Algebra 01

Algebra
Nguyen Thieu Huy
Hanoi University of Science and Technology
Nguyen Thieu Huy (HUST) Algebra 1 / 15

Sets
I. Concepts and Operations

1.1 Concepts of sets:
A set is a collection of objects or things. The objects or things in the set
are called elements (or member) of the set.

Sets

Examples:
1 A set of students in a class.
2 The set of countries in ASEAN group.
3 The set of all real numbers, denoted by R.

Sets

Examples:
1.2. Basic notations: Consider set E .

If x is an element of E , then write x ∈ E (pronounce: x belongs to E). If x
is not an element of E , then write x ∈/ E.

Sets

Examples:
1.2. Basic notations: Consider set E .

If x is an element of E , then write x ∈ E (pronounce: x belongs to E). If x
is not an element of E , then write x ∈/ E.
√
Examples: 12 ∈ Q, 2 ∈ / Q.

Useful logical notations:
∃: ‘there exists’
∃!: ’there exists a unique’
∀: ’for each’ or ’for all’
⇒: ’implies’
⇔: ’is equivalent to’ or ’if and only if’

⇒: ’implies’
1.3. Description of sets
Use upper case letters A, B, C and set braces {·} to denote a set.
Three main ways to describe a set:

⇒: ’implies’
Three main ways to describe a set: 1) Roster notation (or listing

notation): to list all the elements of a set in a couple of braces; e.g.,
A = {1, 2, 3, 7} or B = {Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia}.

⇒: ’implies’

2) Set-builder notation: To list the rules that determine whether an object
is an element of the set.

⇒: ’implies’

Example: a. The set of all even integers: A = {2n | n ∈ Z}
The notation "|" means "such that".

⇒: ’implies’

b. The set of real solutions
√ of the inequality
√ x 2 6 2 is
G = {x | x ∈ R and − 2 6 x 6 2}
⇒: ’implies’

b. The set of real solutions
√ of the inequality
√ x 2 6 2 is
G = {x | x ∈ R and − 2 6 x 6 2}
3) Venn diagrams: a closed figure on the plan.
1.4 Subsets, empty set and two equal sets:
a) Subset: A is called a subset of B if from x ∈ A ⇒ x ∈ B.
Denote by A ⊂ B.
By logical expression: A ⊂ B ⇔ (x ∈ A ⇒ x ∈ B)
Venn diagram:

Denote by A ⊂ B.
Venn diagram:
b) Empty set: There is a set that has no element, called an empty (or
void) set, denoted by ∅. Note: For every set A, we have that ∅ ⊂ A.

Denote by A ⊂ B.
Venn diagram:
c) Two equal sets: Let A, B be two sets. A is said to equal B, denoted by
A = B, if and only if A ⊂ B and B ⊂ A.
In logical expression: A = B ⇔ (A ⊂ B) and (B ⊂ A)

Denote by A ⊂ B.
Venn diagram:
c) Two equal sets: Let A, B be two sets. A is said to equal B, denoted by
A = B, if and only if A ⊂ B and B ⊂ A.
In logical expression: A = B ⇔ (A ⊂ B) and (B ⊂ A)
1.5. Operations:
♣ Intersection: The intersection of A and B, denoted by A ∩ B, is
A ∩ B := {x | x ∈ A and x ∈ B} . So,
x ∈A
x ∈ A ∩ B ⇔ (x ∈ A) and (x ∈ B) ⇔
x ∈B
Venn diagram:
♣ Union: The union of A and B, denoted by A ∪ B, is by
A ∪ B := {x | x ∈ A or x ∈ B} . Hence,

x ∈A
x ∈ A ∪ B ⇔ (x ∈ A) or (x ∈ B) ⇔
x ∈B
Venn diagram:

A ∪ B := {x | x ∈ A or x ∈ B} . Hence,

x ∈A
x ∈ A ∪ B ⇔ (x ∈ A) or (x ∈ B) ⇔
x ∈B
Venn diagram:
♣ Subtraction: The subtraction of A and B, denoted by A \ B (or A − B),
is A \ B = {x|x ∈ A and x ∈
/ B}. Hence,
x ∈ A \ B ⇔ (x ∈ A) and (x ∈ / B).
Venn diagram:

A ∪ B := {x | x ∈ A or x ∈ B} . Hence,

x ∈A
x ∈ A ∪ B ⇔ (x ∈ A) or (x ∈ B) ⇔
x ∈B
Venn diagram:
♣ Subtraction: The subtraction of A and B, denoted by A \ B (or A − B),
is A \ B = {x|x ∈ A and x ∈
/ B}. Hence,
x ∈ A \ B ⇔ (x ∈ A) and (x ∈ / B).
Venn diagram:
♣ Complement of a set: Let A and X be two sets such that A ⊂ X . The
complement of A in X , denoted by {X A (or A0 when X is clearly
understood), is {X A = X \ A = {x|x ∈ X and x ∈/ A} = {x|x ∈/ A} (when
X is clearly understood)

Examples. Consider X = R; A = [0, 3] = {x|x ∈ R and 0 6 x 6 3},
B = [−1, 2] = {x|x ∈ R and − 1 6 x 6 2} .
Then,
1. A ∩ B = {x ∈ R|0 6 x 6 3 and − 1 6 x 6 2} = {x ∈ R|0 6 x 6 2} =
[0, 2]

B = [−1, 2] = {x|x ∈ R and − 1 6 x 6 2} .
Then,
1. A ∩ B = {x ∈ R|0 6 x 6 3 and − 1 6 x 6 2} = {x ∈ R|0 6 x 6 2} =
[0, 2]
2. A ∪ B = {x ∈ R|0 6 x 6 3 or − 1 6 x 6 2} =
{x ∈ R | −1 6 x 6 3} = [−1, 3]

B = [−1, 2] = {x|x ∈ R and − 1 6 x 6 2} .
Then,
1. A ∩ B = {x ∈ R|0 6 x 6 3 and − 1 6 x 6 2} = {x ∈ R|0 6 x 6 2} =
[0, 2]
2. A ∪ B = {x ∈ R|0 6 x 6 3 or − 1 6 x 6 2} =
{x ∈ R | −1 6 x 6 3} = [−1, 3]
3. A \ B = {x ∈ R | 0 6 x 6 3 and x ∈
/ [−1, 2]} = {x ∈ R | 2 < x 6 3} =
(2, 3]

B = [−1, 2] = {x|x ∈ R and − 1 6 x 6 2} .
Then,
1. A ∩ B = {x ∈ R|0 6 x 6 3 and − 1 6 x 6 2} = {x ∈ R|0 6 x 6 2} =
[0, 2]
2. A ∪ B = {x ∈ R|0 6 x 6 3 or − 1 6 x 6 2} =
{x ∈ R | −1 6 x 6 3} = [−1, 3]
3. A \ B = {x ∈ R | 0 6 x 6 3 and x ∈/ [−1, 2]} = {x ∈ R | 2 < x 6 3} =
(2, 3]
4. A0 = R \ A = {x ∈ R | x < 0 or x > 3}

B = [−1, 2] = {x|x ∈ R and − 1 6 x 6 2} .
Then,
1. A ∩ B = {x ∈ R|0 6 x 6 3 and − 1 6 x 6 2} = {x ∈ R|0 6 x 6 2} =
[0, 2]
2. A ∪ B = {x ∈ R|0 6 x 6 3 or − 1 6 x 6 2} =
{x ∈ R | −1 6 x 6 3} = [−1, 3]
3. A \ B = {x ∈ R | 0 6 x 6 3 and x ∈ / [−1, 2]} = {x ∈ R | 2 < x 6 3} =
(2, 3]
4. A0 = R \ A = {x ∈ R | x < 0 or x > 3}
II. Set equalities: Let A, B, C be sets. The following set equalities are often
used in many problems related to set theory.
1 A ∪ B = B ∪ A; A ∩ B = B ∩ A (Commutative law)

B = [−1, 2] = {x|x ∈ R and − 1 6 x 6 2} .
Then,
1. A ∩ B = {x ∈ R|0 6 x 6 3 and − 1 6 x 6 2} = {x ∈ R|0 6 x 6 2} =
[0, 2]
2. A ∪ B = {x ∈ R|0 6 x 6 3 or − 1 6 x 6 2} =
{x ∈ R | −1 6 x 6 3} = [−1, 3]
3. A \ B = {x ∈ R | 0 6 x 6 3 and x ∈ / [−1, 2]} = {x ∈ R | 2 < x 6 3} =
(2, 3]
4. A0 = R \ A = {x ∈ R | x < 0 or x > 3}
2 (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C ); (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C ) (Associative
law)

B = [−1, 2] = {x|x ∈ R and − 1 6 x 6 2} .
Then,
1. A ∩ B = {x ∈ R|0 6 x 6 3 and − 1 6 x 6 2} = {x ∈ R|0 6 x 6 2} =
[0, 2]
2. A ∪ B = {x ∈ R|0 6 x 6 3 or − 1 6 x 6 2} =
{x ∈ R | −1 6 x 6 3} = [−1, 3]
3. A \ B = {x ∈ R | 0 6 x 6 3 and x ∈ / [−1, 2]} = {x ∈ R | 2 < x 6 3} =
(2, 3]
4. A0 = R \ A = {x ∈ R | x < 0 or x > 3}
law)
3 A ∪ (B ∩ C ) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C ); A ∩ (B ∪ C ) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C )
(Distributive law)

B = [−1, 2] = {x|x ∈ R and − 1 6 x 6 2} .
Then,
1. A ∩ B = {x ∈ R|0 6 x 6 3 and − 1 6 x 6 2} = {x ∈ R|0 6 x 6 2} =
[0, 2]
2. A ∪ B = {x ∈ R|0 6 x 6 3 or − 1 6 x 6 2} =
{x ∈ R | −1 6 x 6 3} = [−1, 3]
3. A \ B = {x ∈ R | 0 6 x 6 3 and x ∈ / [−1, 2]} = {x ∈ R | 2 < x 6 3} =
(2, 3]
4. A0 = R \ A = {x ∈ R | x < 0 or x > 3}
law)
3 A ∪ (B ∩ C ) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C ); A ∩ (B ∪ C ) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C )
(Distributive law)
4 A \ B = A ∩ B 0,

Proof.

x ∈A
(3): Using the logical expression: x ∈ A ∪ (B ∩ C ) ⇔
x ∈ (B ∩ C )
"

 x ∈A
 
x(∈ A  x ∈B

 (
 x ∈B
 x ∈A∪B
⇔ ⇔ ⇔
 " x ∈A∪C
x ∈C 


 x ∈A

x ∈C

⇔ x ∈ (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C ).
This yields A ∪ (B ∩ C ) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C ).
The proofs of other equalities are left for the readers as exercises.

III. Cartesian products
3.1. Definition:
1. Given two sets A, B. The Cartesian product of A and B, denoted by
A × B, is A × B = {(x, y ) | (x ∈ A) and (y ∈ B)} .

3.1. Definition:
2. Given n sets A1 , A2 · · · An . The Cartesian Product of A1 , A2 · · · An ,
denoted by A1 × A2 × · · · × An , is
A1 × A2 × · · · × An = {(x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ) | xi ∈ Ai ∀i = 1, 2, . . . , n}

3.1. Definition:
A1 × A2 × · · · × An = {(x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ) | xi ∈ Ai ∀i = 1, 2, . . . , n}
In case, A1 = A2 = · · · = An = A, we denote
A1 × A2 × · · · × An = A × A × · · · × A = An .

3.1. Definition:
A1 × A2 × · · · × An = {(x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ) | xi ∈ Ai ∀i = 1, 2, . . . , n}
A1 × A2 × · · · × An = A × A × · · · × A = An .
3.2. Equality of elements in a Cartesian product:

1. Consider A × B. Then, two elements (a, b) and (c, d ) of A × B are
equal if and only if(a = c and b = d . In other words,
a=c
(a, b) = (c, d ) ⇔
b=d

3.1. Definition:
A1 × A2 × · · · × An = {(x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ) | xi ∈ Ai ∀i = 1, 2, . . . , n}
A1 × A2 × · · · × An = A × A × · · · × A = An .
3.2. Equality of elements in a Cartesian product:

1. Consider A × B. Then, two elements (a, b) and (c, d ) of A × B are
equal if and only if(a = c and b = d . In other words,
a=c
(a, b) = (c, d ) ⇔
b=d
2. Consider A1 × A2 × · · · × An . Then, for (x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ) and
(y1 , y2 , · · · , yn ) in A1 × A2 × · · · × An , we have
(x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ) = (y1 , y2 , · · · , yn ) ⇔ xi = yi ∀i = 1, 2, . . . , n
Mappings
I. Definition and examples
1.1. Definition:
Consider X 6= ∅, and Y 6= ∅. A mapping with domain X and range Y , is
an ordered triple (X , Y , f ) where f assigns to each x ∈ X a well-defined
f (x) ∈ Y . The statement that (X , Y , f ) is a mapping is written as
f
f : X → Y (or X → Y ).

Mappings
1.1. Definition:
f
f : X → Y (or X → Y ).
“well-defined": for each x ∈ X ∃!f (x) ∈ Y .

Mappings
1.1. Definition:
f
f : X → Y (or X → Y ).

A mapping is sometimes called a map or a function.

Mappings
1.1. Definition:
f
f : X → Y (or X → Y ).

1.2. Examples: 1. f : R → [−1, 1]; f (x) = sin x ∀x ∈ R

Mappings
1.1. Definition:
f
f : X → Y (or X → Y ).

2. f : X → X ; f (x) = x ∀x ∈ X . This is called the identity mapping on the
set X , denoted by IX .

Mappings
1.1. Definition:
f
f : X → Y (or X → Y ).

2. f : X → X ; f (x) = x ∀x ∈ X . This is called the identity mapping on the
set X , denoted by IX .
1.3. Notation
f :X → Y
x 7→ f (x)
to indicate: f (x) is assigned to x.
f g
1.4. Equality of mappings: Two mapping X → Y and U → V are equal if
and only if X = U, Y = V , and f (x) = g (x) ∀x ∈ X . Then, we write
f = g.

f g
f = g.
II. Compositions
2.1. Definition:
Given two mappings: f : X → Y and g : Y → W (or shortly,
f g
X → Y → W ), define h : X → W by h(x) = g (f (x)) ∀x ∈ X . Then, h is
called the composition of g and f , denoted by h = g ◦ f , that is,
(g ◦ f )(x) = g (f (x)) ∀x ∈ X .

f g
f = g.
II. Compositions
2.1. Definition:
f g
(g ◦ f )(x) = g (f (x)) ∀x ∈ X .
f g
2.2. Example: R → R+ → R− , here R+ = [0, ∞) and R− = (−∞, 0].
f (x) = x 2 ∀x ∈ R; and g (x) = −x ∀x ∈ R+ . Then,
(g ◦ f )(x) = g (f (x)) = −x 2 .

f g
f = g.
II. Compositions
2.1. Definition:
f g
(g ◦ f )(x) = g (f (x)) ∀x ∈ X .
f g
2.2. Example: R → R+ → R− , here R+ = [0, ∞) and R− = (−∞, 0].
f (x) = x 2 ∀x ∈ R; and g (x) = −x ∀x ∈ R+ . Then,
(g ◦ f )(x) = g (f (x)) = −x 2 .
2.3. Remark: In general, f ◦ g 6= g ◦ f .
f g
Example: R → R → R; f (x) = x 2 ; g (x) = 2x + 1 ∀x ∈ R. Since,
f (g (x)) = (2x + 1)2 but g (f (x)) = 2x 2 + 1 ∀x ∈ R.
Composition is not commutative, but is associative:
(g ◦ f ) ◦ u = g ◦ (f ◦ u)
III. Image and Inverse Images
3.1. Definition:
Consider f : X → Y .
1 For S ⊂ X , the image of S by f in a subset of Y, defined by
f (S) = {f (s) | s ∈ S} = {y ∈ Y | ∃s ∈ S with f (s) = y }.

3.1. Definition:
2 For T ⊂ Y , the inverse image of T by f is a subset of X , defined
by f −1 (T ) = {x ∈ X | f (x) ∈ T } . So, x ∈ f −1 (T ) ⇔ f (x) ∈ T .

3.1. Definition:
Example 1: f : R → R, f (x) =x 2 ∀x ∈ R. S = [−1, 2] ⊂ R;

f (S) = {f (s) | s ∈ [−1, 2]} = s 2 | s ∈ [−1, 2] = [0, 4].

3.1. Definition:

f (S) = {f (s) | s ∈ [−1, 2]} = s 2 | s ∈ [−1, 2] = [0, 4].
Example 2: f : R \ {2} → R; f (x) = x+1 x−2 ∀x ∈ R \ {2} .
S = (−∞, −1] ⊂ R; f (S) −1
n o = {x ∈ R \ {2} | f (x) 6 −1} =
x+1
x ∈ R \ {2} | x−2 6 −1 = [−1/2, 2).

3.1. Definition:

f (S) = {f (s) | s ∈ [−1, 2]} = s 2 | s ∈ [−1, 2] = [0, 4].
Example 2: f : R \ {2} → R; f (x) = x+1 x−2 ∀x ∈ R \ {2} .
S = (−∞, −1] ⊂ R; f (S) −1
n o = {x ∈ R \ {2} | f (x) 6 −1} =
x+1
x ∈ R \ {2} | x−2 6 −1 = [−1/2, 2).
3.2. Definition:
Let f : X → Y be a mapping. The image of the domain X , f (X ), is called
the image of f , denoted by Imf . That is to say,
Imf = f (X ) = {f (x) | x ∈ X } = {y ∈ Y | ∃x ∈ X with f (x) = y } .
3.3. Properties of images and inverse images:
Let f : X → Y be a mapping; A, B ⊂ X and C , D ⊂ Y . Then,

1) f (A ∪ B) = f (A) ∪ f (B)


1) f (A ∪ B) = f (A) ∪ f (B)
2) f (A ∩ B) ⊂ f (A) ∩ f (B)


1) f (A ∪ B) = f (A) ∪ f (B)
2) f (A ∩ B) ⊂ f (A) ∩ f (B)
3) f −1 (C ∪ D) = f −1 (C ) ∪ f −1 (D)


1) f (A ∪ B) = f (A) ∪ f (B)
2) f (A ∩ B) ⊂ f (A) ∩ f (B)
3) f −1 (C ∪ D) = f −1 (C ) ∪ f −1 (D)
4) f −1 (C ∩ D) = f −1 (C ) ∩ f −1 (D)


1) f (A ∪ B) = f (A) ∪ f (B)
2) f (A ∩ B) ⊂ f (A) ∩ f (B)
3) f −1 (C ∪ D) = f −1 (C ) ∪ f −1 (D)
4) f −1 (C ∩ D) = f −1 (C ) ∩ f −1 (D)
Proof: (1) : Since A ⊂ A ∪ B and B ⊂ A ∪ B, it follows that
f (A) ⊂ f (⊂ A ∪ B) and f (B) ⊂ f (⊂ A ∪ B). These inclusions yield
f (A) ∪ f (B) ⊂ f (A ∪ B).


1) f (A ∪ B) = f (A) ∪ f (B)
2) f (A ∩ B) ⊂ f (A) ∩ f (B)
3) f −1 (C ∪ D) = f −1 (C ) ∪ f −1 (D)
4) f −1 (C ∩ D) = f −1 (C ) ∩ f −1 (D)
f (A) ∪ f (B) ⊂ f (A ∪ B).
Conversely, take any y ∈ f (A ∪ B). Then, by definition of an Image, there
exists an x ∈ A ∪ B, such that y = f (x).


1) f (A ∪ B) = f (A) ∪ f (B)
2) f (A ∩ B) ⊂ f (A) ∩ f (B)
3) f −1 (C ∪ D) = f −1 (C ) ∪ f −1 (D)
4) f −1 (C ∩ D) = f −1 (C ) ∩ f −1 (D)
f (A) ∪ f (B) ⊂ f (A ∪ B).
But, this implies that y = f (x) ∈ f (A) (if x ∈ A) or y = f (x) ∈ f (B) (if
x ∈ B). Hence, y ∈ f (A) ∪ f (B). This yields that
f (A ∪ B) ⊂ f (A) ∪ f (B). Therefore, f (A ∪ B) = f (A) ∪ f (B).


1) f (A ∪ B) = f (A) ∪ f (B)
2) f (A ∩ B) ⊂ f (A) ∩ f (B)
3) f −1 (C ∪ D) = f −1 (C ) ∪ f −1 (D)
4) f −1 (C ∩ D) = f −1 (C ) ∩ f −1 (D)
f (A) ∪ f (B) ⊂ f (A ∪ B).
But, this implies that y = f (x) ∈ f (A) (if x ∈ A) or y = f (x) ∈ f (B) (if
x ∈ B). Hence, y ∈ f (A) ∪ f (B). This yields that
f (A ∪ B) ⊂ f (A) ∪ f (B). Therefore, f (A ∪ B) = f (A) ∪ f (B).
(3): x ∈ f −1 (C ∪ D) ⇔ f (x) ∈ C ∪ D ⇔ (f (x) ∈ C or f (x) ∈ D)
⇔ (x ∈ f −1 (C ) or x ∈ f −1 (D)) ⇔ x f −1 (C ) ∪ f −1 (D). Hence,
f −1 (C ∪ D) = f −1 (C ) ∪ f −1 (D)

IV. Injective, Surjective, Bijective, and Inverse Mappings
4.1. Definition:
Let f : X → Y be a mapping.
1 The mapping is called surjective (or onto) ⇐⇒ Imf = Y , or
equivalently, ∀y ∈ Y , ∃x ∈ X such that f (x) = y .

4.1. Definition:
2 The mapping is called injective (or one–to–one)
⇐⇒ (For x1 , x2 ∈ X if f (x1 ) = f (x2 ), then x1 = x2 .)

4.1. Definition:
This condition is equivalent to:
For x1 , x2 ∈ X if x1 6= x2 , then f (x1 ) 6= f (x2 ).

4.1. Definition:
3 The mapping is called bijective ⇐⇒ it is surjective and injective.

4.1. Definition:
f
1. R → R; f (x) = sin x ∀x ∈ R.

4.1. Definition:
f
1. R → R; f (x) = sin x ∀x ∈ R.
This mapping is not injective since f (0) = f (2π) = 0. It is also not
surjective, because, f (R) = Im f = [−1, 1] 6= R.

4.1. Definition:
f
1. R → R; f (x) = sin x ∀x ∈ R.
f
2. f : R → [−1, 1], f (x) = sin x ∀x ∈ R.

4.1. Definition:
f
1. R → R; f (x) = sin x ∀x ∈ R.
f
2. f : R → [−1, 1], f (x) = sin x ∀x ∈ R. (surjective, but not injective.)

3. f : [− π2 , π2 ] → R; f (x) = sin x ∀x ∈ [− π2 , π2 ]

3. f : [− π2 , π2 ] → R; f (x) = sin x ∀x ∈ [− π2 , π2 ] This mapping is injective
but not surjective.

but not surjective.
4. f : [− π2 , π2 ] → [−1, 1]; f (x) = sin x ∀x ∈ [− π2 , π2 ]

but not surjective.
4. f : [− π2 , π2 ] → [−1, 1]; f (x) = sin x ∀x ∈ [− π2 , π2 ] (bijective.)

but not surjective.
NOTE. f : X → Y is bijective ⇐⇒ ∀y ∈ Y ∃!x ∈ X such that y = f (x).

but not surjective.
4.2. Definition (Inverse Mapping): Reminder
Let f : X → Y be a bijective mapping. Then, the mapping g : Y → X

satisfying g ◦ f = IX and f ◦ g = IY is called the inverse mapping of f ,
denoted by g = f −1 .

but not surjective.

For f : X → Y bijective, there is a unique mapping g : Y → X satisfying

g ◦ f = IX and f ◦ g = IY . In fact, since f is bijective, define g : Y → X
by g (y ) = x if f (x) = y .

but not surjective.


by g (y ) = x if f (x) = y . This gives us a mapping. Clearly,
g (f (x)) = x ∀x ∈ X and f (g (y )) = y ∀y ∈ Y . Therefore, g ◦ f = IX and
f ◦ g = IY .

but not surjective.


f ◦ g = IY . The above g is unique (Homework).

but not surjective.


f ◦ g = IY . The above g is unique (Homework). Examples.
f : [− π2 , π2 ] → [−1, 1]; f (x) = sin x ∀x ∈ [− π2 , π2 ]

but not surjective.


f ◦ g = IY . The above g is unique (Homework). Examples.
f : [− π2 , π2 ] → [−1, 1]; f (x) = sin x ∀x ∈ [− π2 , π2 ] This mapping is
bijective. The inverse mapping f −1 : [−1, 1] → [− π2 , π2 ] is denoted by
f −1 = arcsin, so, f −1 (x) = arcsin x ∀x ∈ [−1, 1]. Also,
arcsin(sin x) = x ∀x ∈ [− π2 , π2 ] and sin(arcsin x) = x ∀x ∈ [−1, 1].
Reminder
IX : X → X ; IX (x) = x ∀x ∈ X . This is called the identity mapping on the

set X . Return

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Algebra

Nguyen Thieu Huy

Hanoi University of Science and Technology

Nguyen Thieu Huy (HUST) Algebra 1 / 15

I. Concepts and Operations

Nguyen Thieu Huy (HUST) Algebra 2 / 15

I. Concepts and Operations

Nguyen Thieu Huy (HUST) Algebra 2 / 15

I. Concepts and Operations

1.2. Basic notations: Consider set E .

Nguyen Thieu Huy (HUST) Algebra 2 / 15

I. Concepts and Operations

1.2. Basic notations: Consider set E .

Nguyen Thieu Huy (HUST) Algebra 2 / 15

Nguyen Thieu Huy (HUST) Algebra 3 / 15

Three main ways to describe a set:

Nguyen Thieu Huy (HUST) Algebra 3 / 15

Three main ways to describe a set: 1) Roster notation (or listing

Nguyen Thieu Huy (HUST) Algebra 3 / 15

Three main ways to describe a set: 1) Roster notation (or listing

Nguyen Thieu Huy (HUST) Algebra 3 / 15

Three main ways to describe a set: 1) Roster notation (or listing

Nguyen Thieu Huy (HUST) Algebra 3 / 15

Three main ways to describe a set: 1) Roster notation (or listing

Three main ways to describe a set: 1) Roster notation (or listing

Nguyen Thieu Huy (HUST) Algebra 4 / 15

Nguyen Thieu Huy (HUST) Algebra 4 / 15

Nguyen Thieu Huy (HUST) Algebra 4 / 15

Nguyen Thieu Huy (HUST) Algebra 5 / 15

Nguyen Thieu Huy (HUST) Algebra 5 / 15

Nguyen Thieu Huy (HUST) Algebra 5 / 15

Nguyen Thieu Huy (HUST) Algebra 6 / 15

Nguyen Thieu Huy (HUST) Algebra 6 / 15

Nguyen Thieu Huy (HUST) Algebra 6 / 15

Nguyen Thieu Huy (HUST) Algebra 6 / 15

Nguyen Thieu Huy (HUST) Algebra 6 / 15

Nguyen Thieu Huy (HUST) Algebra 6 / 15

Nguyen Thieu Huy (HUST) Algebra 6 / 15

Nguyen Thieu Huy (HUST) Algebra 6 / 15

Nguyen Thieu Huy (HUST) Algebra 7 / 15

Nguyen Thieu Huy (HUST) Algebra 8 / 15

Nguyen Thieu Huy (HUST) Algebra 8 / 15

Nguyen Thieu Huy (HUST) Algebra 8 / 15

3.2. Equality of elements in a Cartesian product:

Nguyen Thieu Huy (HUST) Algebra 8 / 15

3.2. Equality of elements in a Cartesian product:

Nguyen Thieu Huy (HUST) Algebra 9 / 15

“well-defined": for each x ∈ X ∃!f (x) ∈ Y .

Nguyen Thieu Huy (HUST) Algebra 9 / 15

“well-defined": for each x ∈ X ∃!f (x) ∈ Y .

Nguyen Thieu Huy (HUST) Algebra 9 / 15

“well-defined": for each x ∈ X ∃!f (x) ∈ Y .

Nguyen Thieu Huy (HUST) Algebra 9 / 15

“well-defined": for each x ∈ X ∃!f (x) ∈ Y .

Nguyen Thieu Huy (HUST) Algebra 9 / 15

“well-defined": for each x ∈ X ∃!f (x) ∈ Y .

Nguyen Thieu Huy (HUST) Algebra 10 / 15

Nguyen Thieu Huy (HUST) Algebra 10 / 15

Nguyen Thieu Huy (HUST) Algebra 10 / 15

Nguyen Thieu Huy (HUST) Algebra 11 / 15

Nguyen Thieu Huy (HUST) Algebra 11 / 15

Example 1: f : R → R, f (x) =x 2 ∀x ∈ R. S = [−1, 2] ⊂ R;

Example 1: f : R → R, f (x) =x 2 ∀x ∈ R. S = [−1, 2] ⊂ R;

Example 1: f : R → R, f (x) =x 2 ∀x ∈ R. S = [−1, 2] ⊂ R;

Example 1: f : R → R, f (x) =x 2 ∀x ∈ R. S = [−1, 2] ⊂ R;