technique using Three Sets of
Parallel Lines
Tomio Echigo
IBM Research, Tokyo Research Laboratory, Tokyo, Japan
Abstract. This paper presents a new method for three-
dimensional camera calibration in which the rotation pa-
rameters are decoupled from the translation parameters.
First, the rotation parameters are obtained by projecting
three sets of parallel lines independently of the translation
parameters and the imaging distance from the lens to the
image plane. The virtual line passing through the image
center, which is calculated by perspective projection of a
set of parallel lines, depends only on the rotation parame-
ters. Next, the translation parameters and the imaging
distance are analytically obtained. Experimental results
are used to show how the camera model can be accu-
rately reconstructed in an easily prepared environment.
Key Words: camera calibration, rotation parameters,
vanishing point, algebraic solution, reconstructed geo-
metric camera model
1 Introduction
The purpose of camera calibration is to establish the
relationship between three-dimensional world coor-
dinates and their corresponding two-dimensional
image coordinates seen by the camera. Once this
relationship is established, three-dimensional infor-
mation can be inferred from two-dimensional im-
ages by using a stereo method or a structured light-
ing method. This paper describes a new method of
three-dimensional camera calibration. A camera
has 6 degrees of freedom; that is, the relationship
between the three-dimensional world coordinates
and the camera coordinates consists of six parame-
ters: three rotation parameters that give the orienta-
tion of the camera and three translation parameters
Address reprint requests to: Tomio Echigo, IBM Research,
Tokyo Research Laboratory, 5-19, Samban-cho, Chiyoda-ku,
Tokyo 102, Japan.
Applications
O 1990Springer-VerlagNew York Inc.
that give its location. The imaging distance from the
lens to the image plane should also be defined as a
calibration parameter, because it is adjusted when-
ever the camera is focused. The parameters must be
calibrated every time the camera is fixed, and there-
fore it is necessary to establish a convenient method
of camera calibration. The purpose of this research
is to develop an easy and robust method of deter-
mining camera parameters.
The problem of camera calibration has been ex-
tensively studied. Sobel (1974) and Gennery (1979)
solved this problem by using full-scale nonlinear op-
timization. Ganapaphy (1984) derived a noniterative
technique using linear equations. Martins, Birk, and
Kelley (198l) developed the two-planes method,
which does not assume that the camera model is a
pinhole model. Tsai (1985) described a two-stage
technique that decomposes the camera parameters
into two groups: those that can be obtained by solv-
ing linear equations with five unknowns and those
that can be obtained by nonlinear optimization, us-
ing an initial estimation given by solving linear
equations with two unknowns. In these conven-
tional methods the parameters are detected from
points in three-dimensional space and from their
corresponding projection points on the image plane,
Such methods require accurate positioning of the
projection points on the image plane for accurate
detection of the parameters. However, as the posi-
tions of the projection points on the image plane are
easily shifted by noise or changing light sources, it
is difficult to measure them accurately. To deter-
mine accurate parameters, it is important to ignore
the effects of isolated points that are in gross error.
In the method presented here the parameters are
obtained from an image of parallel straight lines,
whose features can be extracted more accurately
than those of projection points. Furthermore, the
influence of errors in the extraction of projected
lines is suppressed, because this technique uses fea-
160 Echigo: A Camera Calibration Teehnklue
tures calculated from several projected lines by the
least square method. A characteristic of the ne:w
method is that the rotation parameters can be de-
rived independently of the translation parameters
and the imaging distance from the lens to the image
plane, so that rotation parameters are not influ-
enced by errors in Ne, translation parameters and
the imaging distance.
2 Definition of the Camera Parameters and
the Geometric Camera Model
The camera parameters are classified into intrir~sic
parameters, which are fixed by the camera, 'the
tens, and the signal converter from analog image
signals to digitalized pkxeI data, and extrinsic pa-
rameters, which are changeable whenever the cam-
era is set up.
The intrinsic parameters are defined as follows:
- Aspect ratio of an image frame
- Coordinates of the intersection of ~he opticat axis
of the lens with the two-dimensional image Nane
(image center).
The. size of a discrete array device (such as a CCD
or MOS) is specified by the device manufacturer,
and its spacing between sensor elements is accu-
rate. The vertical factor of the image plane is fixed,
because of the television (TV) scanning signal. The
horizontat factor of the image Nane is determined
by the camera and ~ analog-to~digimt (Aft)) con-
verter from TV signals to pixet data. Data from the
discrete array device are converted into TV signals
consisting of sequences of scanning lines, with the
interna! clock of the camera as a ho~qzontal syn-
chronous signal. These signals are then transferred
to image acquisition hardware, The analog value
between horizontal synchronous pulses is sampled
by the clock of an A/D converter in the image ac-
quisition hardware and transformed irate pixet da~~
Thus, the aspect ratio is obtained s the ratio of a
row and a column of elements of the discrete array
device ~ d the timing ratio of the camera and A/D
converter. The image center is the intersection of
the Optical axis of the lens and the image plane,
~ i c h is the surface of the discrete device. The lo-
cation of the image center depends on the accuracy
with which the manuNcmrer attached the device to
the camera and the quality of the camera and lens,
For the same camera different lenses may yieN dif-
ferent image centers,
The extrinsic parameters are defined as follows:
9 Direction of the optical axis of the tens
9 Location of the center of the lens
" The imaging distm~ce from the lens to the image
plane
The first group of parameters defines the orientation
of the camera, which consists of three rotation pa-
rm-neters. The second defines the location of the
camera, which consists of three tran,~'4ationparame-
ters, The third is often adjusted so that the lens is
focused on the image plane. In this method the
imaging distance is measured in pixels. Conse-
quently, the scaling factor of the discrete device is
not used, and the ctmaera coordinates are repre-
sented in pixels, Since the intrinsic parameters are
fixed by the camera, the tens, and the image acquisi-
tion hardware, once calibrated, they should not be
changed. However, the extrinsic parameters must
be calibrated every time the camera is set up. This
paper gives a method for determining the extrinsic
p~ameters.
In this method the ideal camera is represented by
a pinhole model. The image of a three-dimensional
point is the intersection of the line-of-sight ray with
a front image plane, The image plane is at a distance
f ( t h e imaging distance) from the tens center on the
option axis and intersects perper~'licularly with the
optical axis. AU lines of sight intersect at the te~s
center, Figure t shows a schematic of the world
coordinate system and the camera coordinate sys-
tem. The world coordinate system is denoted as O-
X Y Z and the came~.a coordinate system as o-xyz;
both have r/ght-handed coordinates,
Let the origin of the camera coordinate system
be the lens center and let the z-axis correspond to
the optical axis of the lens. The relation of the two
coordinate systems can be described as follows, us-
ing tr~.,msformation matrices for rotation (R) and
translation (T).
=R +T (I)
Fiffure 1, World coordinates (O.XYZ) and camera coordi-
nates (o.xyz).
 Echigo: A Camera Calibration Technique
When the unit vectors E~, Ey, and Ez of the camera
coordinate system are expressed in world coordi-
nates, let their factors be
:111 :l [1
]gx = Exy Ey = Eyy Ez = Ezy
kExJ kEyzJ Ezz
The transformation matrix for rotation is then de-
noted by
E~
R = Exy Eyy E~,
Since the orientation of the camera is expressed by
three rotation parameters, the rotation matrix R can
be described as a function of the Euler angles yaw 0,
pitch ~, and tilt ~, as follows:
[cos 0 cos ~ cos to - sin ~ sin O
R = |cos 0 sin ~ cos to + cos ~ sin O
k -sin 0 cos tO
-cos 0 cos ~ sin to - sin ~ cos tO
-cos 0 sin ~ sin to + cos ~ cos to
sin 0 sin
sin 0 cos r
sin 0 sin ~ |
cos 0 J
The transformation matrix T is equivalent to the
position vector of the lens center, which is denoted
as
T=
[tT~
3 Rotation Parameters
The problem of determining camera orientation is
similar to that of determining the surface orientation
of a scene from an a priori geometric model of the
camera for which several methods have been re-
ported (Ohta et al. 1981; Ikeuchi 1984; Shakunaga
and Kaneko 1986). By these methods the orienta-
tion of the camera can be obtained from an image of
patterns However, such methods require that the
imaging distance be given. The new method differs
in that the imaging distance is also an unknown fac-
tor. One of the characteristics of this method is that
the rotation parameters can be obtained indepen-
dently of the translation parameters and the imaging
distance from the lens to the image plane.
161
~ n t e r
t
(2)
G~ ' 'l ) 'g vanishing
', - - ~ N ~. point
(3)
Figure 2. Detecting a virtual line passing through the image
center and a vanishing point by projecting lines on the im-
age plane of parallel lines in three-dimensional space.
To obtain the rotation parameters, sets of parallel
lines are used. Figure 2 shows a set of parallel
straight lines in the three-dimensional world and
their corresponding projection image on the image
plane. They are related by perspective transforma-
tion, so that the projected lines on the image plane
lead to a vanishing point. A line passing through the
image center and the vanishing point on the image
plane is obtained from the projected lines. This is
(4) not projection of a real line in three-dimensional
space, but it is equivalent to projection of a virtual
line parallel to the other lines in three-dimensional
space. This line does not change, even if the camera
is translated, because the position of a vanishing
point is not changed by translation. When the imag-
ing distance from the lens to the image plane is
changed, the vanishing point moves along the line;
(5) however, the line itself on the image plane does not
change. Therefore, this line depends only on the
rotation parameters and is independent of the trans-
lation parameters and the imaging distance from the
lens to the image plane.
The three rotation parameters can be obtained
from three constraints. Three virtual lines passing
through the image center and the vanishing point
can be calculated from three sets of parallel lines
with linearly independent direction vectors. (The
method for determining the virtual lines is described
in Appendix A.) For three virtual lines three simul-
taneous equations are established can be solved al-
gebraically, As Figure 2 illustrates, a straight line g:
a x + by = 0 passing through the image center and
the vanishing point is obtained from a set of parallel
lines in the scene, whose direction vector is G. The
surface normal N of a plane including the straight
line g and the lens center is then expressed as
162 Echigo: A Camera Calibration Technique

N = aEx + bEy (6) the influence of errors in the extraction of projected

The straight line g on the image plane is parallel to
the direction vector G of the parallel lines; thus, the
relationship between the surface normal N and the
direction vector G is N 9 G = 0. For example, let
three vectors G~, Gz, and G3 denote unit vectors of
the world coordinates. Three straight lines a~x +
biy = 0 (i = 1, 2, 3), which are calculated from their
projection lines, give the following simultaneous
equations:
(7)
a2E~y + b2Gy
a3Exz + b3Eyz
Since E~ and Ey are orthogonal unit vectors, E~ and
Ey can be derived from Eqs. (7) and the following
equations:
"~
ET~ 2
+ Exy +
lines is suppressed. The new method is based on
our earlier work (Kasai et al. 1983; Echigo and
Yachida 1985) in which rotation parameters could
be determined automatically from three projected
lines in cases where the imaging distance was
known. However, the parameters determined in
this way were often in gross error, as it is difficult to
extract projected lines on the image plane accu-
rately. This is why the accuracy of the calculated
rotation parameters depends on the accuracy of the
extraction of projected lines on the image plane.
However, the new method suppresses the influence
of errors in the extraction of projected lines, be-
cause it uses three straight lines passing through the
image center, which are calculated from several
projected lines by the least square method. It also
ignores the effects of extracted lines that are in
gross error and can have a large effect on the crite-
rion of the least square method. After the rotation
parameters have been determined, the projection
line (aix + b~ y = ci) that maximizes the value e~ of

+
2
Exz

E2,,, + G
:l
Ez can be calculated from its orthogonality to Ex and
Ey. Details are given in Appendix B. Thus, all the
factors of the rotation matrix R can be obtained
from three sets of parallel lines such as those in
Figure 3. In the new method the rotation parame-
ters can be derived from three sets of parallel lines
independently of the translation parameters and the
imaging distance.
Another characteristic of the new method is that
(8) the following equation is neglected, the three
straight lines are calculated again, and the rotation
parameters are then redetermined.
~i : 2 I(ai- aj)Gx + (bi- bj)Eyxl (9)
J
This procedure is repeated until the value e; is
less than some preset threshold, or for a preset
number of iterations.
4 Translation Parameters
The translation parameters can be determined from
some known points in world coordinates and their
corresponding projection points on the image plane.
Figure 4 illustrates the parallel projection of a point
(X;, Yi:, Z;) in a three-dimensional scene and its
image point (xi, yi) onto the x-y plane in camera

camera coordinates

(xi. v i ) ~ Y
Ex'
x - y plane
Ex, E'y', Ez (z=O)
Figure 3. Rotation parameters from three sets of parallel Figure 4. Parallel projection of a line of sight (to the x-y
lines. plane of the camera coordinates).
 Echigo: A Camera Calibration Technique 163

coordinates. In this figure the world coordinates X; Since Eqs. (12) and (14) are both linear, Tx', Ty, T~,
and I1,.,are expressed by the following camera coor- and f are calculated from more than two points. The
dinates: translation matrix T is then obtained from the fol-
lowing equation:

rx;1
L
r;/=r-,
Z'iJ
[1
Z~
+x' (10) T = -RT' (15)

5 Accuracy Assessment
where
In order to evaluate the accuracy of the calculated
~x E~ camera parameters, the geometric camera model is
R -1 = Ey~ Eyy Ey z reconstructed. When a three-dimensional point is
LE~ E=y Ezz given in world coordinates, its corresponding image
point is projected onto the real image plane. When
T'=-R-'T= t[T~ ry the same point is given to the calculated camera
model, however, the point of intersection of the vir-
From the ratio of (X;, Yi) to (xi, yi) tual image plane of the calculated camera model and
the line connecting the three-dimensional point and
Xi __ X; the calculated lens center is obtained as in Figure 6.
(11)
The real image plane and the virtual image plane are
overlapped, and the calculated point on the virtual
the following equation is derived:
plane is compared with the real projected point on
the image plane. Assuming that the calculated cam-
[__Vi Xi ] [T;~
LTy] = -xi(EyxXi + E,,yYi + EyzZi) era model conforms to the geometry of the real
camera, the calculated point on the virtual plane
+yi(ExxXi + ExyYi + ErzZi) (12) coincides with the real projected point. However,
the calculated point obtained from a camera model
The factor T; of the translation parameters in the containing errors may be plotted to a different posi-
Z direction and the imaging distance f from the lens tion from the real projected point. In this paper the
to the image plane are also determined on the plane measure for evaluating the camera parameters de-
that includes the line of sight and the optical axis of termined by the proposed method is defined as the
the lens, as shown in Figure 5. In the same way, distance between the points.
from the ratio

f Z[
~x-x2 + y/Z ~Sz+
the following equation is derived:
6 Experimental Results
y[2 (13)
6.1 Real Experiments
Before the camera was set up, the intrinsic parame-
ters were determined.

',AT, + x7 - V x ? + r ? 1. Aspect ratio. The camera used was an NEC

CCD camera with a 7.15909-MHz clock and a
= - + (E Xi + E=yh + E zzl) (14)
calculated lens center
real [e_nscente~ / ,
line of line of s i g h ~
real projected~on~//,i'~
I / /"C~lulated p~
,2
J" ;,(.xF +Yi '.)
+h
~ irtual

real mage plane

image plane

t ~Zi '/
Figure 6. Comparison of the real image point and the calcu-
Figure 5. Plane including a line of sight and the optical axis lated point from the geometric camera model reconstructed
of the lens (using the camera coordinates). by using calibrated parameters.
164 Echigo: A Camera Calibration Technique
Figure 7. An object for calibration.
discrete device whose sensor element was 23 x
13.5/xm. The image acquisition hardware had an
A/D converter with a sampling rate of 12.5 MHz.
Thus, the aspect ratio was x : y = 0.975757 : 1.
2. I m a g e c e n t e r . The lens was a Nikon with a focal
length of 50 mm. It has been confirmed experi-
mentally that a lens with a focal length longer
than 35 mm yields very little distortion, so this
technique takes no account of lens distortion.
The image center was determined from the point
on the CCD irradiated by a laser beam whose
radiation coincided with the reflection from the
surface of the lens.
Figure 8. Extraction of projecting lines of three sets of par-
allel lines in the scene.
As shown in Figure 7, an object drawn in a grid
pattern is used to determine the extrinsic parame-
ters. The three edges of the object denote the X, Y,
and Z axes in world coordinates. The image center
is the mark (+) in Figure 8. The three straight lines
in Figure 9 are calculated by the least square
method from perspective projection of the three
sets of parallel lines in Figure 8. After the rotation
parameters have been determined so that errors in
the parameters of lines extracted from the image do
not influence the calculated values of the rotation
parameters, an extracted line (aix + b i y = ci) in
gross error that maximizes the value of Eq. (9) is
neglected, the three straight lines are calculated
again, and the rotation parameters are redeter-
mined. In the experiments this procedure was re-
peated nine times.
The results of calibration of the camera that cap-
tured the image shown in Figure 7 were as follows.
The rotation parameters are expressed in Euler an-
gles.
0 ~ 61.44 Tx = -600.80
~ -35.42 [degrees] ~, = 469.74 [mm]
= 18.55 Tz= -389.93
f = 4154.09 [pixels]
To evaluate this method, the experimental
results were verified by accuracy assessment,
which is defined in section 5. The geometric camera
model was reconstructed from the calculated
results. Given some known three-dimensional
points, the calculated points on the virtual plane
Figure 9. Determination of three straight lines passing
through the image center and vanishing points from three
sets of projecting lines.
 Echigo: A Camera Calibration Technique 165

Figure 10. Overlapping of the real image plane and the

virtual plane of the reconstructed geometric camera model. Figure 12. Overlapping of the real image plane and the
virtual plane of the reconstructed geometric camera model
in another setting of the camera.

were compared with real projection points on the model was reconstructed with an accuracy of coin-
real image plane. When the real image plane was cidence between the real imaging position and the
compared with the calculated virtual plane, as in calculated position of about two pixels. In practice,
Figure 10, the distances from the real image points the lens center was about 850 mm from the origin of
to the calculated points were given, as shown in the world coordinates. Therefore, a line of sight
Figure 11. The image obtained for a different cam- computed from the calculated geometric camera
era setting and the calculated points are shown in model was within 0.4 mm of the vertical plane of the
Figure 12. In the same way, the distances from the optical axis of the camera in the field of view.
real points to the calculated points are shown in
Figure 13. The results of the two experiments were 6.2 Simulation Experiments
similar, despite the different settings of the cam- In the simulation experiments the camera setting
eras. The new method was able to determine cam- was the same as in the first real experiment de-
era parameters robustly, independently of the set- scribed earlier. When the intrinsic and extrinsic pa-
ting of the camera. In the experiments this rameters are selected to have the same values as in
calibration method was able to determine the cam- the first real experiment, the geometric camera
era parameters from which the geometric camera model can be reconstructed. When a three-dimen-

2 ................................................................................................... 2 ....................................................................................... i

i o o i i

o i Z '= !
...............................= ! ~ o ~ .......... i ..... ! .................................
.x • i i :. i o O [ i i
i o ~ io
o d 0
o "T:
o o
............................................. ~ b ~ o - i ; d o - D ........................................... i ......................................
>-
7-
........................... t tto ~ ~ I ................................... Q......o..s o ......... -
-1
i io ~176176
oo
i
i

-2 -2
i i
-2 -1 0 -1 0 1

X Gx[s [pixels] X Gxis [pixds]

Figure 11. Distances from the real image points to the cal- Figure 13. Distances from the real image points to the cal-
culated points. culated points in another setting of the camera.
166 Echigo: A Camera Calibration Technique
Table 1. Comparison of simulation results using our method and Tsai's method
Added Noise Range
-+1 (pixels) Max. error
Ave. error
-+2 (pixels) Max. error
Ave. error
-+3 (pixels) Max. error
Ave. error
sional point is given in world coordinates, its corre-
sponding projected point can be calculated on the
virtual image plane. The data of the image lines for
the simulation experiments can be calculated by the
least square method from projections of three-di-
mensional points along parallel lines in the scene.
The simulation experiments were performed using
the image lines, which were determined from pro-
jected points by adding a noise at random on the
image plane. The way to add noise to projected
points is described as (xi + o~, Yi +/3), where ~,/3
have subpixels in the range of [ - n , +n]. In the X - Y
plane of world coordinates five lines parallel to the
X-axis and five lines parallel to the Y-axis, and on
the Y-Z plane, five lines parallel to the Y-axis and
five lines parallel to the Z-axis were used for the
simulation experiments, and seven extrinsic camera
parameters were obtained from them. For evalua-
tion, the simulation results were verified by accu-
racy assessment in the same way as in the real ex-
periments. The intersections of the simulation data
in the noise-free case were compared with projected
points of the intersections of 10-mm grid pattern on
the X-Y plane and the Y-Z plane in world coordi-
nates, using the camera model reconstructed from
the simulation results. Table 1 shows the results of
accuracy evaluation when the noise range is from
within one pixel to within three pixels. The results
of the simulation experiments show that the calcu-
lated parameters are reasonably accurate. The
other results were obtained from a simulation using
Tsai's single-plane calibration method (Tsai 1985),
which uses image points as data for calibration. The
data for the simulation were the intersections of the
same lines as in the simulation of our method. The
simulation results show that the method presented
here, which uses image lines as features, is more
robust when noise appears than the conventional
method, which uses image points as features.
7 Conclusions
This paper presented a new method of three-dimen-
sional camera calibration. One of the characteristics
Our Method Tsai's
Method
0.569 (pixels) 1.415 (pixels)
0.246 0.369
1.817 (pixels) 2.868 (pixels)
0.510 0.847
1.549 (pixels) 4.113 (pixels)
0.618 1.073
of this method is that the rotation parameters can be
derived independently of the translation parameters
and the imaging distance from the lens to the image
plane, so that the rotation parameters are not influ-
enced by errors in other extrinsic parameters. An-
other characteristic is that the influence of errors in
the extraction of projected lines is suppressed, be-
cause the method uses three straight lines passing
through the image center, which are calculated from
several projected lines by the least square method.
Experimental results showed that the geometric
camera model could be accurately reconstructed
and used for three-dimensional data acquisition.
Accuracy assessment is defined in this paper as
finding the differences between real image points
and points calculated by using the proposed model.
It serves to clarify the limits of the area to be
searched for correspondences of stereo images.
Correspondences of stereo images exist within the
preceding area, which is centered on the coordi-
nates calculated by the constraint of epipolar geom-
etry.
Appendix A Determining the Straight Line
Passing Through the Image
Center and the Vanishing Point
from the Image Lines
The line passing through the image center and the
vanishing point of a group of lines can be calculated
from the image lines projected from a set of parallel
lines in the scene by the least square method. Let
the equation of an image line be
a i x + b i y = ci (A.1)
The surface normal Ni of a plane including the lens
center and the image line is then expressed as
Ci
Hi = aiEx + biEy - ~ Ez (A.2)
J
 Echigo: A Camera Calibration Technique
Let the real line in the scene corresponding to the
image line be parallel to the .X-axis of the world
coordinates. Since the real line is perpendicular to
the vec,tor N;, the following equation can then be
derived:
ci
aiExx + biE~,~ - 7f Ez:, = 0
However, the value of the right-hand side of Eq.
(A.3) yields an error ei, because the parameters ai,
bi, and c~ of the image line have errors created dur-
ing the extraction of the line. When the sum of the
squared errors e 2 in the same group is minimized,
Eq. (Ao3) can be transformed into
{s albi s bici "Z ciai - s c~(E aibi) 2
- b (r. c aO + "Z r.
+ {s albi(s bici) 2 - ~ bai ~ blci "Z ciai}Ey~ = 0
Since Eqs. (A.3) and (A.4) can be taken as identical,
at ci = 0 the values of ai and b~ can be obtained.
Therefore, the straight line passing through the im-
age center and the vanishing point can be derived
from a set of image lines projected from a set of
parallel lines. In the preceding situation the lines in
the scene are parallel to the X-axis; however, the
world coordinates may be fixed at any location so
that the image lines projected from a set of lines
parallel to any vectors can derive the identical equa-
tions and the line passing through the image center,
and the vanishing point can be calculated from any
set of image lines.
Appendix B Deriving the R o t a t i o n
Parameters
From Eqs. (7) and (8) the following simultaneous
equations can be derived:
~ at( a1
t
xx -~1 b3 - a3 + Exy -~ b3 - a3 + a3 =
~ a2 a2
i}
g a3 - g b3 + E 5 ,,3 - g b3 + b3
167
and
~_Ta3 + 2 (b2 b3) b3
~22a3 + =
E2 ~ ( b 3 b ~ a 3 ) + E 2 b2 (b3
_ __ b2
yx al at YY a2 ~22 a3) + a3
(A.3)
(A.6)
The components of Ex and Fq can be determined
from the solution of simultaneous Eqs. (A.5) and
(A.6) and Eq. (8). The signs of" the components are
then obtained from the signs of the image lines pro-
jected from the unit direction vectors of the lines in
the scene. Similarly, the components of Ez can be
determined from the vector product: Ez = Ex x Ey.
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