EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE (Quarter 2) embryo. The ovule becomes the seed.
embryo. The ovule becomes the seed. The ovary swells up and ripens to
Lesson 1: The Beginning of Life
The universe is about 4.6 billion years old. The formation of the earth along
with other planets of our solar system is believed to have occurred some 4.5
billion years ago. Life on earth, however, probably began only between 3.5 and
4.0 billion years ago. The important question is how was life first formed?
1. Every species was individually created by God in the form in which it
exists today and is not capable of undergoing any change. (Theory of
Special Creation)
2. Life forms can be generated from inanimate objects. (Spontaneous
Generation Theory)
 Francesco Redi (Italian Biologist) falsified spontaneous generation
theory through experimenting with rotting meat and maggots.
 Lazaro Spallanzani likewise tried to disprove the spontaneous
generation theory by performing a controlled experiment with broth.
3. Life was thought to arise naturally and continually from nonliving
matter. (Abiogenesis)
 The Oparin-Haldane Theory (Aleksandr Oparin & J.B.S. Haldane)
First life-forms appeared in the warm, primitive ocean.
 The Miller-Urey Experiment (Stanley Miller & Harold Urey)
These two scientists found that simple organic molecules,
including amino acids (the building blocks of proteins), had formed
under the primitive ocean, the prebiotic atmosphere, and heat.
Lesson 2: The Cellular Basis of Life
The systematic study of the cellular basis of life was started when Robert
Hooke first observed tiny compartments in a sliced piece of cork from a mature
tree. He gave them the Latin name cellulae (meaning small rooms) hence the
origin of the biological term “cell”. By 1839, the Zoologist Theodore Schwann
reported the presence of cells in animal tissues. Mathias Schleiden concluded
that cells are present in all plant tissues. Rudolf Virchow found out that cells
divide to form new cells. Robert Brown discovered the presence of nuclei within
cells.
These observations came to be known as the first principles of the cell theory
which states that:
1. All living things are structurally made up of cells.
2. The cell is the fundamental unit of organizations for all organisms.
3. Cells come from the division of pre-existing cells.
Cytology is the study of cells. All living things are made up of cells. Life starts
from a cell – a fertilized egg or zygote. A zygote divides into two and each newly
formed cell subdivides. Further divisions from a multitude of cells organize into
tissues, tissues into organs, and organs into organ systems. Some organisms
are very simple in structure, such as single-celled organisms, and some are very
complex like humans.
Lesson 3: Perpetuation of Life
It is the process by which all living organisms produce one of their kinds to
ensure the survival of the species. The perpetuation of life is dependent on this
process.
Plant Reproduction
The reproductive organ of plants is the flower. A flower has four sets of
organs, namely sepals, petals, stamens, and pistils. Petals are collectively called
corolla, sepals are called calyx. A flower that has all four sets of organs is said to
be complete, and one that lacks one of these organs is described as incomplete.
The pistil consists of three parts: the stigma, style, and ovary. The stamen has
the anther and the filament.
Sexual Reproduction in Plants
 Pollination – is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of a
flower. If the transfer involves the same flower, it is termed self-pollination.
If the transfer is from one flower of one plant to another plant, it is called
cross-pollination. Agents of pollination are insects, wind, water, birds, and
humans.
 Fertilization – The pollen grain that lands on the stigma develops a pollen
tube that grows down through the style and into the ovary where the ovule
is located. The sperm travels down the pollen tube and fertilizes the egg
cell inside the ovule. The fertilized egg called the zygote develops into the
form a fruit.
Asexual Reproduction in Plants
Natural Methods
1. Budding - a new plant is developed from an outgrowth known as the
bud.
2. Vegetative Propagation - new plants are produced from the vegetative
parts of the plants like roots, stems, and leaves.
Artificial Methods
1. Grafting - the parts of two different plants are joined together such that
they continue to grow as a single plant.
2. Layering - a stem attached to a plant is lowered in the ground and
covered with soil.
Animal Reproduction
There are unusual styles of reproduction in the Kingdom Animalia. Animals
can reproduce either asexually or sexually.
Do you know that it is the male seahorse that becomes pregnant and gives
birth to its young? If the male seahorse dies, the largest female becomes a male.
Find out other interesting facts about animal reproduction.
Sexual Reproduction in Animals
1. External Fertilization. This type of sexual reproduction is marked by the
release of both sperm and eggs into an external environment. It occurs
when the sperm fertilizes the egg outside of the organism, mostly in wet
environments. Amphibians and fish are examples of animals that reproduce
this way.
2. Internal Fertilization. In this type of sexual reproduction, the sperm fertilizes
the egg within the female. It includes three methods:
a) Oviparity. Oviparous animals retain the fertilized egg inside the body where
development occurs and nourishment is received from the yolk. They
include those that reproduce by laying eggs, like insects, arachnids,
birds, and egg-laying mammals.
b) Ovoviviparity. Ovoviviparous animals produce eggs that develop within the
mother’s body. When the eggs hatch within the mother, the offspring
stay within the mother for some time, eating unfertilized eggs in the
womb for nourishment. Some examples are sharks, snakes, and other
insects.
c) Viviparity. A young develop within the female and nourishment is received
directly from the mother through a placenta. Viviparous animals like
humans and most mammals give birth to living young that have been
nourished in close contact with their mother’s bodies.
Asexual Reproduction in Animals
Several types of invertebrates, such as sponges, cnidarians, flatworms,
annelids, and echinoderms, can reproduce asexually.
 Budding. This occurs when an offspring grows out of the body of the parent.
Example is hydra.
 Gemmation. This happens when an organism spontaneously develops a
bulge that turns out into a new organism. Examples are sponges.
 Fragmentation. This occurs when one part of an organism give rise to
another. In the case of flatworms, the animal splits at a particular joint and
the two fragments regenerate the missing organs and tissues.
 Regeneration. This happens when there is a regrowth of new parts of an
organism’s body to replace those that have been damaged. This enables a
green anole lizard to grow back a lost tail.
Lesson 4: Genetic Engineering
In the previous lesson, you have learned that naturally, organisms inherit
traits only from their parent/s. However, as advancements in biotechnology
progresses, scientists have made new discoveries and innovation as regards
genetics. Today, through genetic engineering, organisms can artificially acquire
traits from a different organism other than its parent/s.
Genetic Engineering
Genetic engineering is the modification of an organism’s DNA by artificial
means to give the organism new traits. The resulting organism is called a
transgenic or Genetically Modified Organism (GMO).
 The principle of genetic engineering is based on recombinant DNA
technology. Recombinant DNA is the DNA that contains genes from more than
one organism. In genetic engineering, bacteria is commonly used because they
have tiny rings of DNA called plasmids.
The process of Recombinant DNA technology shows the following:
1. An isolated gene from a gene donor (e.g. the insulin gene) and bacterial
plasmid from a plasmid donor are cut by a restriction enzyme.
2. Certain enzymes can “paste” or “install” the genes you want into the plasmid
of another organism.
3. The DNA can be reinserted and contain the recombinant DNA, which will
produce the polypeptide it codes for.
4. After a gene is inserted to a plasmid, the genetically engineered plasmids
can be put into bacteria.
5. The bacteria will act like a gene factory that makes copies of the plasmid –
making new genes and gene’s product.
6. The resulting organism (bacteria) is called transgenic organism. Organisms
that altered genomes are known as transgenics. Most transgenic organisms
are generated in the laboratory for research purposes.
Production of Novel Products
Because of the advances in biotechnology, genetic engineering now refers to
the technologies used to alter or modify the genetic makeup of cells to produce
improved or novel organisms and organic products.
Genetic engineering in plants allows scientists to develop plants that are
pest-resistant. One example is the Bt corn which is resistant to pests, thereby
making the grain plant a natural pesticide. The Bt corn is an example of a
genetically modified crop.
To make a Bt corn, scientists inserted a gene from Bacillus thuringiensis – a
bacterium that produces the crystal toxin protein – into the DNA of the corn,
thereby making the corn poisonous to insects. For more than a decade already,
the Bt corn has been commercially available in the Philippines. The first GM crop
grown in the Philippines, the Bt corn is just like any corn, except that it is
poisonous to its target pests. According to Dr. Antonio Laurena, a Research
Professor at the Institute of Plant Breeding in the U.P. Los Baños, there has
been no recorded side effects so far, to nontarget organisms, such as humans,
animals, and even other plants and friendly insects. Other scientists however,
have disagreed, reporting that Bt corn has killed nontarget insects, such as
honeybees and ladybugs.
Recently, Filipino scientists are campaigning for the commercialization of Bt
eggplant, an eggplant that possesses the same Bt gene as the Bt corn, and of
Golden Rice, a GM rice that contains beta carotene from corn. According to
scientists lobbying for GM crops, the latter is a new solution to problem of
Vitamin A deficiency as the novel rice has beta carotene, a precursor of Vitamin
A. The so-called golden rice has a margarine yellow color.
In the animal kingdom, genetic engineering is also applied. One example of
a GM animal is the transgenic chicken. Transgenic chickens grow faster than
sheep and goats and large numbers can be grown in close quarters, and they
synthesize several grams of protein in the “white” of their eggs. Another is the
transgenic pig which has also been produced by fertilizing a normal egg with a
sperm cell that has incorporated foreign DNA. This procedure, called sperm-
mediated gene transfer (SMGT) may someday be able to produce transgenic
pigs that can serve as a source of transplanted organs for humans.
Benefits and Risks of GMO
In general, the end goal of genetic engineering is to create an improved
variety of organism, one that has desirable traits. The following advances in
genetic engineering show how it can be beneficial to organism and to humans.
1. Plants which have become more resistant to pests can eliminate the use of
potentially hazardous pesticides.
2. GMOs can yield higher crop yields and more nutritious food that also have
better flavor and longer shelf life.
3. GMO crops can be grown even in harsh environments, like the GM flood-
tolerance rice, which can save the farmers’ livelihood.
4. GMOs can be a cheap source of medicine. For example, transgenic
tobaccos with Hepatitis B virus surface antigens can induce immune
responses to the disease.
Despite these beneficial effects however, there are a lot of questions
regarding the negative effects of GMO. While scientists have not yet found
negative effects on health from GM foods, more researches have to be done to
find out the risks brought about by GM products. Nonetheless, environmentalists
are worried about the possible negative effects of genetic engineering on the
biodiversity of the environment.
1. Beneficial insects, such as bees and butterflies, that help in pollination may
be at risk of becoming “unintended targets” of GM plants.
2. Introduced genes may cause the GMOs to become invasive or toxic to
wildlife.
3. Since all organisms in a transgenic population have the same genome, a
decrease in genetic diversity could leave the crops vulnerable to new
diseases.
Lesson 5: Organ Systems of Animals
In this lesson, you will learn about the functional relationships of the different
organ systems in animals. Several major organ systems of animals work together
in keeping them alive in specific environments.
1. Digestive System
It involves physical digestion or the breakdown of food into smaller particles
which occurs in the mouth and stomach.
2. Circulatory System
It transports blood from the heart to the lungs to oxygenate the blood.
3. Respiratory System
It supplies body cells with oxygen and takes out carbon dioxide as waste
product.
4. Excretory System
It removes waste from the body. The organs functioning are kidneys,
urinary bladder, ureters, and urethra.
5. Nervous System
It regulates behavior, maintains homeostasis, and controls sensory and
motor functions. It involves sense organs, brain, and spinal cord.
6. Reproductive System
It involves the production of new individuals. It involves the testes and penis
in males, ovaries and uterus in females.
7. Endocrine System
It regulates body temperature, metabolism, development, homeostasis, and
other organ systems.
8. Muscular System
It moves limbs and trunk, moves substances through the body, and
provides structure and support.
9. Skeletal System
It protects and supports the body parts and determines body shape. It is
also known as blood cell production sites and calcium and phosphorus
storage sites. Bones and joints are involved.
10. Immune System
It defends the body against pathogens and diseases. White blood cells,
lymph nodes, and skin are involved.
11. Integumentary System
It protects the body from external environment. It also provides protection
from loss of internal fluids, regulates body temperature, eliminates some
wastes, and receives external stimuli. Skin, nails, and hair are involved.
Lesson 6: The Process of Evolution
Evolution concerns the change in a population of organisms over time. It is a
process which allows only the organisms that are better adapted to their
changing environment to continuously live and reproduce for the perpetuation of
life for billions of years.
Evolution remains a constant process as long as organisms are being born,
dying, and competing for what they need to survive and reproduce.
A) Evidences of Evolution
Fossils. These are evidences of usually extinct species that have been
preserved in the earth’s crust. Most fossils are formed when the hard parts of the
organism become buried in sedimentary rocks.
Anatomical Evidences. These exist between fossils and living organisms.
Anatomical similarities among species grouped in the same taxonomic category
reflect their common descent. The skeletal components of mammalian forelimbs
are a good example.
Embryological Evidence. Closely related organisms go through similar
stages in their embryonic development. At some time during development, all
vertebrates have a post anal tail and a pair of pharyngeal pouches. Vertebrate
embryos (fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals) go through an embryonic
stage in which they possess gill slits on the sides of their throats.
Biochemical Evidences. An organism’s hereditary background is reflected in
its genes and their protein products. Two species considered to be closely
related should have greater similarity in their DNA and proteins than two
unrelated organisms of the same species.
B) Mechanisms of Evolution
Speciation is the term used to describe how a new species evolves from an
older one. A new species is not able to reproduce with members of the original
population.

The following are the factors that can lead to speciation:
Mutation. This is a change in the hereditary material. It may be a change in
the structure of a gene – that is, in the sequence of nitrogen bases of an
organism’s DNA – or it may be a change in the structure or number of
chromosomes. It may result in the change in appearance or a characteristic of a
population.
Natural Selection. Individuals with traits better suited to the environment tend
to produce more offspring than those with traits that are less suited. The genes of
the more fit become more numerous in the subsequent generations.
Genetic Drift. It refers to the changes in the gene pool of a small population
due to chance. The smaller the population, the greater will be the impact of the
genetic drift. This is because there are fewer individuals and the gene pool is
smaller.
 Bottleneck effect is a sudden reduction in population size due to a
change in the environment, such as a natural disaster, habitat
destruction, or hunting a species.
 Founder effect is observed when a few individuals in a population
colonize a new location that is separate from the old population.
Migration. It occurs when breeding members of a population leave, or when
new members enter a population. Gene migration can introduce new alleles into
populations.
Isolation. It occurs when some members of species suddenly become
separated from the rest of the species.
C) Taxonomy
It is the branch of biology that deals with identifying, naming, and classifying
organisms. One goal of taxonomy is to determine the evolutionary history of
organisms and the development of their present forms. Phylogeny is the
evolutionary history of a species or a group of related species.
In the 18th century, Carolus Linnaeus published a system of taxonomy based
on resemblances. The taxonomic groups are classified into domain, kingdom,
phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species.
A species is most closely related to other species in the same genus, then
genera in the same family, and so forth, from order to class to phylum to
kingdom. Two species that are closely related share a more recent common
ancestor with each other than with members of other taxa (any level of
hierarchy).
Lesson 7: Interaction and Interdependence
Ecosystem refers to an interacting group of natural elements and the
organism in the given environment. It is the unit of interrelationships between and
among living things and nonliving things.
Biotic Components of and Ecosystem
1. Producers – include green plants and some bacteria which manufacture their
own food.
2. Consumers – animals which obtain food from producers
3. Decomposers – bacteria, fungi, and mushrooms that breakdown dead
inorganic matter.
Abiotic Components of and Ecosystem
1. Sunlight – primary source of energy
2. Temperature – measure of hotness or coldness of a body
3. Water – universal solvent and basis of all life
4. Wind – movement of air
5. Geographic materials (rocks, soil, etc.)
Biotic Potential and Environmental Resistance
The interactions of organisms with other organisms and with the environment
determine the abundance and distribution of organisms at a particular location.
Biotic potential is the ability of a population of living species to increase in
number under ideal environmental conditions – sufficient food supply, no
predators, and a lack of disease. These factors help population growth.
Factors that influence the biotic potential are as follows:
1. Age of first reproduction
2. Frequency of reproduction
3. Average number of offspring produced with each reproductive event
4. Length of reproductive life span
5. Death rate of individuals under ideal conditions
Environmental resistance is the sum of the environmental factors that tend to
restrict the biotic potential of an organism, thereby imposing a limit. These
limiting factors determine the number of individuals in a population that can be
sustained in a given ecosystem.
The limiting factors may be biotic or abiotic. The abiotic factors include too
much or little light, temperature, and harmful chemicals in the environment .
These factors often determine the number of organisms that can live in an
ecosystem. The biotic factors include insufficient food, excessive predators,
diseases or parasites, and diminished ability to compete.
Distribution of Ecosystems on Earth
There are two types of ecosystems: terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.
A. Terrestrial Ecosystems
1. Tundra – a cold, dry, mostly treeless land biome that encircles the Arctic
ocean. Most of the ground is covered by permafrost, soil that remains
frozen to a depth of about 1 meter. The main producers are a limited
number of flowering plants, mosses and lichens which provide food to the
arctic hares, caribou, and musk oxen. Mosquitos provide food to small
animals like mice. The most common land predator is the wolf.
2. Coniferous forests (Taiga) – composed of coniferous trees that remain green
throughout the year with needle-like leaves and produce seeds in cones
instead of flowers. Warmer temperatures and regular precipitation make
these forests very suitable for tree growth. Herbivores include beavers,
moose, elk, mice, red squirrels, chipmunks, rabbits, porcupines, and
geese. Wasps, beetles, and other insects are also abundant. Many kinds
of birds seek shelter in the trees. Carnivores include wolves, bobcats,
foxes, and in the northernmost regions, lynxes.
3. Deciduous forests – have trees that shed all their leaves each year such as
maples, oaks, and birches. Smaller plants such as ferns, grasses, and
mosses grow near the ground. Deer are the most common herbivore.
Other plant-eaters include turtles, chipmunks, rabbits, squirrels, mice, and
many birds. The omnivores include black bears, opossums, and raccoons.
Carnivores are snakes, coyotes, foxes, insect-eating birds such as
woodpecker, and birds of prey such as falcons and owls.
4. Tropical rainforests – home to more species than any other ecosystem on
earth. These are found near the equator with warm temperature. There
are only few small plants that live on the ground. A great variety of
hardwood trees provide a home to monkeys and jaguars in South
America. In Africa, they provide a habitat for leopards. The rainforest trees
serve as home for different species of insects, parrots, crickets, and tree
frogs.
5. Grasslands – dominated by grasses. Tall trees are not suitable to grow
because grasslands are too dry. Grasses are sources of food for grazing
animals. Grassland with a few scattered trees is called savanna. Large
savannas provide a habitat to wombats and kangaroos in Australia. The
best-known grassland in Africa is the Serengeti Plain which provide a
home to giraffes and elephants.
6. Deserts – are arid or very dry environments that receive little amount of
rainfall each year. The producers such as cacti, thorny bushes, and small
flowering plants must be able to adapt and survive in dry regions. These
plants serve as food to kangaroo, rats, armadillos, rabbits, lizards, and
insects. These animals serve as food for vultures and snakes. During
daytime, many animals burrow in the ground to keep their body cool. At
night, animals come out to find food. Animals that are active at night are
called nocturnal animals.
B. Aquatic Ecosystems
1. Freshwater ecosystems – have low salt concentration.
a. Ponds and Lakes - Ponds are smaller bodies of water surrounded by land,
while lakes are large bodies of freshwater surrounded by land. Plants
and algae are important to freshwater biomes because they provide
oxygen through photosynthesis and food for animals.
b. Rivers and Streams - These are moving bodies of freshwater, which
usually originate from the mountains and come from melting ice or
groundwater and eventually flow into the ocean. Plants such as water
lilies grow up from the muddy bottoms. Frogs, fish, salamanders, and
turtles hunt in the water. Many birds and insects fly to rivers and
streams for a drink. The place where the fresh water from a river meets
the salt water from the ocean is called an estuary.
c. Wetlands - These areas have soil wet enough for aquatic plants to grow.
Organism living here have adapted to annual wet and dry cycle of
weather. Wetlands contain diversity of plants, birds, insects, small
mammals, snails, and other organisms.
2. Saltwater or Marine ecosystems – have high salt concentration. This
includes oceans where organisms are sessile and lived attached to the
ground.
Human Activities and the Ecosystem
1. Pollution. Most products of modern technology are toxic. These toxic
wastes find their way into the water and air, threatening the lives of organisms in
the ecosystem.
2. Deforestation. It is the clearing of forests to meet the increasing demands
for land and materials derived from trees, such as wood.
3. Overhunting. A healthy ecosystem has a balance of predators and prey
that naturally cycle through life and death sequences. Overhunting often results
in the imbalance of the ecosystem and environmental stress.