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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Objectives

By the end of this chapter students should be able to

-Define research
-State the purpose of research
-Outline motives what motivates doing a research
-State and identify Scientific and Non Scientific method of acquiring knowledge

RESEARCH DEFINED

1. Is a systematic, objective analysis and recording of controlled

observations
that may lead to development of generations, principles or theories
resulting in
prediction and possible ultimate control of events

2. Is an objective formal process of systematically collecting, analyzing

and interpretation of data for the purpose of providing functional
information to managers for decision making.

3. Is a fact finding activity

Conclusions which can be derived from the definition

1 Is an intensive and purposeful search for knowledge and understanding of
a phenomena and establishing of facts, theories and laws
2 Is a method of discovering the truth
3 Is not haphazardly but is done systematically and takes time.
4 Involves collection of data using acceptable research tools on which data
is recorded
5 Is done with a purpose so as to solve a problem

PURPOSE OF RESEARCH
Is a fact finding activity and its purpose is to discover answers to questions through
the use of certain pre-defined procedures. These procedures were developed over
time in order to increase the likelihood that information that is gathered is relevant,
reliable and unbiased.

Research helps managers to make better informed and less risky management
decisions. Accordingly the information obtained through research must be
objective, impartial, current, translatable and relevant.

MOTIVES (REASONS) FOR CARRYING OUT A RESEARCH

a) Desire to face challenges in solving the unsolved problems
b) Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work
c) Desire to get a research qualification together with the subsequent benefits.
In some cases it may be a course requirement being studied e.g. HND, PHD
etc. The research is not self initiated by a requirement that a student should
fulfill to get a full qualification.
d) Desire to offer service to the society
e) To fill the gap in knowledge
f) Government directive – Research can be directed by the government to try
and get a solution for the nation or society
g) Employment conditions – There are some established research stations that
specializes in research. In such research stations people are employed to
carry out research e.g. Grasslands Research Station which specializes in
Agricultural Research
h) Organizational problems may motivate research e.g. a company may have
high rate of staff turnover

The research Process in brief

Basically, the research process follows a series of steps as follows:
-Defining the problem and set research objectives
-Developing the research plan(proposal)
-Collecting the data
-Analyzing the data and derive information
-Presenting of findings
*Research is one of the methods of acquiring knowledge.

METHODS OF ACQUIRING KNOWLEDGE

Ways of acquiring knowledge can be grouped into:

a) Non scientific methods

b) Scientific methods
a) NON SCIENTIFIC METHODS OF ACQURING KNOWLEDGE
-Are subjective methods of acquiring knowledge.
-Depend mostly on human judgment
-Issues addressed incorporate the existence of God, whether a person is good
or
bad and issues relating to moral values.
- Issues addressed do not require investigation and are even difficult to
verify or
investigate
-Mostly used in social research
*Social research is the collection of methods and methodologies applied
systematically to
produce scientific based knowledge about social world
-no variables can be deduced to be tested

Non scientific methods include: (to continue)

i) Appealing to custom and tradition
ii) Appeal to authority
iii) Mystical method
iv) Rationalistic method/ use of personal experience
v) Empirical method
vi) Common Sense
vii) Media Myths

i) Custom and tradition

-Is the earliest human search for truth or knowledge which has been

passed from generation to generation since time immemorial. Specify

how things
have been done since time immemorial
-Reference to custom and tradition is used to solve problems
-Determines or dictate people’s conduct in societies, living style, food,
language, articulating problems, making judgments, specify human
food and speech etc
-Is a special case of authority of the past
 People obey custom and tradition avoiding is much as possible to
violet them and seek explanations to various situations and problems
through custom beliefs.

Advantages
-Is the simplest way of acquiring knowledge
-Knowledge acquired may be universally accepted
-May result in standard approach to problems

Disadvantages
-Traditional knowledge although once true may be come distorted as
it is passed on and may no longer be true
-People may clinch to traditional knowledge without real
understanding it
-May instill development of new ideas

ii) Authority method

This method depends upon acquiring knowledge and wisdom from
prominent people who are considered to have vast social and
environmental knowledge more that an ordinary person
-Is mostly used by a child to acquire knowledge from parents and also
by elders from village heads, chiefs, priests, presidents etc
-Is based on faith inputted into a person

*Man appeal to tribal wise- man and to gods in times of crisis. Tribal
chiefs remain the supreme authority and considered as all-knowing
and all-competent supermen
-Chiefs are sought for guidance and advice in social, religious,
political and even private affairs. Moreover, priests in churches
assumed the role of authority, people turning for knowledge, advice,
explanations, domestic problems etc

-Authorities spend time and effort to learn more things (researching)

to remain up to date and others may benefit from their experience and
work

Advantages of Authority
-Is a very cheap, quick and simple way of learning something
 -Not seriously dangerous because people placed in authority will rely
on continuous researches and strategies to justify and preserve their
positions, using professional jargon and emphasizing the uniqueness
of one’s e.g. It is true because I the Minister …….
-Do not require carrying out a sophisticated research in order to
understand the world and events

Disadvantages of Authority
-May result in individuals hiding their superficiality of their
knowledge until they
are in authority
-May create conflict in the society due to struggle for power
-Authorities may speak on fields they know little about explaining
things in the
wrong way thereby misleading people.
-Authority may be frequently misused or abused
-May result overestimating the expertise of other people when they
are not
-Overdependence on experts or authority keep others in the dark,
loosing ability
to make own meaningful judgments
-Authorities may only promote ideas that strengthen their power and
position

iii) Mystical method

Is when or where the correctness of the knowledge is assumed to
reside in a supernatural source.
-One’s ability to appeal to irrational feelings by using rituals,
ceremonies, emotionally loaded situations and explanations and using
unusual languages is necessary and remain from being questioned e.g.
Medium spirits, traditional healers, prophets etc

iv) Rationalistic Method/Personal experience/Self Knowledge

This methods is based on human reasoning, ability to think logically
and discovery of laws and principles using pure, abstract intelligence
in solving problems

-Is when man thinks that cannot refer his difficulties or problems to
others but should try to solve them by him-self. Uses his experience
and trials to solve problems not outsiders
 -What a person, personally sees or experience is accepted as true, has
a strong impact and is a forcefully source of knowledge. Based on
seeing and experiencing is believing.

-Observation of reality and collections of facts using the five human

senses is
necessary

-Rationalistic may lead to astray due errors of personal experience

which are:

a) Overgeneralizations Are statements that go far beyond what can

be justified based on the data or empirical observations that one
has experienced. Occurs when one has evidence that he/she can
believe and assume that is applies to many other situations. Is
caused by misjudging.
b) Selective observation is making observations in a way that
reinforces pre-existing thinking rather than observing in a neutral
and balanced manner. Is determined or governed by preconceived
ideas.
c) Premature closure Is making a judgment or reaching a decision
and ending an investigation before one has the amount or depth of
evidence required by scientific standards. Operates with and
reinforces overgeneralization and selective observation. Occurs
when one feels has all the answers and do not need to listen or
seek more information or raise more questions. A person or
researcher take few pieces of evidence (information) and believe
to have all necessary information to make a decision
d) Halo effect Is allowing prior reputations of persons, places or
things to colour (overshadow) one’s evaluation rather than
evaluating all in a neutral, equal manner. Eg. People do not
scrutinize what is said or written by a respected person, highly
educated or from a prestigious university or college

v) Empirical method
-Is where facts observed in nature are the only elements to rely on.
-Is not based on theories but experience and observable factors
-What is observable and can be perceived by human senses constitute
knowledge e.g. A wood floats on water but a metal does not but
surprisingly a boat made with metal cannot sink
 vi) Common Sense
Is form of ordinary reasoning. Is when people rely on what everyone
knows and what makes sense to be the truth. What is believed by an
ordinary reasonable person to be good and true is taken without any
further analysis.

Disadvantages
-Can allow logical fallacies to slip into thinking eg if wind blows
eastwards it will rain
-Contain contradictory ideas that may go unnoticed because people
use the ideas at different times eg Unlike poles attracts and birds of
the same feather flock together.

vii) Media Myths

Television shows, movies, newspaper and magazine articles are
important sources of information about social life. The main
advantage of this method is that what is learned is permanent

Disadvantages
-What is portrayed distorts reality ( do not accurately reflect social
reality) e.g
movies (eg flying vehicles), crimes, sports(eg wrestling)
-Tend to perpetuate the myths of a culture
-People are misled by visual images more easily than other forms of
lying (Has
powerful effect on people)
-Is a forum in which competing interests try to win public support
(propaganda)

b) SCIENTIFIC METHODS OF ACQUIRING KNOWLEDGE

This is known as scientific research or scientific thinking. Therefore research
is regarded
as scientific thinking

Scientific thinking is regarded as the men’s unending search for truth which
has brought him to the stage of science as the main source of evidence
 -Refers to a systematic investigation of a question, a phenomena or a
problem using certain principles. Considered as the integration of empirical
and rationalistic methods of acquiring knowledge because is based on
observations made during experiments followed by reasoning ability.

Types of Research
Scientific enquiry methods are descriptive research, experimental research or
quasi- experiment research. This classification is based on the nature and
approach of the research activities

i) Descriptive research (Comparison research)

Is a research intended to produce an accurate description of a variable
under study ,relevant to the problem being faced without necessarily
demonstrating exactly the degree of relationship that exists between
variables.

Attempts to determine the frequency with which something happens or

the extent to which 2 or more variables are related, which would permit
only inference to be drawn about causation.

Ranges from simple data gathering to investigating possible relationships

between 2 or more variables, but without determining to what extent are
variables related, so that predictions of future events can be possibly
made

Is a research is which the primary purpose is to “paint picture”, using

words or numbers and to present a profile, a classification of types or an
outline of steps to answer questions such as who, when, where, and how.
But mainly focus on how and who questions

Research is conducted to describe a well-defined subject accurately.

Outcome is a detailed picture of the subject eg 80% of subjects.

A great deal of social research is descriptive research.

Most data-gathering techniques are surveys, field research, content

analysis and historical- comparative research
 *Descriptive and exploratory research have many similarities and are
blurring together in practice

Purpose of Descriptive Research

-To provide a detailed, highly accurate picture of a thing or problem
-To locate new data that contradict past data
-To create set of categories or classify type of situations
-To clarify a sequence of steps or stages
-To document a causal process or mechanism
-To report on the background or content or a situation

ii) Experimental research

Is a type of research intended to demonstrate the cause-end effect
relationship between variables being studied
An experiment entails a test which allows the researcher to determine the
effect of an independent variable on a dependent variable and controlling
other external factors that might influence the outcome. The researchers
have direct control over at least one or more independent variables and
determine the effects of the independent variable on the dependent
variable

NB a) A variable is an empirical property that is capable of taking

two or more values, thus, can change in value or king e.g. water
can be solid, liquid, or gaseous

*Attributes are the categories or levels of a variable

b) Constant is a property that cannot take more than one value

e.g. citizenship of a specified country

c) An independent variable is the one which can influence the

value or state of another variable. Is a factor in an experiment
over which the researcher has some control and manipulates its
value, this being expected to have some effects on the
dependant variable. Is a cause variable that produces an effect
or results on a dependent variable in a causal hypothesis

e) Dependent variables are factors whose values are influenced by

the value of other variables. This is a response measure understudy
 in an experiment whose value is determined by the independent
variable e.g. height of a child depends on age
-Is the effect or result variable that is caused by the independent
variable in a causal hypothesis

d) Intervening variable is a variable that is logically or temporally

after the
Independent variable and before the dependent variable, and
through which
their casual relation operates. is a variable which appears in more
complex
causal relationships. Comes between the independent and
dependant variables showing a link or mechanism between them.
Acts as a dependent variable with respect to the independent
variable and also acts as an independent variable towards the
dependant variable. Found in theories with multiple independent,
intervening and dependent variables.

NB Casual relationship requires only an independent and

dependent variables

iii) Quasi-experimental research

Sometimes know as semi experimental research
Is an experiment which does not possess the pre-requisite of control. It
lacks the control attributes of a truly experimental research. It takes
short-cuts in experiment requirements thus it lacks valid demonstration
of variables’ association but still it is not descriptive because it does not
yield some quantitative indicators of association between variables

iv) Exploratory research

Is one in which the primary purpose is to have a little understanding of
an issue or phenomenon, to develop preliminary ideas, to have an
insight into the problem and move towards refined research questions by
focusing on the “what” question. The goal is to formulate more precise
questions that future research can answer. Can be the first stage in a
sequence of research studies. Can be done to know appropriate designs
to use and execute a second more systematic and extensive study

Purpose of Exploratory research

-To become familiar with the basic facts, setting and concerns
 -To create a general mental picture of conditions
-To formulate and focus questions for future research
-To generate new ideas, conjecture or hypothesis
-To determine the feasibility of conducting a research
-To develop techniques for measuring and locating future data

v) Explanatory research Is a research in which the primary purpose is to

elaborate, extend or test theories. Its emphasis is to explain why
something happens although the issue is known and there is description
of it. Looks for causes and reasons.

Purpose of Explanatory research

-To elaborate and enrich a theory’s explanation
-To extend a theory to new issues or topics
-To support or refute an explanation or prediction
-To link issues or topics with a general principle
-To determine which of several explanations is best
-To test a theory’s predictions or principle

STEPS IN THE SCIENTIFIC THINKING PROCESS

1 Location and definition of a problem through exploratory research

techniques
2 Survey of past experiences with the problem and available data to get
ideas about the past and possible future solutions and methods of
investigation (Review of related literature)
3 Formulation of a hypothesis
This represent a tentative solution to a problem under investigation and
employed as a guide in the collection of additional data which may lead
to an accepted solution to the problem

Mental elaboration of the hypothesis checking for agreement with facts,

verifiability and logical consistency
4 Collection of data i.e. additional data by means of research tools,
measurements, observation, experimentations and interviews
5 Analysis , classification and summarization of the data collected
 6 Formulation of new generalization representing observed uniformities,
explanatory principles or scientific law.

7 Formulation and communication of recommendations

CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH/SCIENTIFIC THINKING

1 Research requires expertise, systematic logic and an accurate

investigation
Researcher should:
a) be an expert in the field of research before undertaking an
investigation
b) plan procedures carefully and detailed eg no prediction before
description and explanation of observed phenomena
c) gather, record and analyze data with complete accuracy
d) standardize and ensure that valid data gathering tools are devised
and used
e) ensure that mechanical means are employed to improve the
accuracy human observations, recordings, and computations of
data

2 Is based on facts and empirical events

Framework is constructed basing on facts which are observable leading
to the formulation of important theories. Research is aimed at knowing
reality and each step is based on observation

3 Employs methods of analysis

This involves breaking down of a phenomenon into small manageable
parts and attending to each part separately to enable the investigator to
give each part separate and undivided attention. This ensures full
appreciation of the problem is a whole

4 Employs hypothesis to guide thinking process.

Experience is used to show that two phenomena are related and follows
one another

5 Employs quantitative methods in the treatment of data

Scientist/researcher does not rely upon estimates, guess and general
impression but measures a phenomena under consideration as accurately
as possible
 Results are recorded in units that can be counted, added, subtracted,
multiplied and divided

Make use of new and exact language of mathematics to make the

analysis, classification, summarization of data more reliable

Fact are summarized into mathematical values such as means, medians,

modes, deviations etc which are less ambiguous than ordinary language
terms

6 Employs objective measurement

Scientists measures, weighs, tests and accurately determine amount of
phenomena under investigation

7 Free from emotional bias

Research demands alertness, flexibility and open minded ie mind free
from emotional bias. The researcher needs to be alert and watch for new
ideas and ready to modify old ideas in the light of new evidence and
never allow personal likes and dislikes colouring the facts

Personal feelings and preferences should be prevented from research

activity. These argues with a scope and relevance of data

8 Research gathers new knowledge or data from primary sources

Restating and re-organising what is already known is not research.
Research endeavours to reach first hand sources of data and not from
second-hand sources

9 Requires patience, unhurried and courage

A researcher has to work patiently towards sound conclusions and need
to realize that significant findings do not come as a result of hurried and
careless procedures

10 Research is highly purposive

Research deals with a significant problem demanding solution(s).
Usually places much emphasis upon the discovery of general principles
and scientific generalizations that can be applied to the solution of wide
range of problems
 11 Is carefully recorded and reported
Terms of references and unique technical terms should be clearly defined
for easy understanding by readers.
-Procedures are described in detail
-Limiting factors are recognized
-References are documented
-Results are objectively recorded
-Conclusions and generalizations are cautiously arrived at considering
limitations, data collected and errors minimized
-Non essential details are omitted

12 Is replicable and transmittable

Anyone placed in the same circumstance can observe the same event and
make reasoning leading to the same explanations and predictions because
of logistic and objectivity.

13 Is reductive (Reductionism)
Complexity of reality is reduced by grasping the main relationship of
laws. No essentials are omitted. Necessities and chances are
distinguished

Disadvantages of Scientific Method of acquiring knowledge

-Is not possible to observe systematically every phenomena
-Is expensive in terms of time and resources ie money and instruments
-Some characteristics remain unknown so that explanations and
predictions cannot be accurate.

CLASSFICATION OF RESEARCH

A- Basic research or fundamental research

-referred to as pure research
-Carried out to provide broad and general principles, theories, results or
information
-Aimed at discovering basic truth laws on which action research may be
based on
-Not carried out to provide specific information or for a specific problem
hence
 not concerned with day to day solutions but to provide basic information in
general eg educational research on aims of education, motivation,
environment etc
-Results are public
-Used to advance fundamental knowledge about the social world
-Is a source of most new scientific ideas, methods, theories, ideas used in
applied research.
-Ask questions that seem impractical eg causes of cancer in chickens
-Stimulates new ways of thinking about deviance etc
-Provides foundation for knowledge and understanding that are generalized
to many policy areas, problems and studies
-Demand higher level problems, procedures, tools and expertise
-Acts like an exploratory research aimed at gaining ideas and insights about
a
research problem.
-Basic research can take 2 forms:
i) Discovery of new theories
ii) Development of the existing theory

B Applied research or field research

-Is a research designed to offer practical solutions to a concrete problem or
address the immediate and specific needs of clinicians or practitioners. Is
that type of research work of which its results find direct application in the
field of work. It is devoted to problems of field work and other affected
individuals
-Used to answer a policy question
-conducted for a specific problem
-Results are private
-carried on a small sample
-is based on application of known theories derived from basic research
-is used to test theories and laws discovered through basic research and
applying them into practice ie application of known theories eg use of
learning devices (aids), textbooks, library
-Is sometimes known as decision making research because is used for
decision making
-Rely on quick, small scale study that provides practical results that provides
practical results that people can use in the short term
-Primary audience or consumers are teachers, counselors, practitioners,
decision makers (managers) etc
-Its results may generate conflicts if the desired outcome is not expected
B Action research
-Is similar to applied research in many ways, hence regarded as another form
of applied research with the primary goal of facilitating social change or
bring about a value oriented social change.
-The difference is that applied research is carried out on a larger sample
resulting in more universal applicable findings while action research is
conducted on an immediately available small sample in order to solve the
immediate problem for the same group
-Is a research conducted on a small sample to solve immediate problem for
the same group on which applied research is being done.
-Is the process by which practitioners attempt to study their problems
scientifically in order to guide, correct and evaluate their decisions and
actions
-Primary concerned with field workers eg teachers to try to improve own
teaching and also by school administrators to improve administration
behavior.
-Represents a more disciplined, objective and scientific approach to a
problem
-Tries to keep problem solving in close touch in reality at every stage and
focused on the immediate application of know laws
-Deals with really practical problems

Characteristics of action research

-Those who are being studied participate in the research process
-Research incorporates ordinary or popular knowledge
-Focuses on power with a goal of empowerment
-Seeks to raise consciousness or increase awareness
-Is tied directly to political action
-Used to advance or improve conditions by expanding public awareness

*Researchers try to equalize power relations with research subjects, avoiding

more control, status and authority that those they study.

C) Evaluation research
-Is an applied research in which one tries to determine how well a program,
theory or policy is working or reaching it goals and objectives. Is the mostly
used applied research
 -Ethical and political conflicts may arise in this research because people may
have opposing interests in findings of a program or theory. Is part of the
administration applied by many organizations
-Types of evaluation research are formative or summative evaluation

Formative evaluation is built- in monitoring or continuous feedback on a

theory or program.

Summative evaluation is one that looks at the final program or theory or end
result

D) Social impact research

Is an applied research that document areas of social life if a major new
change is introduced into a community? Estimate the consequences of a
planned change.

*It should be therefore being concluded that Action, Evaluation and Social impact
researches are types of applied research.

Differences between Basic and Applied Research

ASPECT BASIC RESEARCH APPLIED RESEARCH

i) Primary Scientific Community & Practitioners, Participants,

Audience Other researchers Supervisors, Non-
researchers
Researcher peers
ii) Evaluators Practitioners , Supervisors
High
iii) Autonomy of Low moderate
researcher
Very High
iv) Research rigor Varies, Moderate
Verified truth
v) Highest Priority Relevance
Create new knowledge
vi) Purpose Resolve a practical problem
Publications, Impact on
vii) Success knowledge or Scientists Direct application to address
 Indicators specific problem or concern

Research can be classified as quantitative or qualitative research

Quantitative research is a research which looks at a large group of cases, people,

units and measures a number of features. Can be a single point in time (cross-
sectional) and multiple time points (longitudinal research). Collects hard data, that
is inform of numbers. Measure variables and test hypotheses that are generalized
to the entire population

Qualitative research is a study or research which focuses on one or few cases

during a limited time period. Is used in or as a case study. Collects soft data, that
is, data in form of impressions, words, sentences, photos, symbols etc

Quantitative research distinguished from Qualitative research

Quantitative research Qualitative research

Measure objective facts Construct social reality, cultural

Focus on variables
Reliability is key
Value free
Theory and data are separate
Independent of context or situation
Many cases or subjects are considered
Employs statistical analysis
Researchers are detached
meaning
Focus on interactive processes and
events
Authenticity is key
Values are present and explicit
Theory and data are fused together
Situational constrained
Few cases and subjects
Employs thematic analysis
Researcher is involved

CHAPTER TWO

OVERVIEW OF THE RESEARCH PROCESS

This is just a rundown of the process or procedures when doing a research
1) PROBLEM AND OPPORTUNITY
A problem arises when a decision maker faces uncertainty regarding
which action to adopt in a situation. Or is a situation where management
needs to make s decision but do not have enough information to make a
sound decision. Posses a negative connotation

An opportunity is a situation with a positive potential if recognized and

capitalized, is profitable to the enterprise. Possesses a positive
connotation

Researcher must identify and define the research problem or opportunity,

sometimes known as research question. Distinction between the two is
difficult, hence research problem is used to refer to either problem or
opportunity.

Research problem a may come from the desire to solve a current problem
or pursue an opportunity

2) PRELIMINARY STUDIES
-Is exploratory research to gain insights and ideas about a problem
-Undertaken in order to:
a) Discover the problem and define it
b) Analyze the problem’s environment
c) Determine correct definition of the problem
Common preliminary research includes desk research, observation and
discussion. Data is collected through discussion and observations

Other necessary techniques are expert opinion, focus groups, secondary

data analysis, etc

3) DEVELOPMENT OF HYPOTHESIS
-Hypothesis is a suggested answer to a problem, which is tested, and
empirical
-Gives direction
(For details refer to detailed notes on hypothesis

4) STATEMENT OF AIMS, OBJECTIVES, DELIMITATION AND

LIMITATIONS
 a) Aims are broad goals of the research. Sometimes are called
institutional objectives
b) Objectives are the specific clearly goals that are developed from
aims. Are the precise and measurable goals to be achieved by the
research process.. Are also specific tasks the researcher carries out in
order to achieve or test the aims
c) Delimitations are statements of limits or scope of the investigation.
Determines the study boundaries. Indicates what the researcher
should include or exclude from the investigation. Outline breadth and
depth of issues to be covered e.g. the entire industry or part of it.
Defines radius of the research, timeframe of the research process, and
time to be covered by the research process.

5) REVIEW OF LITERATURE
-Is a summary and analysis of related literature, which provide
background of the research. Researchers look into theories put by other
experts, and authors and analyses their model and make opinions.
Contain the following:
a) Conceptual view of experts
b) Comparisons of the views from experts
c) Nature of issues being researched on

6) DESIGNING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Is a research plan. Is a formal written document that discusses the
problem for research. Acts as a marketing in a research process

Purpose of research proposal

a) State the purpose of the study
b) State how the research will be executed by:
-Outlining research methodology to be used e.g. interviews
-Outlining in detail resources to be used that is time, finance,
human, & material
d) Provides the researcher with a guideline in carrying out the
research work

7) DECIDING ON A METHODOLOGY AND JUSTIFYING IT

The researcher should decide on research methodology and justify why
he or she opted for each

8) PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS DATA

 - collected data is edited, coded, summarized and tabulated before the
statistical designs. Testing of hypothesis is done and relationship noted,
with characteristics revealed

9) INTERPRETATION DATA OF DATA

Is done derive meaning from data after analysis. Findings are deduced.
These should be supported
10) CONCLUSIONS are deduced from findings in light of objectives and
hypothesis

11) RECOMMENDATIONS BASSED ON FINDINGS AND

CONCLUSIONS
-Are based on findings and conclusions
- Are formulated course to action to solve the problem
-Should be specific, applicable and justified

12) PRESENTING OF RESEARCH FINDINGS

Is the reporting or communication of research results either orally or in
writing?

RESEARCH TOPIC OR RESEARCH QUESTION

A research topic/ problem is the starting point in any research. A topic is too
broad for conducting a study. This must be narrowed down to or focused on a
specific research question that can be addressed in the study. Topic can be
narrowed or focused during exploratory stage, planning and gathering data,
therefore is an ongoing process. As already alluded a research problem may result
from an opportunity or problem.

Techniques for narrowing a topic into a research question

1 Examine the literature – published articles are an excellent source of ideas

for research questions. These articles suggest questions that focus on:
-Replicating of previous research project exactly or with slight
variations
-Exploring unexpected findings discovered in previous research
-Following suggestions an author gives for future research at the end
of an article
-Extending an existing explanation or theory to a new topic or setting
 -Challenging findings or attempt to refute a relationship
-Specifying the intervening process and consider linking relation

2 Talk over ideas with others

The researcher should ask people who are knowledgeable about the topic for
questions that they have thought. Seek out those who hold opinions that
differ from yours on the topic and discuss possible research questions with
them.

3 Apply to a specific context

Focus the topic onto a specific historical or time period. Narrow the topic to
a specific society or geography unit.

4 Define the aim or desired outcome of the study

-Will the research question be for an exploratory, explanatory or descriptive
study, will the study involve applied or basic research.

Sources of topics or ways to select topics

1. Personal experience, knowledge and Interest-One can choose a topic

based on something that happens to him or her. Also may choose a
topic only because has interest in that area or topic or thorough
knowledge in that area eg a doctor can research related to medicine

2. Curiosity based on something in the media. One can read a

newspaper, magazine article, see TV program and left with questions.
What is read or seen raises questions and suggest researches

3. The state of knowledge in a field – Basic research is driven by new

research findings and theories that push at the frontiers of knowledge.

4. Solving a problem- Applied research topics begin with a problem that

needs a solution

5. Personal values – people highly committed to a set religious, political or

social values select topics to further their knowledge and understanding
of those values

6. Everyday life- topics can be found throughout everyday life in old

saying, novels, songs, statistics etc
 7. Social premiums- topics can be selected because are “hot” or offer an
opportunity eg reward for conducting a research etc

Identification of a good research problem is one of the most difficult phases of any
research project. In the discovery of a problem, the investigator can take the help
of the following procedures so as to save from wild search and aimless wondering:

 Select field of specialization and become a scholar in that specialization as

early as possible
 Develop a concern for that field
 Study critically the available research literature on the field of specialization
 Accept the difficulties or obstacles of that field as a challenge and try to
exercise own originality and ability to tackle them
 Should be prepare a record of problems already studied by others in the area
of specialization
 Should acquaint him or herself with a research under way in that area
 Should analyse the trends in his/her field of specialization
 Acquaint himself or herself with the possibilities, commitments and
prophecies in that particular area
 Should widely discuss any problems that comes to his mind

Criteria of a good research problem/topic

Before the proposed research problem can be finalized, several conditions and
considerations have to be satisfied. Although there are no standard rules that will
guarantee the suitability of a research problem, a number of criteria in the form of
conditions might be listed for guidance in the selection of a topic.

1 Novelty
It should be sufficiently original so that it does not involve objectionable
duplication. Originality is the basic credit point of any research. Ignorance
of prior studies may lead to students spending time on a problem already
investigated by some other workers. Moreover, the study should employ the
most recent data. However, the fact a problem has been investigated in the
past does not mean that it is longer fit for study. There is constant need for
verification of the findings of previous investigations using other methods or
newer or better devices
2 Interesting
Problem should be motivating and interesting for the investigator. If not
interesting for him or her, will not be able to face and overcome the
obstacles which may come at every stage in the research. If it seems to him
dull and boring, there is little hope that he would do justice to it. His interest
should b e purely intellectual and should not be there only for a reward,
material benefits, advancement in position, increased authority etc

3 Important
Research problem should be significant enough and involve an important
principle or practice. If it is not worthwhile, if it neither adds to knowledge
nor leads to any improvements in the current practices, it would be in vein
(vain)

4 Feasibility or amenability
The suitability of a plan for a particular research worker is the matter of its
feasibility. Researcher should be able to carry it out to a successful
conclusion. Should possess the special qualifications, training and
experience and should have the required competence, knowledge and
understanding
.
5 Availability of data
The research worker should ensure the availability of valid and reliable data,
data gathering devices and procedures, although confidential, sensitive and
classified information may not be possible to obtain

6 Availability of cooperation
The study may require cooperation from various institutions, authorities and
individuals. Researcher must make sure that necessary permission and
cooperation will be readily available

7 Availability of guidance
A research activity needs the patronage of a guide and the approval and
sanction of a competent authority, that is, sponsorship guidance from a
qualified member of the faculty

8 Availability of other facilities

The should availability of necessary financial resources to carry out the
study. Researcher should be able to meet the expenses involved in data
 gathering, equipment, printing, test materials, travel, computerization,
clerical help, postage, etc plus enough time

9 Immediate application
The research should help in solving an agent problem

10 Aim of the research

The aim of the research also influence the selection of the problem

11 Level of research
The nature and scope of a study will be determined in the light of levels, like
Master’s Degree, HND, PHD etc. It may simply be an action research or a
research to produce a research paper or an experimental project.

12 Experience and creativity

Good research problem stem from a clear understanding of the theoretical,
empirical and practical aspects of the subject derived from personal
experience and from thorough review of the literature. Another major
contributor to the wise choice of a problem is creativity and the other
personality factors that make for are originality, flexibility, initiative,
ingenuity, and foresight.

13 Courage and confidence

Researcher should have the courage and determination to pursue the study in
spite of the difficulties and social hazards that may be involved. Should be
willing to risk the criticism, suspicious or even opposition that a delicate or a
controversial study may arise etc

Common errors in selecting and formulating a research problem are:

a) Naming a broad field or area of study instead of a specific problem e.g.

Higher Education System in Zimbabwe is too broad
b) Stating it such that the investigation is impossible e.g. huge costs required
c) Narrowing or localizing a topic, such that it becomes too small or
insignificant from research point of view e.g. A critical study of the poems
in book
d) Including in it terms of an unscientific, emotional or biased nature e.g. “The
blessing of teaching profession”
 e) Lack of precision in the instruments. The tools, tests, or devices which are
proposed to be used in data collection may not be precise enough resulting
in another error.

HYPOTHESIS

-Is a tentative assumption drawn from knowledge and theory used as a guide in the
investigation of other facts and theories that are yet unknown
-Acts as a temporary solution to a problem or suggested answer which is tentative,
concrete and testable

CHARACTERISTICS OF HYPOTHESIS
-Is a guess
-Is in agreement with the observed facts
-Does not conflict with any law of nature, which is true
-Be stated in simplest possible terms and clear
-Serves to explain facts
-Must be specific not generalize the problem
-Should be conceptually
-Guide the search for new truth
-Must have empirical events and or evidence
-Looks forward
-Must be testable with available techniques
-Must show expertise and stated in scientific and research terms

FUNCTIONS OR IMPORTANCE OF HYPOTHESIS

a) Provides direction by:
-Defining what is relevant and what is irrelevant in any research process
-Directing the collection of data and state what the researcher is looking for
-Prevents collection of useless or excess data and review of useless data
*Should precede the gathering of data

b) Organize the efforts by giving direction

Provide a framework for collecting, analyzing and interpretation of data
It is a guide to the thinking process and the process of discovery. Act as
researcher’s eye into the world of darkness
 c) Places specific goals before the researcher, which enables the
researcher to select samples and procedures to meet the goals. Prevents
blind research

d) Save as framework for drawing conclusions by making possible the

interpretation of data
e) Enables the researcher to understand the problem clearly and data
required. Clarify necessary procedures and methods in solving problems

f) Sensitizes the individual to facts. It focuses research

g) Link together facts and information and organize them into

comprehensive whole

h) Guide the search for new truth and thinking process

i) Set boundaries and indicate limitations

SOURCES OF HYPOTHESS
i. General culture is source of ideas, theories and laws of existing
problems e.g. prejudices against women education.

ii. Personal experience. Hypothesis can emanate from personal

experience eg. Teacher’s punctuality enhances student’s punctuality

iii. Scientific theories and laws can be put into use. Sound mind in a
sound body

iv. Analogies – formulated basing on likenesses and similarities between

objects. Similarities means something in common

THE DISCOVERY OF HYPOTHESIS

To discover or formulate hypothesis the researcher should have been:
i) Well read and informed about the problem
ii) Examined with care features of the objects. Be alert to new and
incidental features of the objects and obvious features. Look with care
ordinary and extra-ordinary aspects of phenomena object
iii) See beyond the superficial aspects of objects. Search for vital
relationships and underlying principle conditions and uniformities
iv) Recognize the importance of analogies in the formation of hypothesis
v) Recognize the importance of thinking about things

DIFFERENT FORMS (TYPES) OF HYPOTHESIS

A) Directional and No-directional form

i) Directional form – Indicates the way in which the dependent

variable will be influenced by the independent variable. Is
preferred because is more precise and gives more information.
ii) Non- Directional form is opposite of directional

*Use of directional and non-directional depends on the ability to

predict future relationship between variables

B) Null and Alternative Hypothesis

i) Null Hypothesis (HO)
-States that no relationship exists between variables being studied
nor significance difference will found between the treatment.
Results of studied population group will not show any differences
whatever factors will be measured.
-Assumes that all groups are equal
-Does not reflect the researcher’s expectations
-Better fitted to statistical techniques and defines the mathematical
model to
be utilized.
-Is the original hypothesis
-Is a positive hypothesis which assumes that everything is ok and
not worth investigating

ii) Alternative Hypothesis (HA)

-Reverse of HO
-Can be either directional or non-directional
-States that the differences shown in results reflect real differences
between population groups.

C) Prediction form
 -Allows the researcher to state principles, laws, etc expected to merge
from the study or experiment
-Mainly used in action research

D) Declarative form
-States the relationship between the variables concerned

E) Question form
-Ask whether there is a relationship between variables concerned.

A RESEARCH PROPOSAL
Is a research plan, which is a formal written document that discusses the problem
for research. Acts as a marketing tool to in a research process
Is a description of work o be performed
Helps to convince funding agencies to fund and support the research therefore is a
persuasive tool which should be factual, accurate and complete.
Reveals the image, characteristics, qualifications, and ability of the researcher in
doing the research process
Organise ideas and thoughts of a research process and communicate these
effectively
Should be easy to understand and comprehensive, be in simple direct language and
in writing. Unique terms be clearly defined
Should be justified, be specific not vague
Reveal what should be expected from the research that is its benefits to the funding
agency

Steps in Proposal writing

1. Identify the need for research, that is, define the problem through
exploratory research techniques
2. Critical analyze the need for the project
3. Plan and design the research
4. Estimate the research costs and time
5. Write a research proposal

Characteristics of a good research proposal

i) Should communicate the importance of the research
ii) Bears an idea that is worthwhile and account part of community problem
iii) Should make it clear that the applicant has made a suitable approach to
the problem and that the plan of action is likely to succeed
 iv) Should indicate that the research falls within the area of interest of the
sponsor by being properly delimitated
v) Should indicate the probable results of the proposed project results so as
to justify the expected expenditure
vi) Should indicate that the researcher has the required capabilities,
knowledge etc of the area of research
vii) Should clearly indicate the delimitation (scope) of the research project

Purpose of research proposal

a) State the purpose of the study
b) State how the research will be executed by:
-Outlining research methodology to be used e.g. interviews
-Outlining in detail resources to be used that is time, finance,
human, & material
a) Provides the researcher with a guideline in carrying out the
research work

ELEMENTS OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL

1. Title of the research project. This should be specific not

general and not too broad. Should be not more than 15 words

2. Background of the study: addresses the environment of the

problem. It outlines the history of the company, its objects,
and partially introduce the problem

3. Statement of the problem. The problem should be clearly

defined, quantified, effects on the operations of the
organization should be highlighted. The research proposal
should clearly, specifically and physically define the problem.
The problem should be separated from symptoms

4. Sub- problems. Are problems contributing to the main

problem? These can be framed in form of questions

5. Aim of the study. - what is to be achieved by the research.

Aim is developed from terms of reference of the research. Is a
broad goal of the research process?
6. Objectives of the study
These should be specific, measurable, attainable (achievable),
realistic, and time bound, hence people talk of SMART
objectives

7. Hypothesis
This is a tentative solution or answer to the problem. (Refer to
detailed notes)

8. Assumptions are conditions taken for granted and on which

the research depend on.

9. Importance or significance of the study- relevance of the

research should be highlighted both to the researcher and the
client company. Are the benefits of the study?

10. Delimitations of the study-refers to boundaries or scope of

the research. Specifies what, who, when etc to be included in
the research process

11. Limitations are obstacles or difficulties to be faced in the

research process.

12. Definition of key terms – only unique terms are defined.

Ordinary words or meanings are not necessary

13. Review of related literature – categories of books to be used

should be presented

14. Research methodology. This discusses how the research is to

be done. Discusses the processes the researcher uses to meet
the stated research objectives.

a) Research design is a programme to guide the researcher

in collecting, analyzing and interpreting g observed facts.
The research designs to be used include:
 i) Exploratory research designs. These are case
studies, depth studies, experience survey,
secondary data analysis, and background analysis
ii) Conclusive research designs, which includes
descriptive
research design, experimental, quasi
experimental,
evaluative research design
These should be fully discussed and justified
b) Types of data: required and to be sourced should be
clearly disclosed and identified. These include Primary,
secondary and tertiary. Data can be qualitative or
quantitative
c) Sources of data. Researcher should identify and explain
sources of required data. These should be clearly
specified and quantified
d) Data collection methods or plan. This refers to how the
data is to be collected. Methods include interviews,
observation and abstraction.
-Interviews can be personal interviews (face to face),
mail interview (questionnaire) telephone or telephone
interviews etc
-Observation can be mechanical or personal
observation, which can be participant or non-participant
The researcher should identify and justify methods to be
used. Specify to whom these are to be applied, how
many etc
e) Research instruments or tools. The researcher should
explain the research instruments (tools) on which data is
to be recorded during collection. These should be
quantified; method of distribution (administration)
cleared, and the subjects to who there are administered
identified and quantified. The tools include
questionnaire, interview schedule, observation form,
and checklist, action forms.
f) Population of study. The researcher should define the
population of study, which is refers to all elements or
 objects to be possibly considered in the study. Is the
totality of subjects of investigation? Include both human
beings and non-human beings
g) Sampling frame is the list of element of the population
from which the sample is to be drawn.
h) Sampling versos Census. The researcher defines
whether is to use census (all population elements) or
sampling (part of the population) should justify the
reason for his or her option. For population elements
more than 30, sampling can be done.
i) Sampling methods. The researcher to select, explain and
justify the sampling designs to be employed. Sampling
methods are probability and non-probability. The
objects (subjects) to which these are to be applied
should be specified. Should also explain how these are
to be done that is sampling steps
j) Determination of sample size. The researcher should
specify how the sample size is to be determined. This
can be mathematical approach, judgmental approach
etc
k) Sample size is a list of sample elements. This should be
indicated

15. Data presentation and analysis

The researcher should outline how data is to be presented
(tables, graphs, charts) and statistical designs (computations)
and other tests to be
applied on summarized data to test hypothesis

16. Research Project budget

Budget is a plain expressed quantitatively. The proposal to
include estimated project costs, time for activities, human
resources, and material resources

17. Prepared by, approved and supervised by. There should be an

indication of the person s who prepared, approved and
supervised the proposal
 It should be noted that the research proposal is a plan, should
be in future tense, single line spacing and at least 3 pages and
not more than 5 pages

RESEARCH DESIGN
Is a plan of how to proceed in determining the nature of the relationship between
variables.
Is a formal written set of specifications and procedures for conducting and
controlling the research project.
Is a form of the framework or strategies of the entire research process
Act as a programme to guide the researcher in collecting, analyzing and
interpreting observed facts relevant to the variables understudy
The researcher must decide and justify the research design after formulating the
problem

What is the difference between research design and methodology?

Research design depends on:

-Value of the information provided by alternative courses of action
-Requirements of the research objectives and hypothesis

Characteristics of a good Research Design

-Should ensure that information obtained is relevant to the research problem
-Should be capable of managing or detecting errors
-Should collect data objectively and economically using less costing procedures

Types of Research designs

Research designs can be classified into:
a) Exploratory research designs
b) Conclusive research designs

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN EXPLORATORY AND CONCLUSIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS

ISSUES EXPLORATORY RESEARCH CONCLUSIVE RESEARCH
1 Objectives To provide insights and -To test specific hypothesis and
understanding of a problem examine
relationships
 -To provide information for
2 -Information needed is decision making
Characteristics loosely
defined -Information clearly defined
-Research process is flexible
and -Research process is formal and
unstructured structured
-Sample is small and may not
be a -Sample is large and
representative of the representative of the
3 Findings population Population
-Data analysis qualitative -Data analysis is quantitative
4 Outcome
-Tentative -Findings are conclusive

-Generally followed by -Findings used as input is

exploratory decision making
or conclusive research

Exploratory research may define hypothesis which is then tested by conclusive

research, but a by-product conclusive research may be a suggestion of new
opportunity or a new problem. The following diagram suggests the process.

VAGUE PROBLEM

EXPLORATORY RESEARCH

DEFINITION OF HYPOTHESIS
 AND RESEARCH PROBLEM

CONCLUSIVE RESEARCH NEW IDEAS

DECISION MAKING

In summary, research design, can be defined as the arrangement of conditions for

the collection, analysis and interpretation of data in a manner that aims to collect
data relevant to the problem.

A EXPLORATORY RESEARCH DESIGNS

All research projects of any significant scope must begin with exploratory
research. This preliminary
phase is absolutely essential in order to obtain a proper definition of the
problem at hand.
Exploratory research studies are not characterized by formal research design,
nor are there basically
very scientific in nature. The purpose is to bring the central problem into
focus.

-Used to gain ideas and insights. Insights is the capacity to understanding

hidden truths
especially
of situations or characteristics
-Useful in breaking broad, vague problems statements into precise simple
small and easy to
understand ones.
Objective is to provide insights and understanding of the problem, that is, to
discover ideas, insights
and tentative explanation of the problems

Characteristics of exploratory research designs

-Information is loosely defined
-Research process is flexible and unstructured
-Sample is small and not representative of the population
-Analysis of data is qualitative
-Often the front end of total research project

Findings or Results of Exploratory research designs

-Temporary or tentative
-Not applicable in decision making but in understanding the problem
-Outcome is followed by further exploratory or conclusive research

Exploratory designs are used for the following purposes

-Formulating or defining a problem for precise investigation
-To develop hypothesis.
-To identify alternative courses of action when solving a problem
-Establish priorities for further research
-Isolate variables and relationships for further investigation
-To gather information about the practical problems of carrying out research of
particular issues
-To gain insights for developing an approach to the problem
-To clarify unclear concepts
-To familiarize the researcher with the problem

Encourages the development of creative, alternative research strategies. Provides

guidance as to how of the entire research programme, eg sampling methodology
to use
Act as a preliminary and used to lay down principles and theories

COMMON TECHNIQUES OF CONDUCTING EXPLORATORY RESEARCH

1. Secondary data analysis

This refers to the process of searching for and interpreting existing
information or existing literature relevant to the research problem. It takes
the form of abstractions from research done by other researchers,
publications in newspaper, journal and magazines, company reports etc
 Secondary data analysis is the core of exploratory research because there
are many benefits of examining secondary data and the costs are less. Also
known as literature search/ review/ survey

2. Experience surveys or executive opinion or expert opinion

This refers to gathering of information from those thought to be

knowledgeable in the issues relevant to research problem. Taps the
knowledge and experience from people familiar with a general subject
being investigated. It is in the form of interviews with people having
knowledge about the general subject being investigated. Where
discussions are held with company executives, executive opinion is
obtained and where discussions are held with experts, expert opinion is
obtained. The term expert is used in this context to include anyone with
knowledge relevant to problem being addressed.,

3. Case studies
This refers to a reveal of available information about former situations
having similarities to the research problem. Usually, there are few research
problems that do not have some similarities to some situations in the past.
Even when the research problem deals with a radically new product, they
are often similar past experience which may be observed. By studying a
small number of cases, it is possible to obtain a good understanding of the
relevant characteristics that might be operating in a given decision,
situation of the broad inter-relationship that might exist in a specific
decision situation.

Since a case study is an in-depth investigation based on a small number of

cases, it helps clarify the nature of the problem, identify relevant variables
and show relationships between variables. The analysis of selected cases
involves examining existing records, observing business activities and
conducting unstructured interviews.

4. Focus groups
These are small groups of people, about 6 to 12, brought together and
guided by a moderator through an unstructured discussion for the purpose
of gaining information relevant to the research problem. While a focus
 group should encourage openness and everybody’s participation no
member must be allowed to dominate the group discussion.
The moderator’s task is to ensure that the discussion is focused on some
general interest and objective of the research, while the conversation is
free-wheeling. The purpose of a focus group is to learn what people think
about some specific aspects of any business under research.

Is a useful technique for gathering information from a limited sample of

respondents. The information can be used to gather ideas or to gain some
insights into basic needs and attitudes of respondents.

Screening questionnaires can be used to obtain information from focus

group members. These questionnaires set qualifications a person must
possess to be in the focus group.

A discussion guide being as used as an agenda establishes the plan of the

focus group interview, including topics to be covered and to some extent
time allocation.

Advantages of focus groups

- Allow the client to get first hand, close-up picture of the largest
population
- Provide more complex answers about the set of relevant issues than a
structured questionnaire
- Are flexible

Disadvantages of focus groups

- It is impossible and expensive to assemble and reach geographically spaced
persons and working class.
- Cannot provide hard and fast conclusions.
- Can result in quarrelling if not controlled
- Results cannot be projected to a whole population

4. Depth study/interview
Often referred to as “One on One”
 Depth study is a form of exploratory research to gain insights and
understanding of a problem. This is done through an intensive
unstructured, direct and personal interview in which a single respondent is
probed by highly skilled interviewer to uncover underlying motivations
beliefs, attitudes and feelings on sensitive issues or topics.

Useful when dealing with confidential, emotionally and embarrassing

matters and when group interviews are difficult to schedule for the target
population. The depth interviewer must follow the following rules:

- Avoiding appearing superior or condescending

- Use familiar words
- Ask questions indirectly and informative
- Do not accept “yes or No” answers
- Should remain detached and objective

6. Projective techniques

Is an exploratory technique in which participants are allowed to project

themselves into a situation and then respond to specific questions
regarding the situations. Used when respondents cannot can not or will not
communicate their feelings and belief directly. This provides a structured
questions format in which respondents can respond indirectly their own
feelings and beliefs. The most common projective techniques are:

(a) Word association. Respondents are presented with a list of words, one
at a time and asked to indicate what word comes immediately to mind.

(b)Sentence completion. Respondents are asked to complete an

incomplete sentence.

(c) Unfinished scenario story completion. Respondents complete the end

of a story

(d) 3rd person or role playing. Respondents are presented with situations
and asked to relate to feelings and beliefs of a third person to the
 situation, rather than to express their own feelings and beliefs about the
situation.

(e) Cartoon completion test. Respondents are presented with a cartoon of

particular situation and asked then to suggest a dialogue that cartoon
character might make in response to the comments of another cartoon
character.

7. Situation investigation

Consists of scanning or over viewing both the internal environment and the
external environment of the organization to identify potential, political and
practical consequences of the research project.

Determine whether the research is being proposed to discredit on

individual, to prove a point, to support a decision, postpone a decision etc.

- Result in a description of possible research project boundaries on terms

of broad time and dollar resource requirements.
- Provides guidelines for further avenues of both formal and informal
inquiry.
- Major purpose is to place a problem in perspective and this is
accomplished by posing a service of “ what if question”
- Should conclude with an impact statement which self form one
potential impact of one resulting information on one problem,
organization and its general environments.

Back ground analysis

Is a type of exploratory research that aims at generating ideas and insights
about the problem.
Can be carried out prior to, during or after problem identification
Background analysis activities require the researcher to understand the
topic by
undertaking extensive reading and participating in discussions with
numerous
individuals both in and outside the organization. Case studies, experience
surveys situational
 investigation and desk researches are considered to be background
analysis activities.

Enables the researcher to determine why and how the problem arose

2) CONCLUSIVE RESEARCH DESIGN

Is a design with the major emphasis of demonstrating the true explanation
of problem
Its objective is to test specific hypothesis and examine relationship between
variables under investigation

Characteristics of Conclusive research design

-Information needed is clearly defined
-Research process is formal and structured ie is guided by principles and
procedures
-Sample is large and representative of the population
-Data analysis is quantitative

Findings of Conclusive research

Are conclusive that is, final and used as input is decision making

Types of conclusive research designs

Conclusive is classified depending on objectives as Descriptive Research,
Experimental, Evaluative, Correlation and Historical research design

A) Descriptive Research design

Its objective is to have a clear and accurate description of characteristics and
functions of variables relevant to the decision or problem being faced
without necessarily demonstrating to what extends some relationship exists
between or among the variables

Emphasis is on determining the frequency with which something occurs and

extent to which two variables co-vary, which would only permit inferences
being drawn about causation.
 Descriptive research ranges from simple data gathering to investigating
possible relationships between two or more variables so as to make
predictions about future events

It also includes the use of techniques such as comparisons, contrasting

measurements, classification and evaluation.

-Is guided by the initial hypothesis, that is the null hypothesis

-Require a clear specification of the who, what, when, where, or how of the
research
-Is more of qualitative and subjective in nature

Is used for the following purposes

-Description of the characteristics or functions of variables relevant to the
decision being faced
-Estimating precisely percentage of the specified population units
-Determining how relevant variables are related or associated
-Making specific predictions

Descriptive research may be classified as time dimensi0n in research as

follows:

True Panel
i) Longitudinal designs
Omni Bus Panel

Field study
ii) Cross-sectional designs
Sample survey

i)Longitudinal designs
-Is a multiple time points measuring . Measures or examine features of
subjects at more than
one time
Enable changes that took place over a time to be noted
Is an investigation involving repeatedly measuring of a fixed sample of
elements throughout a considerable time. The sample is called the panel
 A panel is a fixed sample of elements which remains relatively constant
through a time, maintained by replacing drop outs

Types of panels are

a) True panel which is a fixed sample of elements which is measured
repeatedly over
time in respect of the same variables
b) Omnibus panel is a fixed sample of elements which is measured
repeatedly overtime on variables that change from measurement to
measurement. Measured variable is not re- measured
Types of longitudinal research are time series , panel and cohort research.

a) Time series research is a longitudinal research in which information can

be about different cases or people in each of several time periods. The
same type of information is collected from a group of people or units
across multiple time periods. Information can be very revealing of time
changes

b) Panel study is a longitudinal research in which information is about the

same identical cases or people in each of several time periods. The
same people, group or organizations are observed across time periods.
Different information is gathered. Is the most powerful type of
longitudinal. Is formidable to conduct and costly. Tracking the same
people is difficult because people die or relocate. Results of panel
study may be very valuable.

c) Cohort study is a longitudinal research in which information about a

category of cases or people that shared a common experience at one
time period is traced across subsequent time periods. Is similar to the
panel study but observes not the same people but people who shared
similar life experience in a specified time period is studied.

(ii) Cross-sectional designs

Is an investigation involving measuring the select sample once at a single point in
time. Is a single point time measurement. There is one time measurement of the
sample. No need for maintaining the sample. Is the simplest and least costly
research design.
Can be a single cross sectional or multiple cross sectional

Cross-sectional designs can be:

a) A field study which is a in-depth investigation of a few cases of the

targeted
population, emphasizing the interrelation of a number of factors

b) A sample survey or field survey which is investigation of the population

sample in
which the emphasis is on the generalization of summary statistics such
as averages
and percentages

Cross – sectional designs cannot capture changes over time. It can be

exploratory or explanatory design but is more of descriptive research
design.

Techniques used in conducting descriptive research

a) Abstraction which is the use of secondary data
b) Survey is a cross-sectional investigation of a sample which is a
representative of the
target population
c) Panel as discussed
d) Observations which a systematic watching and recording of
behavioural patterns of
variables to obtain information about the issues of interest

B) Experimental research design

-Also known as a casual research
-Refers to observations under controlled conditions.
-Researcher manipulates and controls one or more variables and observes
the dependent variables for variation concomitant to the manipulation of
the independent variables
-Determine cause and effects relationships dependent and independent
variables
 -Because of the control, provide more convincing evidence of causal
relationships than exploratory and descriptive research
-There is need to identify other conditions

Types of experiments

i) True experiment or laboratory experiment

Is an investigation in which the researcher creates a situation
with exact conditions so as to control some and manipulate
other variables
Investigator can observe and measure the effects of the
manipulated variables while the effect of other factors are
minimized

ii) Quasi experiment

Is an experiment which lacks the control aspect of other
variable. Is an experiment which does not possess the pre-
requisites of control. Lacks the control attributes of truly
experimental research and takes short cuts in experiment
requirements. Thus quasi experiment research lacks valid
demonstration of association of variables. It is not descriptive
because it does not yield some qualitative measures of
association of variables

Ex-post facto research is a type of experimental research. This is

whereby the research has to use experiment information which is
already exists

C) Evaluative research design

Is a conclusive design aimed at testing interventions and their effectiveness
-Represents an important means of linking actions and their outcomes
-Is very specific in its purpose of accessing the results of a programme
-Evaluative research may be used in social intervention as:

i) Diagnostic tool
 Help the people implementing an intervention to identify neglected areas,
neglected targeted group and problems with organizations and
programme

Diagnostic tool evaluations are designed to inform the researcher and

project managers about:
-the present situation within the organization
-highlighting current problems trends forces, resources and any
possible consequences of various interventions

Is a technique for gathering crucial information and is usually carried

before a project is designed

ii) Formative tool

-Designed to promote the effectiveness of a programme
-Relates to the development and implementation of a programme
-Aimed at shaping a programme to achieve greatest beneficial impact upon
the organization and the community
-Evaluate the programme in order to improve its performance
-Form part of the initial programme planning and is an on going process
-Formative evaluation can be used at regular intervals.
-Mostly used in pilot study or survey

NB Pilot study is the testing of the actual programme on a small sample

taken from the community for whom the programme is being planned.
This enables the researcher to identify the materials, methods, difficulties
to be faced, accuracy and appropriateness of instruments eg questionnaires

iii) Summative tool

-Set out determine the extent to which programme meet their specified
aims and objectives. This is done at the end of the programme
-Used to gain credibility with targeted communities

Process of summative evaluation research occurs according to the following

steps:
i) Identification of a programme’s aims and objectives
ii) Formulation of aims and objectives in measurable terms
 iii) Construction of research instruments
iv) Evaluation of study designing and data collection
v) Reporting back

The use of Evaluative research is determined by

-Characteristics of the problem
-Initial level of knowledge of the researcher
-Properties of the variables
-Purpose of the investigation

D) Correlational research design

-A type of a conclusive research between descriptive and experimental
research
-Researcher is able to use this design to state a hypothesis, express the
relationship
between at least two variables
-Results obtained provide more than just a description of reality
-Used when relationship between variables cannot be determined precisely
and co-
variation is expected
-Does not give an explanation of why variables vary
-Its purpose is to detect the existence of relationship between variables and
suggest a base
for causality
-Is useful as a first step in experimental research
-Does not imply causation but causation implies correlation
-Can also used to assess the type of strength of the relationship between 2
variables

-The correlation is the value -1 < r < 1 inclusive , where

r = 1 indicates a perfect positive correlations
r = -1 indicates a perfect negative correlation
r = 0.5 indicates a positive correlation

0.5 < r >1 the relationship is said to be strong relationship

0<r > 0.5 represents a weak positive correlation
-0.5 < r > 0 is a weak negative relationship
 r = 0 means no relationship

E) Historical research design

Is the application of scientific method of enquiry to historical problems. Is
viewed in 3 ways
i) Historical approach refers to the organization of historical facts
in support of the new concepts to be developed
ii) Historical subjects refers to the biography of great man, places,
sketches of ideal, thoughts and traits
iii) Historical technique refers research which is conducted on the
basis of historical records and documents

Purposes of historical research design

-To gain and arrive at an accurate, clearer perspective of the past and the
present problem
-Greater appreciation of the culture in the progress of the society
-Effects of certain past practices may suggest future actions
-To avoid past mistakes
-To understand to the deep rooted causes of present day problems
-Develop ability to locate, analyze and approve historical events and
understand
limitations of evidence

Characteristics of a good research design

-Adopt a strategy for managing errors
-Supply accurate and error free information
-Should be economic in terms of time and costs

Errors that may affect Research designs

Errors affecting research designs may be classified into
a) Sampling errors are errors resulting from the chance specification of the
population from elements accorded to the sampling plan
b) Non- Sampling error refers to all other errors associated with the research
project.

Sampling errors
1) Population specific error
Result from the selection of an inappropriate population or wrong
population to obtain data

2) Sampling error
-Arise when the probability is used to select a sample and the sample may
not be a representative of the population concerned
-Is affected by the homogeneity of subjects. The more the homogeneity,
the smaller the sampling error. Increase in sample size, sample error is
reduced

3) Selection error
-Also known convenience error
-Results from a sample selected by a non probability method
-Investigators select only respondents who are mostly accessible and
agreeable or friends especially if there is a gratitude for being included in
the sample or only available at the time of research. Results from bias
error.

4) Sampling frame error results from failure to account for all the elements of
the population or including other twice. Results from poor definition of a
sampling frame

5) Non response error

Is failure to get valid response from the sampled respondents. Affects
validity of the survey because some segments of the population might be
omitted from being counted or heard Also exists where obtained sample
differs from the originally selected sample or expected sample. Types of
non-response errors or response rates are:

a) Non location error is failure to find a sampled respondent. Results in

location rate which is percentage (%) of located respondents in
the sample who are located over sampled elements. Location rate
can be improved by better sampling frames, use of maps and
telephone directories
b) Non Contact error – happens when respondents were not at home
or nor reached after many attempts. Researcher not able to
 contact all or some sample members Contact rate is the
percentage of located respondents who are contacted. Can be
improved by many repeated calls and varying time of calls and
lengthening periods of call

c) Ineligible error is when respondent was reached but was not the
proper person due to age, sex, citizenship etc fort he survey.
Eligibility rate is the % of contacted respondents who are eligible.
Can be improved through careful screening of respondents, better
sampling frame definition and multilingual interviewers

d) Refusal error Researcher is able to contact but respondents refuse

to answer all
or part of question items. Result when some respondents were
not willing to
be interviewed. This error is also known as cooperation response
error.
Cooperation rate is the percentage (%) of contacted eligible
respondents who
complete the survey. Refusal can be reduced by sending letter in
advance of
an interview (appointments), rescheduling interviews, offering
incentives,
adjusting interviewer behavior and statements, using alternative
interviewers
in terms of age, sex etc. Can also be reduced by using alternative
methods,
review benefits of the survey to respondents (salient to
respondents), clear
introductions and instructions to respondents etc

e) Incomplete participation error result when respondent stopped

answering be the end of the questionnaire or began answering
every question with “Do no know” or “No opinion or idea”.
Completion rate is the percentage (%) of cooperating respondents
who completed the survey.
 Can be reduced by prepaid calls, pre-testing of questionnaires,
more incentives for fully completed questionnaires.

NB Total response rate is the percentage (%) of all respondents in the

initial sampling frame who are located, contacted, eligible, agreed to
participate and completed the entire questionnaire. Is a product of
all other response rates.

Question
A researcher began with 1000 respondents in a sampling frame, located
950 by telephone and address, can contact 800 by interview, established
that 750 were eligible due to language and mental problems, 700
respondents cooperated but only 690 completed the entire
questionnaires. Calculate all the possible six response rates.

Location rate = 950/1000 = 0.95 = 95%

Contact rate = 800/950 = 0.84 = 84%
Eligible rate = 780/800 = 0.975 = 97.5%
Cooperation rate = 700/780 = 0.897 = 89.7%
Completion rate = 690/700 = 0.9857 =
98.57%

Total response rate = 0.95x0.84x0.975x0.987x0.9857 = 0.688

=68.8%

Non – sampling errors

1 Response errors are errors made by the researcher or respondents

These can be:
a) Surrogate which is the provision of substitute information for what is
required, arising from inability or unwilling to provide needed
information and even failure to understand the question
b) Measurement error result from using the wrong measurement
processes
c) Experimental error arises from may sources eg measuring what is not
the effect of the independent variable or failure to manipulate and
control variables
 2 Data analysis errors
Occurs while raw data from questionnaire are being transformed into
research findings eg incorrect interpretation of data and findings. This may
result from response errors made by either interviewer or respondents.

Response errors made by the interviewer

a) Questionnaire error or bias is made from questioning to the

respondents eg using wrong wording, ambiguous questions,
improper sequence or phrasing of questions
b) Recording error arises from lack listening skills, interpreting and
recording answers given by the respondents e.g. neutral to mean
positive or negative
c) Cheating error results from the interviewer fabricating answers to a
part or whole of the interview e.g. not asking sensitive questions
when it is necessary to do so

Response errors made by respondents

a) Inability error results from inability to provide accurate answers

because unfamiliarity, fatigue, boredom, questioning format or
content. Questions may be outside the respondent’s personal
knowledge or interest.
b) Unwillingness errors
Unwillingness by respondents to provide answers. Respondents may
misreport answers because of undesired or avoid to embarrassment
or to please the interviewer

Other error affecting research designs are:

a) Response by a non targeted population
b) Inter-respondent bias
c) Yea saying error
d) Respondent fatigue
 e) Incompetent interviewing

REVIEW OF LITERATURE
-Is a summary and analysis of related literature, which provide
background of the research. Researchers look into theories put by other
experts, and authors and analyses their model and make opinions.
Contain the following:
Conceptual view of experts
Comparisons of the views from experts
Nature of issues being researched on

Is reviewing the accumulated knowledge about a question (Research topic) Is

based on the assumption that knowledge accumulates and that people learn from
and build on what others have done(collective effort)

Goals of a literature review

i). To demonstrate a familiarity with a body of knowledge and establish
credibility. A review tells that a researcher knows the research
ii) To show the path of prior research and how a current project is linked to it.
Places the research in a body of knowledge
iii) To integrate and summarise what is known in an area. Points out areas
where prior studies agree, disagree, and what major questions remain
unanswered. Indicate the direction for future research.
iv) To learn from others and stimulate new ideas. Reviews divulges
procedures, techniques and research designs worth copying and improving
on to gain new insights

Types of literatures review

a) Meta analysis
Is a type of literature review in which a researcher or writer organizes the
results from many studies an uses statistical techniques to identify common
findings in them.

b) Context review
 A type of review in which the author links a specific study to a larger body
of knowledge. Often appears at the beginning of a research report.
Introduces the study by situating it within a broader framework. Show how
it continues or builds on a developing line of thought or study

c) Historical review
A review in which the author traces an issue over time. Can be merged
with a theoriteical or methodological review to shoe how concept, theory
or research method developed over time.

d) Integrative review
A review in which the author presents and summarises the current state of
knowledge on a topic, highlighting agreements and disagreements with it.

e) Methodological review
Is a special type of integrative review in which the author compares and
evaluates the relative methodological strength of various studies and show
how different methodologies (Research designs, measures, sample)
account for different results.

f) Self-study review
A review in which an author demonstrates his or her familiarity with a
subject area. Often part of an educational program or course requirement.

g) Theoretical review
A review in which the author presents several theories or concepts focusing
on the same topic and compares them on the basis of assumptions, logical
consistency and scope of explanations.

Where to find Research literature

i) Periodicals/Publications such as newspapers, popular magazines, TV and
radio broadcasts, Internet, encyclopedias

ii) Scholarly journals is a type of periodicals filled which peer-reviewed reports

of research studies. Citations (details of a scholarly publication’s location
that helps people to find it quickly) may be necessary
iii) Books e.g. textbooks, short story

iv) Dissertations – original research produced by students doing degrees etc

v) Government documents
vi) Policy reports and presented papers

Conducting a systematic literature review

Literature review should be conducted systematically for it to achieve its purpose.
The following steps may be followed.

a) Define and refine a topic

Literature review should begin with a clearly defined, well focused research
question and a plan. A review topic should be as focused as a research
question. NB Review helps to bring greater focus to the research question

b) Design a search strategy or plan

Is after choosing a focused research question for review. It Involves
- deciding on the type of reveiew and its extensiveness and
- deciding on the types of material to include
- Setting parameters on the search eg, time to devote it, how far back in
time to consider, minimum number of research reports(books) to
examine and libraries to visit
- Deciding how to record the bibliography
- Developing a schedule of visits

c) Locate research reports(published articles)

This depends on the type of report or of research being searched. Major
ones are scholarly journals, periodicals, dissertations, government
documents, policy reports and presented papers.

d) Evaluating research articles

Is done to determine relevance of articles. Evaluation of articles includes:
-Evaluating the title. A good title is specific, indicates nature of research,
describes the topic, tells about the setting or people being studied
-Reading the abstract. Good abstract summarizes critical information ,
gives purpose of study, methods used, highlights major findings
 -Scanning introduction and conclusion sections. Introduction section has 3
purposes:
-Introduce a broad topic and show a transition to a specific research
question, that
is, primacy focus of the study
-Establish the significance of the problem
-Outline the theoretical framework and define major concepts being
used
Amount of time required for reading an source of review is influenced by:
-Article’s high quality. Well defined purpose, clear writing and
smooth and
logical organization of work
-Reader’s sharply focus on a research issue or question
-Reader’s solid background on the theoretical issues, knowledge of
substantive topics, and familiarity with multiple research
methodologies
NB A good literature review is selective, comprehensive, critical and
current.

e) Decide what to record about an article, book or other sources

Is governed by hypothesis being tested, major concepts measured, the
main findings, basic design of the research. Is advisable to record too much
than too little. Photocopying relevant articles or reports may save time
than recording notes and may result in:
-having an entire report , which is good
-Notes can be made on the photocopy

Disadvantages of photocopying
-Can be expensive for a large literature search
-Should obey copyright laws
-May end up photocopying entire article, and forget citation information
-Organising entire articles can be cumbersome especially for several
different parts of a
single article
-May result in re-reading the entire article later

f) Organize notes
 Gathered references and notes should be organized. Organizing
scheme(method)
depends on the purpose of the review and type of review.:
i) Context review implies organizing recent reports around a specific
research question
ii) Historical review – organizes by major theme and date of publication
iii) Integrative review- organizes around core common findings and the
main
hypothesis
iv) Methodological review- organize studies by the topic and within a
topic by the
design or method used
v) Theoretical review implies organizing studies by the theories and
major thinkers
being examinee

SAMPLING PROCEDURES

Sampling is the process of selecting a representative sub-set of elements from the

population to determine the characteristics of the variable understudy and to
draw inference about the larger group or population . Is the process of selecting a
representative of population to determine the characteristics of the variables of
population understudy. The larger group is known as the population being the
totality of cases being studied

JUSTIFICATION FOR SAMPLING or REASONS OR PURPOSE OF SAMPLING

Some of the advantages of sampling as compared to the collection of data on the

whole population or census
i) Gathering data on a sample is less time consuming
ii) Gathering data on a sample is less costly since the costs of research are
proportional to the number of hours spent on data collection
iii) Sample study permits concentration more on study rather than worry
about collecting data from the field. If the entire population is to be
studied, a great deal of effort is exhausted, simply in pooling up the data
rather than on its analysis and interpretation. P
 iv) Sample study permits higher overall level of accuracy. More checks
and test for accuracy can be afforded at all stages.
v) Sampling may be the only practicable method of data collection
especially in studies where the characteristics under investigations
necessitate the destruction of the object.
vi) Sampling is the only practical way of collecting data when the
population is infinity or extremely large
vii) Only way of collecting information where the population is widely
distributed
viii) Offers easy control of procedures

What are the disadvantages of sampling?

TERMS USED IN SAMPLING

a) Population/ Universe
The entire set of objects and events which is the object of research, about
which the wants to determine some characteristics e.g. all college students
in Zimbabwe. Is the large pool of sampling units.

Target population is a specified large group of many cases from which a

researcher draws a sample and to which results from a sample are
generalized. Is a specific pool of cases the researcher wants to study. eg
students at Kushinga Polytechnic

b) SAMPLE FRAME
Is a list of all the elements of the defined target population from which the
sample is to be selected or drawn e.g. a list showing all college students at
Kushinga Phikelela Poly, telephone directories, driver’s licence records etc

c) SAMPLE
The sub—set of the whole population which is usually investigated by the
research and whose characteristics will be generalized to the entire
population. Is a small proportion of the population selected for observation
and analysis
d) CENSUS means the same as population. Counting all the elements of the
population

e) Sampling element is the unit of analysis or a case in a population or a unit

to be sampled

f) Sampling ratio is the number of cases in the sample divided by the number
of cases in the population or the sampling frame or the proportion of the
population in the sample

g) Population parameter is a characteristic of the entire population that is

estimated from a sample. Is the true characteristics of the population eg %
of residents who smoke cigarettes
h) Sampling error is the deviation between the sample results and a
population parameter due random process

SAMPLING PROCEDURES /STEPS

Below are common sampling procedures or steps:

i) Population definition is a large group of many cases from which the
researcher draws a sample and to which results from the sample are
generalized.
This is the target population the researcher wishes to make an
inference. The population must be defined in terms of time, ages and
characteristics. First there is need to understand the research topic
and objectives because objectives specify the specific information to
be sort, hence identification of who can provide necessary and
important information

ii) Census Vs Sampling

There is need to decide where the survey is to be conducted after
definition of population ie on the whole or sub-set of the population.
Choice depends on:
a) Size of the population
b) Size of the precise boundaries of the population
c) Accuracy required
 d) Administration consideration
e) Ability to control sampling and non-sampling errors
f) Costs and time

Census may be called for when:

-Population is small
-Where cost of error is high
-Fixed costs of sampling are high
-Where the variance in the characteristics being measured is high

iii) Determine and select the appropriate sampling frame

Sample frame is a list of study objects from which the sample is to be
drawn. The list can exist in physical and non-physical form and
should contain all characteristics of the population once and
information is both complete and accurate
-Can be acquired through commercial research

vi) Select sampling methods

The researcher should choose between probability and non
probability sampling methods
a) Probability sampling methods is where all elements of the
population have equal chances of being included in the
sample. Is an objective and scientific method of sampling.
Make use of randomness when selecting sample elements

b) Non-probability sampling methods is where sample elements

are selected using other methods other than randomness.
Elements do not have equal chances of being included in the
sample. Elements are purposively included or excluded from
the sample at the discretion of the researcher hence is a
subjective method of sampling. Sometimes known as
purposeful sampling method

vi) Determine the most adequate sample size

Number of elements or size of sample should be decided using either
mathematical approach or judgmental approach among other
methods
 vii) Select the sample and gather data

viii)
Validate the sample by comparing the characteristics obtained from
the sample with those present in entire population
Attributes of sample so as to meet requirements of management and researcher

i) The sample should be a representative of the population. The larger the

sample the more representative of the population
ii) Sample should be sufficient, accurate and provide stable results
iii) All research resources should be used as efficiently as time permits

TYPES OF SAMPLING DESIGNS

Sampling is the process of selecting a representative sub-set of the population to

determine the characteristics of the variable under study. There are two basic
methods of sampling techniques which are non-probability sampling methods
and probability sampling methods.

The method to use depends on:

-Objectives of data collection
-Cost of sampling
-Time factor
-Expertise of the researcher
-Accuracy required or expected. Probability produces accurate sample,
results etc

Non- Probability Sampling Designs

- Are sampling methods in which the sample units are not selected
randomly.
- Criteria other than randomness are the basis for selecting elements from
the population. Rely heavily on personal judgment. Prohibit estimating or
chancing. Useful in exploratory research to probe ideas and insights. More
subjective or biased method
- Mostly used by qualitative researchers
- May not require determination of sample size in advance before sampling

Disadvantages of Non-Probability Sampling

 - The sample may not be representative of the population from which it is
drawn. This is likely to produce biased results. Influences based on an
unrepresentative sample are likely to be misleading
- The sampling error cannot be predicted and quantified. This means that
statically inferences based on a non-probability sample data would be
invalid.

What are the advantages of Non-Probability Sampling?

*Despite the above weakness, non- probability sampling designs are useful tools
in the exploratory phase of research, a phase in which ideas and insights are more
important than scientific objectivity.

Non-profitability sampling procedures include convenience sampling, judgment

sampling and quota sampling.

1. Convenience Sampling
- Also known as haphazard or accidental sampling
- This represents a sample drawn to suit the convenience of the researcher
e.g. it may be convenient to interview only employees within one company
instead of selecting employees from a number of companies or those
available during the study or readily accessible with minimum effort and
costs or friendly to the researcher
- The researcher may also selects anyone he or she happens to come across

- Saves costs and time

- Systematic errors are unpredictable and not measurable on the resultant

sample.
- The sample may not be a representative of a the defined population

Convenience sampling is a useful tool in the exploratory phase of research,

phase in which h ideas and insights are more important than scientific
objectivity.
2. Judgment Sampling
- The sample consists of sampling units deliberately selected from the
population on the basis of the experience, judgment and expertise used by
the researcher to select the best sampling units to include in the sample
e.g. a sample of four of the most influential economists is asked to estimate
the next year’s rate of inflation
- Researcher uses his or her judgment to select what he or she thinks to be
the best satisfactorily
- This type of sample may be subject to error which although relatively, can
still not be measured or predicted.
- Pilot studies are based on such samples

Advantages of judgmental sampling

-Greater elimination of costs and time
-Non-essential are dropped immediately
-Since the researcher is aware of objectives hence only relevant elements
and data is gathered

Disadvantages of judgmental sampling

-Bias in estimation
-Strong assumption based upon thorough knowledge of the population may
mislead
-Elimination of the use of inferential parameters and statistical tools
increase
sampling errors

3. Quota Sampling
- Is a non random sampling in which the researcher first identifies general
categories into which cases or people will be fall and then selects cases
from each category to reach a predetermined number of cases in each
category.
- The population is divided into a number of segments and the researcher
arbitrarily select a quota e.g. a certain percentage of sampling units of each
segments eg under 10, 20 etc
- Chosen in a way that the proportion of sample elements possessing a
certain characteristics is approximate the same as the proportion of the
elements with the characteristics of the population
- Elements are assigned a quota that specifies the characteristics of elements
to be contacted believed by the researcher to be more realistic

Advantages of quota sampling

- Permits substitution in case of inability or refusal
- Less expensive and quick sampling method
- Suitable for a population on which no stable population frame is possible

Disadvantages of quota sampling

There is high increase in errors in that:
- Characteristics are not the same characteristics of the population and the
sample
- Sample size is not determined using a consistent method
- danger of an error of omission
- Supervision of the interview work is impossible

4 Snowball sampling
Used where respondents are difficult to identify and are based on referrals
network.
An individual is initially discovered mostly using a non-probability method,
although probability can be used, and is used to locate others who posses
similar characteristics through referrals, who in turn identifies others until
the desired sample size is attained.
This method is used on issues which individuals are unwilling to come up
openly; hence incentives can be used to encourage elements to participate

5 Purposive sampling method

-Considered a form of judgmental sampling
-Selection of the cases is governed by some criterion acting as a secondary
control
-A group is selected by the researcher to constitute a sample because is
considered
to mirror characteristics in question
 -There is purposively selecting and leaving some elements of the
population
-Selected sample is to yield quickly averages and proportions of
characteristics to
be studied e.g. an editor can be selected to represent the public
-Units are restricted to units considered to be a typical of the population

Advantages
-Only cases considered judgmentally make the sample quite representative
-Unnecessary elements are dropped out
-Purpose of the study can be fulfilled even if the sample is small
-The investigator clearly knows the objective of the research hence only
necessary
elements are included

Demerits
-Selection can be biased and the resultant sample not representative of the
population
-Method cannot be used by an average investigator to select sample units
-Difficult to detect mistakes and inaccuracy till end

6) Deviant case sampling also called extreme case sampling. Is a nonrandom

sampling in which a researcher selects unusual nonconforming cases
purposely as a way to provide greater insight into processes or a setting.
Used to seek cases that differ from predominant characteristics of other
cases

7) Sequential sampling is a non random sampling in which a researcher tries

to find as many relevant cases as possible until time, financial resources or
his or her energy is exhausted or until there is no new information or
diversity from the cases. Is similar to purpose sampling in that it tries to
find as many relevant cases as possible

8) Theoretical sampling is a non-random sampling in the researcher selects

specific times, location or events to observe in order to develop a theory or
 evaluate theoretical ideas. A growing theoretical interest guides the
selection of sample cases

Probability Sampling Designs

- Probability sampling includes all selection methods where the sampling
units to be included in a sample are selected on a purely random or chance
basis from the population.
- All elements of the population have equal chances of being selected
- Is a more objective method of sampling, that is, not subjective and not
biased because is not dictated by human feelings
- The sample is thus representative of the population
- The sampling error can be measured and predicted
- Valid statistical inferences can be applied to data collected from probability
sample
- The common type of probability sampling designs are sample random,
systematic, stratified, cluster and multi- stage sampling

1. Simple Random Sampling

- Also known as accidental sampling
- Each sampling unit in the entire population has an equal chance of being
selected. This method of sampling is used when it is assumed that the
population is relatively homogenous in respect of the variables or
characteristics understudy.
- Uses the lottery system. The sampling units can be selected using
numbered pieces of paper put in a drum or hat and the numbers are
selected one at a time until the required size is reached or by using random
dig its or numbers. One unit at a time is picked form a pool of units. Lucky
ones are picked and included in a sample. A picked element is not returned
into the pool or drum

1 2 3 45 = 1 4

2. Systematic Sampling
- Follows a systematic or uniformity process when selecting sample element.
Sampling begins by randomly selecting the first sampling units, thereafter
subsequent sample units are selected at a uniform interval, relative to the
first sampling unit.
 Procedures on systematic sampling
i) Population elements are numbered and put on a list on ascending
order
ii) Determine sample size
iii) Divide the population by the sample size to get the sampling
interval(population
segments). Sampling interval is the inverse of sampling ratio
iv) An element is picked randomly from the first segment of the
population
v) Subsequent sample units are selected at a uniform interval relative
to the
first selected sampling unit being governed by sampling interval

3. Stratified Sampling
- Use when the population is believed to or regarded as heterogeneous with
respect to the various variables or characteristics understudy
- The population is divided into mutual exclusive segments or strata where
the sampling units in each strata are relatively homogenous
- Thereafter random sampling can be done from each stratum. The
researcher needs to estimate the average mass of a large group of people.
First divides the group into strata e.g male and female and then selects a
sample from each stratum.

Steps for stratified sampling

i) Divide the population into mutual exclusive and exhaustive segments
or strata which are homogeneous
ii) Determine the sample size
iii) Determine the proportion of elements in each stratum to the size of
the population
iv) Determine the number elements to be picked from each stratum
v) Pick randomly elements from each stratum until the required
number from stratum is reached
Heterogeneous Homogeneous Sampled
Population Stratas Elements
a,b,c,d,e,f,
1,4,5,6,78
1,4,5,6,7,8,,a.b.c.d,e,f,
1,5,8,a,c, e

4. Cluster Sampling
- The population is divided into clusters where each cluster is similar in
profile to every other cluster, which is, containing the required number of
elements and characteristics of the population. A cluster is a unit that
contains final sampling elements but can be treated temporarily as a
sampling element.
- Used when researchers lack good sampling technique for a dispersed
population and the cost to reach a sampled element is very high
- A cluster is randomly selected from other clusters for investigation. The
sampling units within this randomly selected cluster maybe then be
randomly selected to provide a more representative sample from the
population.
2,C, IV
2, B,III
1,A, II
A
i

5.Multi- Stage Sampling

- Multi-stage sampling is an extension of cluster sampling.
- It involves the process of selection at two or more successive stages
- The population is divided into clusters and a sample cluster is randomly
selected.
- The randomly selected clusters are divided into smaller clusters and are
randomly selected. The procedure is continued until the clusters are small
enough and the required sample size for investigation is attained.
ZIMBABWE
A
C
B
PROVINCE

5
4
3
2
1
DISTRICTS

6 Multiphase or Double sampling

-Is where the same elements are involved at each phase but with other
units (elements) asked to give more information or different information
than others. This result in differentiating details of questions to asked to
respondents.
-The process also involves collecting data from a sample using a previously
defined technique basing on the information found from the previous
sample and hence a sub sample is selected for further study.

Other statistical sampling methods are:

Block sampling
Discovery sampling
Acceptance sampling

DETERMINATION OF SAMPLE SIZE

Is done before sampling to know the size of the sample
In order that the study be logical and meaningful the sample size should be
adequate to fulfill the objective of the research. Although various methods of
determining sample size are described separately below, rarely, will the
researcher rely only on one approach.
1. JUDGEMENT/SUBJECTIVE APPROACH
-The judgmental approach involves the researcher using informed intention to
determine the most adequate sample size. Determination of sample size is
arbitrary, subjective and doesn’t consider the likely precision of the survey
results
or the cost of obtaining.
-Is a qualitative approach or subjective method depending on individual’s
feelings
-Is a convenient sample size determination technique, which is based on the
researcher’ judgment
-Is a cheaper and faster to obtain the required sample size and information
required
although the sample might not be a representative of the population

2. MATHEMATICAL APPROACH
- This is a quantitative approach based on statistical precision which relies on
the
traditional statistical formulae for determining sample size.
-Is objective, reliable, transmittable and measurable
-The sample size depends on 3 factors:
a) The level of confidence desired, obtained from the values of Z scores
b) Maximum allowable error
c) The standard deviation of the population.

3. BAYESIAN DECISION ANALYSIS

This is a process that bases a decision on sample size on the expected value of
the
information obtained by the sample and the cost of taking the sample. The
approach
involves computing difference known as expected net gain from sampling for
various
sample size and choosing the sample size with the largest positive net gain.

4. COST LILMITATION
- This cost limitation methods determine sample size on the basis of budget
allocated to
 the research project. This approach involves deducting from the available
budget all
non-sampling related cost such as fixed cost of designing the survey
questionnaires
preparation, data analysis and report generation to arrive at the desired
sample size.
This approach is unsatisfactory because its emphases on cost to the exclusion
of all
other factors especially precision. Time may also be considered.

5. INDUSTRY STANDARDS
- It refers to those rules of thump developed from experience that have
become
standard industry guidelines for determining sample size. Convectional
guidelines on
sample size vary with the type of research study.

Size of sample is also determined by

-Kind of data analysis the researcher plans
-How accurately the sample has to be for a researcher’s purpose
-Population characteristics
-The degree of accuracy required
-The degree of variability or diversity in the population elements
-The number of different variables examined simultaneously in data analysis

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SAMPLE

a) It must be representative of the population, that it should contain the majority
of the
characteristics of the universe, if not all.
b) It should be free from bias. Bias may creep into selection of the sample due to
reasons
like convenience substitution, mistake in the adoption of the sampling method
and
failure to cover the whole of the chosen population.
c) The sample should be adequate to yield reasonable conclusions regarding the
population from which the sample is drawn.
d) The sample must enable the researcher to measure the sampling errors.
 Representative-ness of the sample and the validity of the conclusions depends
to a
large extend on these errors. The results of a good sample must be applicable
to all
items of the population with a reasonable level of confidence.
e) Should yield results applicable to all items of the population with a reasonable
confidence
f) Should be economic, that is, cost saving.

DISCREPANCIES (ERRORS) ARISING FROM THE SAMPLING FRAME

1 OMISSION DISCREPANCY
Result when the defined population is extrme larger than the sampling
frame. Some objects in the population have no chance of being in the
sample because do not appear in the sampling frame although having
the required characteristics. This result in a less representative sample

Sampling frame Population

2 COMMISSION DISCREPANCY
Occurs when a sampling frame is larger than the defined population.
Results in objects being included more that once and also including of
unnecessary objects. Arises due to lack or incomplete information
about potential study objects. This can be reduced by screening before
data collection by using qualifying questions.

Sampling frame Population

3 COMMISSION-OMISSION DISCREPANCY
Is a combination of omission and commission discrepancies. Caused by,
not including all objects in the population in the sampling frame
although these essentially containing the required characteristics or not
all objects in a sampling frame are in the population. Other elements in
the population are excluded while other objects in the sampling frame
are not from the population Sample
 Population Sampling frame

METHODOLOGY

Types and Sources of data of Data

TYPES OF DATA

Data can be primary and secondary Data

1) Primary Data

Is data which is captured by the researchers at the point where it is generated,

that is, at the point of origin. The data is captured for the first time and
specifically for the purpose of investigation at hand.
Some times called source data

Some of the advantages are:-

(i) the data is directly relevant to the problem at hand

(ii) the researcher generally offers greater control over data accuracy.
(iii)Because of (i) and (ii) above, the data is considered more meaningful
and reliable.
Some of the disadvantages are:-

(i) the data could be time consuming to collect

(ii) the date is generally more expensive to collect

Characteristics of Primary data

It’s accurate, sufficient, current, relevant and reliable

Types of Primary data

Primary data can be Overt and Non Overt data
 a) Overt data

Is data that is collected verbally by asking people questions e.g.- data

through telephone, mail and personal interviews

It requires consent and co-operation of the study participants.

Responses are given orally or in writing. Respondents take an active role
during the collection of data

Moreover overt data can be:

i) Socio, economic and demographic data
This include personal characteristics of study participants e.g age,
income, education, status, occupation etc
-The characteristics can be verified and as profiling information

ii) Psychological data

This includes internal or mental characteristics of the participants
e.g.
attitude, opinions, personalities, motives, behaviour,
perceptions, preferences, etc
-Used as independent variables to classify study individuals
-Necessary to understand behaviour occurrence

b) Non – Overt data

Is data collected by other means other than asking questions e.g. data
collected by traffic counts sales, audits or observations methods.
Refers to all data other than that derived through oral or written
responses given by the individuals being studied

Do not require person interactions with study participants since it do

not involve questioning study participants.

2) Secondary data
Is Data collected and processed by others for other purposes not for the
problem
 at hand. Is data extracted from other sources as a result of the research or
work done by other researchers. Originally, it was not for the study at
hand but is only tailored to meet or related to the problem being faced or
solved..

Mostly used in exploratory research to have an insight into the problem

understudy, to supplement the definition of the problem or developing a
statement of hypothesis

Such data is already in existence either within or outside the organization-

that is, one can get both internal and external secondary data.

Advantages
(i) The data is already in existence therefore readily available
access time is relatively short.
(ii) The data is generally less expensive to acquire
(iii) May be adequate to solve the problem at hand

Disadvantages
(i) The data may not meet specifically the needs of the current problem
and may be difficulty to be fitted into it.
(ii) It maybe difficult to assess its accuracy, reliability and sufficiency
(iii) The data maybe outdated and not relevant to the problem at hand
(iv) The data may not be subject to further manipulation
(v) Combining various sources could lead to errors of collation and
introduce bias.

NB A researcher can purchase data from a firm that specializes in providing

research data. Such data is called commercial data, since its source is
commercial.

Considerations when using secondary data

i) Privacy and integrity of the source
ii) Primary sources of data
iii) Integrity of the researcher who collected the data
iv) Purpose of publication
 v) Quality of the data collection methods
vi) Data presentation methods used
vii) Period , that is, when the data was collected
viii) Relevance considering the characteristics of the data

Evaluation of secondary data

Is done to determine the extend to which the data meet the criteria of
accuracy, current, sufficiency, reliability availability and relevance

Questions to be answered by evaluation of secondary data

i) Who was responsible for collecting the data
ii) Why was the data collected
iii) Is the data available, accurate, reliable, relevant, complete etc
iv) Which methods and techniques were employed to collect the data

SOURCES OF DATA

1) Primary data
Is data extracted through data gathering methods like, surveys and
observations constitutes are the principal sources of primary data .

Examples of primary data and respective sources are:

i) Financial data- Sales vouchers, credit notes, accounts
receivables, accounts payables, asset register etc
ii) Production data - Production cost records and stock sheets
etc
iii) Human resources data – time sheets, wages and salaries
schedule, employee personal final records etc
iv) Marketing data – sales data, advertising expenditure etc
v) Survey data – Personal surveys, salary surveys, research
surveys etc
2) Secondary data
Publications constitute the principal sources of secondary data. It should
be noted that results of using primary data, if used for another problem
becomes secondary data
 Sources of secondary data can be internal, external and literature
review

i) Internal sources of secondary data are records found within the

organization for which the research is being done eg;
-Aged market research figures
-Company reports like financial statements for previous years
-Past sales reports
-Employees records
-Internal company publications
-Reports, memos etc

ii) External sources of secondary data is when data is obtained from

other
organizations’ publications, periodicals, industry and research
institutions
eg-Commercial and industrial Associations like CZI, ZNCC,
Zimtrade, Zimbabwe Investment Centre(ZIC) and SEDCO
-Research organizations such as Africa Research (Pvt) ltd,
-Central Statistical office which is the government’s data
capturing and dissemination instrument
-Publications in newspapers, trade journals, and trade
magazines etc
-Libraries, universities
-Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe and other banks economic reports

iii) Literature review

-Text books are used
-Information is derived from the author’s point of view
-Researchers identify texts relevant in:
a) Problem definition
b) Building the statement of hypothesis
c) Suggesting recommendations

*Mostly secondary data constitutes basic research and be used

to
understand the problem and develop statement of hypothesis
QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE DATA
Both primary and secondary data can be qualitative or quantitative data

(a) Qualitative data

Qualitative data refers to data which cannot be subjected to
mathematical computations, that is, addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division
In qualitative data the values of variables represent categories. The
categories can be coded using either numbers or letters –eg- gender
is a qualitative random variables where the categories male and
female can be represented by using letters M for male and F for
female.

Another example is rating of “communication skills”, which is also a

qualitative variable, where the categories can be represented by
numbers:- 1 for good , 2 for average, and 3 for poor for a person’s
communication skills. These numbers are used as labels and are
meaningless as quantities.
(b)Quantitative data
In quantitative data the values of variables are always
numeric(numbers) and
represent a measure. The data can be subjected to mathematical
computations, that is, addition, subtractions, multiplication and
division

There are two types of quantitative data – Discrete and Continuous

data.

Discrete data refers to data to which the attributes can be measured

with only a limited number of distinct separate categories. Data
values have distinct values with no immediate points and usually
arise from a counting process. Have relatively fixed set of separate
values or variable attribute.

This means that the elements of discrete quantitative variables can

only take certain specific values. Data attributes can be measured
with only a limited number of distinct, separate categories
Usually discrete quantitative variables have an integer values –eg-
the number of employees in a department may be 0 or 1 or 2 or 3
etc, but not 0,5 or 7,31 etc.

Not usually measured over a time

It is possible for discrete quantitative variables to have non integer

values –eg- ladies shoe sizes can be size 3; 3 ½; 4; 4 ½ etc but not
3,17; 4, 231 etc

However discrete data can be conceptualized as a continuous data eg

i) Temperature can be continuous variable ( eg degrees, fraction of a
degree) and
can be measured with discrete categories as hot or cold
(qualitatively
measured)
ii) Age can be continuous eg 2 years, 2.5 years , months, days, hours
and minutes
or can be in discrete categories (qualitatively) eg infants,
adolescence, young,
adulthood, old
age etc

Continuous data refers to data which can have any values over a
range either as whole number or as fraction. Arise from measuring
process. Measuring is done over time. Have an infinite number of
values or attributes that flow along a continuum.

This means that the elements of a continuous quantitative variable

can take any value over a range or internal eg if weights are
recorded, there might be any value –eg- 11,27kg ; 23,05kg ; 19kg ;
7,002kg etc. The values can be divided into many smaller increments,
that is, infinite number of increments.
 Age is also a continuous quantitative variable since it is measured
over a time.

However, age is usually rounded to the nearest year

Primary data can be either discrete or continuous, and likewise

secondary data.

LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT

Measurement is the assignment of numbers (by quantitative researchers) or

other symbols (by qualitative researchers) to characteristics of variables
according to certain pre-specified rules. Note that what are measured are not the
variables but some characteristics of the variable. Measurement extends human
sense and helps people observe what is otherwise invisible. Levels of
measurements are significant when collecting data.

There are four levels of measurement – ie nominal, ordinal, and internal and
ratio. The level of measurement depends on :
-how a construct is conceptualized, that is, assumptions about whether it
has particular characteristics
-the type of indicators measurement that a researcher use

(a) Nominal scale

Is where data of a qualitative random variable such as marital status,
ender etc, is assigned to one of a number of categories of equal
importance

Is the lowest least precise level of measurement for which there is a

difference in type only among the categories of a variable. Only
indicates that there is difference among categories but cannot
indicate to what extend the categories differ. Consists of putting
responses or observations into classes such as yes or no, red or
green or blue, or other qualitatively interpreted names for each
category.
 It is based on classification and is not often subject to numerical
interpretation except from a frequency of a response observation of
view.
Nominal scaled data is associated mainly with qualitative random
variables such as gender, type of car, marital status etc.

There is no implied ranking or ordering between the groups of the

random variables. No or limited statistical measures can be applied
on the data.

b) Ordinal scaled data

Like nominal scaled data, ordinal scaled data is assigned to only one
of a number of coded categories, but there is now a ranking implied
between the categories in terms of better, longer, older taller or
stronger etc.

Is a level of measurement that identifies a differences among

categories of a variable and allows the categories to be rank ordered.

Ordinal measurement simply means the ranking of the characteristics

of a variable according to some criterion such as preferences,
importance etc. While there is an implied difference between the
categories, this difference cannot be exactly measured, that is, the
distance between categories cannot be quantified nor assumed to be
equal. Eg agree, Strongly agree, Disagree, Strongly disagree.

In research, ordinal scaled data is generated from ranked responses.

In ranking, one cannot say that the item ranked as one is twice as
preferred as that ranked two or that the difference between ranks is
constant. There is limit on statistics on this data.

c) Interval scaled data

-Is a level of measurement that identifies differences among
variables, attributes, ranks categories and measures distance
between categories, but there is no true zero origin
-Is data associated with quantitative random variable.
 -differences can be measured between values of a quantitative
random variable. Thus interval scaled data possess both order
(implied ranking) and distance properties.
-An interval scale is one where an item is assigned a score and the
distance between scores is constant e.g. the distance between an
item scored fourth and that scored second is the same as that
between one scored tenth and that scored eighth. Interval scaled
data does not possess an absolute origin; therefore the ratio of
values cannot be meaningfully compared for interval scaled data.
Only absolute differences make sense when interval-scaled data has
been collected.
Do not have zero origin eg Temperature can be 5 degrees, 45
degrees

d) Ratio scaled data

Is the highest, most precise level of measurement. Variable
attributes can be rank ordered, the distance between them precisely
measured and there is an absolute zero
-Is data associated mainly with quantitative random variables such as
income, time, age, distance, prices etc. It is numeric data with a zero
origin. The zero origin indicates the absence of the attribute being
measured and zeros are there to help keep a score
Thus ratio scales have intrinsically physical interpretation, in
absolute terms rather than being measurement which are relative to
an arbitrary zero point.
-Ratio scaled data is the strongest form of data which can be
collected and lends itself to the widest range of statistics methods.

-However, it should be noted that if ratio scaled data is grouped into

categories, the data type becomes ordinal scaled data. This then
reduces the scope of statistical analysis on the random variable

METHODS OF EXTRACTING /COLLECTING DATA OR DATA COLLECTION

TECHNIQUES
Data need to be systematically collected so that can be able to answer research
questions in conclusive way. Data collection methods include:
a) Interviews these can be personal, telephone, mail or internet
interviews
b) Observations can be personal, mechanical, content analysis, trace
analysis, audit, and abstraction

Interview is a method of collecting overt primary data. Collection of data requires

cooperation and interaction of study objects. The study objects take an active
role.

a) PERSONAL INTERVIEWS/ FACE TO FACE INTERVIEWS

-Used for collecting overt primary data
-data is collected by means of face to face communication between the
interviewer (researcher) and the respondents or study participants
-Respondents are contacted, asked questions and the responses are
recorded,
therefore, the interviewer’s tasks are to meet the respondents, ask
questions and
record the responses on the interview schedule.
-Interviews can be either structured or unstructured.

Structured interview is a method of interviewing where questions are

predetermined. Interviews are purposefully standardized so that each
respondent is exposed to the same questions or questionnaire (interview
schedule) as well as the questioning process. This means that the
interviewer cannot alter the interview either by:
-adding or deleting questions from the interview schedule or
questionnaire
-changing the sequence of the questions
-changing the wording of the questions

Highly structured interviews contain structured questions, that is, questions

which require short answers like “Yes” or” No”

Have a low degree of flexibility. Questions are fixed.

Useful when the respondents are large
Data from such interviews are is to present and analysis

An unstructured interview is a method of interview where questions are

not completely pre-determined and the interviewer is free to probe for all
details and underlying feelings. Such interviews are used when the
researcher wants to the flexibility of being able to ask questions in different
orders to determine the working of specific questions for different
respondents or to be able to probe respondents to clarify certain answers
to questions

There is high degree of flexibility. Wording can be changed and also order
of questions. Additional questions not, included on the questionnaire, may
be asked to gain more information. Interview schedules are only used as a
guide in questioning

Frequently used in exploratory studies and when the researcher has little
understanding or knowledge of the problem.

Questions are open ended. Respondents are not restricted in their

responses

Advantages of personal interviews

i) Higher response rate is generally achieved because respondents tend
to be more cooperative in personal interviews
ii) Questioning allows probing for reasons
iii) Greater data accuracy is generally ensured because the interviewer
can help the respondent to understand the questions
iv) Data collection is immediate, that is, there is immediate feed back
v) Non-verbal responses and visual aids can be observed and noted.
Face to face contact can tell the interviewer a lot about the
respondent therefore more data can be collect at one goal. Is a two
in one method of collecting data
vi) Generally more questions can be asked, permits the longest
questionnaire, open-ended and complex questions to be asked
vii) Responses are spontaneous, that is, spontaneous answers can be
obtained
viii) The use of aided- recall questions is possible
ix) Difficult in one question does not result in the loss of answers to all
of them
x) The respondent does not know what other coming questions when
answering so these cannot influence replies

Disadvantages of personal interviews

i) Time consuming and very cost especially when the responses are
many
ii) Respondent anonymity is lost
iii) It may be difficult to find convenient time for interviewing certain
busy people
iv) Respondents do not have time to consider replies or look up for
information therefore pre- mature or incomplete data can be
collected
v) Possibility of gathering biased data is introduced by the interviewer’s
interest or respondents answering questions to please the
interviewer or the interviewer may influence the respondent’s
answers. Appearance, tone of voice etc of the interviewer may
influence responses.
vi) The method is expensive if the interviewers/ees have to be paid.
Interviewers may need to be trained and paid. In addition, the
interviewee may require an incentive if to be involved in the process.
vii) Very difficult in case of geographically spaced respondents
viii) Other respondents may not be interested in well-coming unfamiliar
visitors in doors
ix) Generally fewer interviews are conducted because of time and cost
constraints. This means that the sample size is usually restricted by
high costs and may not be a representative of the population

Personal interviews are conversations, but differ from ordinary

conversations in many ways

Ordinary Conversation Structured Conversation(Interview)

1 Questions and answers from each Interviewer asks and respondent

participant are equally balanced answers most of time
2 Open exchange of feelings and
opinions
3 Judgments’ are stated and
attempts made
to persuade the other’s point of
view
4 Person can reveal deep inner
feelings to
gain sympathy or as a therapeutic
release
Only respondents reveal feelings
and opinions
Interviewer is non-judgment and no
attempt to change respondent’s
opinions or beliefs
Interviewer tries to obtain direct
answers to specific questions
Interviewer avoids ritual responses
and seeks genuine answers, not
ritual responses.

5 Ritual responses are common eg Respondent provides almost all

“Uh”, information and interviewer does
Shaking head, fine not correct a respondent’s factual
errors
6 Participants exchange information
and Interviewer controls the topic,
correct the factual errors that they direction and pace. Respondent is
are kept on task and irrelevant
aware of. diversions are contained

7 Topics rise and fall. Any person

can Interviewer attempts to maintain a
introduce new topics. Focus can consistently warn but serious and
split objective tone throughout
directions or digress to less
relevant Difficult or impossible to evade and
issues ignore questions. Should give
truthful and thoughtful answers.
8 Emotional tone can shift from
humor, to
joy, to affection, sadness, anger
etc
9 People can evade or ignore
questions
and give flippant or non-committal
answers

Stages of a face to face interview

1 Introduction and entry stage

Includes getting into the doors, welcoming remarks, showing
authorization, reassuring and securing co-operation from
respondents

2 Interview process is the second stage is the main part of the

interview which consists of asking and recording answers. There is
also probing, that follow-up questioning asking respondents to clarify
or elaborate on an incomplete or inappropriate answers

Forms (types) of probing are:

-Non verbal communications eg raised eyebrows, tilt of head etc
-Repeating the question or repeat a reply and then pause
-Asking a neutral question eg Any other reasons, Can you tell me
more about that, what do you mean? etc

3 Exit stage is the third and final stage: Interviewer thanks the
respondent and leaves.

Interviewer bias may chip in and affect the interview. Interviewer bias is
when an interviewer influences the responses from the respondents.
Interviewee may also result in interviewee bias

Categories of interview bias

i. Errors by the respondent eg forgetting, embarrassment,

misunderstanding or lying because of the presences of others.
Is an interviewee bias
 ii. Unintentional errors or interviewer sloppiness is caused by
contacting the wrong respondents, misreading a question,
omitting questions, reading questions in the wrong order or
recording the wrong answer to a question or misunderstanding
the respondent

iii. Intentional subversion by the interviewer –is the

purposeful alteration of answers, omission or rewording of
questions or choice of alternative respondent
iv.Influence due to the interviewer’s expectations about the a
respondent’s answers based on the respondent’s appearance,
living situation etc

v. Failure of an interviewer to probe or to probe properly

vi.Influence on the answers due to the interviewer’s appearance,

tone, attitude, reaction to answers or comments made outside
of the interview schedule

b) TELEPHONE INTERVIEWS
-Is means of collecting overt primary data
-data is collected by means of telephone communication between the
researcher or interviewer and the respondents or study participants
-Involves phoning a sample of respondents asking them a series of
questions and recording the responses on questionnaire or interview
schedules

Advantages of telephone interviews

i) Allow quicker contact with geographically dispersed respondents
ii) Call backs can be arranged and made if the respondent is not initially
available thereby increasing response rate
iii) The cost is relatively lower as compared to personal interviews
iv) People are more willing to talk on telephone from the security and
comfort of their own homes or offices, even when not seeing the
person on face to face
v) Interviewer probing is possible
 vi) Interviewer has control of sequence of questions, time of
questioning, and can use contingency questions effectively
vii) Clarity on questions can be provided by the interviewer
viii) The use of aided-recall questions is possible
ix) A larger sample of respondents can be reached in relatively short
space of time
x) Is a flexible method of collecting data and contacting respondents

Disadvantages of telephone interviews

i) Respondent anonymity is lost and there is element of interviewer
bias
ii) Non-verbal responses cannot be observed
iii) Respondents may terminate the interview prematurely by putting
the telephone down or switching is off
iv) Sampling errors are compounded if significant numbers of the target
population do not have telephones. These cannot be reached or
contacted
v) Trained interviewers are required and this increases costs
vi) There is no possibility of check backs to check on the validity of
responses after termination of the interview when doing data
analysis if data was incorrectly captured/recorded.
vii) Calls may come at an inconvenient time eg meetings
viii) Open ended questions are difficult to use

c) MAIL INTERVIEWS (Postal questionnaire method)

-Is method of collecting overt primary data
-data is collected by means of mail communication between the researcher
and the
respondents
-Questionnaires are mailed (posted) to pre-selected potential respondents
-A complete mail interview package consists of the out- going envelope,
cover
letter, questionnaire, return stamped envelope and possibly an incentive
for
participation
-Respondents complete and return the questionnaires to the interviewer
-There is no verbal oral interaction between the researcher and the
respondents
-Is appropriate when the target population from which the data required is
large
and geographically dispersed
-Questionnaires may personally hand administered to respondents and re-
collected

Advantages of mail interviews

i) A larger sample of respondents can be reached. Questionnaires can
be distributed widely and to many people
ii) More cost effective, that is, cheaper than personal interviews and
can be conducted by a single researcher
iii) Respondents have more time to consider their responses. They have
time to consider their opinions and check on accuracy and current
information or records
iv) Anonymity of respondent is assured, generally, result in more honest
responses hence avoid interviewer bias
v) Respondents can complete the questionnaire at their own
convenient spare time
vi) Questionnaires can be sent out periodically to update the data

Disadvantages of mail interviews

i) Response rate is very low unless there is incentive or legal obligation
to reply
ii) Respondent cannot obtain clarity or misunderstood questions and
such questions may not be answered or wrongly answered or
answers may be meaningless
iii) Postal or mail questionnaires must be shorter and simpler to
complete hence not all questions may be asked
iv) The possibility of probing or investigating further are limited
v) Data collection takes a long time. It is difficult to or no control over
how long people take to reply
vi) There is no control over who actually answers the questionnaire. The
answers may not be entirely the respondent’s own. No control over
conditions under which the questionnaire is completed
vii) Data cannot be collected from illiterate people.
 viii) There is no possibility of check backs to check on the validity of
responses.
ix) Knowledge of what questions are to come, later may influence
answers to earlier ones
x) There is no spontaneity feedback
xi) Postal questionnaires are difficult to design
xii) Non verbal responses cannot be observed

What can be done to increase mail interview / questionnaire response

1 -Address the questionnaire to a specific person not “Occupant or office”

and send it first class
2 -Include a carefully written, dated cover letter on letterhead stationery.
Request respondent co-operation, guarantee confidentiality, explain
purpose of the survey, and give the researcher’s name and contact details
3 -Include a postage paid, addressed return envelope
4 -Questionnaire should have a neat, attractive layout and reasonable page
length
5 -Questionnaire should be professionally printed, easy to read and with
clear instructions
6 -Send two follow-up reminder letters to those not responding. First should
arrive about one week after sending a questionnaire, the second a week
later. Gently ask for co-operation again and offer to send another
questionnaire in case the first got lost
7 -Do not send questionnaires during major holidays periods
8 -Do not put questions on the back page (on both sides of a page)
9 -Leave enough blank space after each question for responses. Mostly ask
the respondent for general comments
10 -Sponsors that are local and seen as legitimate eg gvt, universities, get a
better response
11 -Include a small monetary incentive and promise more for fully completed
questionnaires
12 -Avoid ambiguous questions, wording etc
Comparison of personal, telephone and mail interviews
Characteristics Personal Telephone Mail
interviews interviews interviews
1. Unit cost of data collected Most Moderately Least
expensive
2. Speed of data collection Moderately Fastest Slowest
slow
3. Quantity of data collected Most least Considerable
4. Control of data collection Very good Good None
environment
5. Control of data collection Very good Moderately Potentially
process good difficult
6. Size of staff required Large Moderate Small
7. Diversity of questions possible Good Limited Moderate
8. Flexibility of data collection Very flexible Moderately Least flexible
flexible
9. Use of facilitating aids Very good Limited Moderate
10. Geographical dispersion of Limited Good Very good
respondents
11. Refusal & Non response Least Moderate Greatest
problems
12. Perceived anonymity of Low Moderate high
respondents
13. Interviewer bias High Moderate None

d) Internet Interviews also known as web survey or email survey. Are

becoming the most fast due to technological advancement. Interviews are
done the network.

Advantages of web survey

-Are very fast and inexpensive
-Allow flexible designs. Can use visual images, audio or video
communications
 -Very efficient. Eg completely eliminate paper, postage, data entry costs.
-Overcome international boundary limitations

Disadvantages of web surveys

-Coverage. Many people especially less educated, lower income and rural
people do not
have access to internet.
-Privacy of respondent’s responses not 100% assured
-Design issues- requires the researchers to check and verify compatibility of
software and
hardware combination used by computers of respondents

2) OBSERVATIONS
Used for collecting non- overt primary data
-Are methods of data collection in which the situations of interested are
systematically watched or scrutinized and relevant facts, actions or
behaviours
are recorded on the observation form or schedule.
-Observer does not question or communicate with the people being
observed
-Data is recorded as the events occur or from records of past events
-Observations can be applied on both human beings and non-human beings

*Observation methods can be classified by the mode of administration as

personal
observation, mechanical observation, audit, content analysis and trace
analysis

a) Personal observations
Used to collect non-overt primary data
-The researcher observes the events as they occur and does not
attempt to control or manipulate the phenomenon being observed
-The observer merely records what takes place on the observation
form or
Schedule
 -Personal observation can be participant or non-participant
observation

i) Participant observation is when the researcher will involve him or

herself in the activity being observed, that is, doing the work
being
done by those being observed. This form enables the researcher to
assess demands of the activities being done and also how those
experienced in the work are doing. Can even get data by doing the
activity under investigation. No undivided attention in recording
data.
Researcher can be absorbed in the work not recording

ii) Non Participant observation is when the researcher may not take
part
in the activities being observed. Observation is done from a
distance or
taking a passive role in the activities being done. Allows
undivided
attention in the recording of data. Participants may react to the
observer

b) Mechanical observation
-Used for collecting non-overt data
Mechanical devices rather than human beings record the
phenomenon
being observed. The devices may or may not require the
respondents’
direct participation. Example of mechanical observation devices
include
devices used to record weather changes, robots, over speed
detecting
devices used by police

c) Content analysis
-Used for collecting non-overt data
Is appropriate method when the phenomenon being observed is
 communication rather than events or physical object.
-is defined as the objective, systematic and quantitative description
of the
manifest content of communication
-It includes observation as well as analysis. Unit of analysis may be
type
of words ,characters (individuals), things, space, time and
measurements
(length or duration) of the message or topic(subject of the message)

d) Trace Analysis
-Used for collecting non-overt data
-In trace analysis, data collection is based on physical trace or
remains or evidence of past behaviour.
-The traces may have be left intentionally or unintentionally by the
respondents
-Eg. The number of different finger prints on a page can be used to
gauge the readership of various topics in a text book, Bushmen
paintings used to understand their living style

e) Audit
-Used for collecting non-overt primary data
-In an audit, the researcher collects data by examining physical
records or performing inventory analysis eg auditing of financial
statements by auditors so as to verify authenticity of financial
statements

f) Abstraction
-Used for collecting non-overt primary data
-Is applied on secondary data
-Abstraction or desk research is the collection of secondary data
already available that is closely related to the investigation on hand.
The data is collected from sources of secondary data already
discussed.
-Recording of collected data is done on a check list

Advantages of observations
-Can give accurate additional information than any other means of data
Collection
-Can collect information on sensitive issues
-Information can be collected from non-human beings eg toilets

Disadvantages of observations
-Time consuming
-Appropriate on small groups
-Participants may react to the observation resulting in collecting wrong data

TRIANGULATION IN RESEARCH
Is the use of 2 or more methods of data collection in the study of some aspect of
human behavior or an aspect from which data is being collected. Is observing
something from different angles or viewpoints to get the true location. The idea is
that looking at something from multiple points or view improves accuracy
Is used for verification or validation purposes to ensure collect and accurate data
is collected

Types of triangulation

i) Time triangulation
-Take into consideration time factor of changes and process by utilizing
cross-sectional and longitudinal designs over time
-The same phenomenon is measured repeatedly over time to note any
changes

ii) Space triangulation

-Attempts to overcome the limitations of studies conducted within one
culture or sub-culture.
-This involves testing of theories among different people or differences
between populations by using several different measuring instruments
(cross-cultural studies)

iii) Combined levels of triangulation

-Uses more than one level of analysis
 iv) Theoretical triangulation/Triangulation of observers
-Is when a researcher uses multiple theoretical perspectives in the
planning stages of research or when interpreting the data
-This draws upon alternative or competing theories in preference to
utilizing one viewpoint only. The researcher should be more active in
designing his or her research so that competing theories can be tested.

v) Investigators triangulation
-This engages more than one observers, interviewers or investigators
recording data from the same subjects being investigated in respect of
the same characteristics.
-Is used to ensure that corrected data is collected by comparing data
from different investigators.
-Discrepancies can be analyzed if any and investigated
-Prevents the limitations of a single observer to affect the entire study

vi) Triangulation of measures is when researchers take multiple

measurements of the same phenomena either using the same
measuring instrument or different instruments

vii) Methodological triangulation

-This type uses either the
(a) The same method on different occasions or
(b) Different methods on the same objects of study
(c) Mixing quantitative styles and qualitative styles of
research and data

SURVEY DIFFERENTIATED FROM CASE STUDY

Survey method
-Is a quantitative research in which the researcher systematically asks a large
number of people the same questions and records their answers. Written
questionnaires or formal interviews are used to gather data/information
-Is associated with the deductive approach
-Used to answer who, what, where, how much and how many questions
-Tend to be used for exploratory and descriptive research
-Allow collection of large amount of data from a sizeable population in a highly
economic way
-Allows collection of quantitative data which can be analyzed quantitatively using
descriptive and inferential statistics
-Data collected can be used to suggest possible reasons for particular
relationships
between variables and to produce models of these researches
-Researcher has more control over the research process but does not manipulate
a situation or
condition to see how people react but only ask and record answers
-Sample is a representative of the entire population. Sample elements are
randomly sampled
using random sampling technique
-Data is collected through questionnaires, structured observations and structured
Interviews and then summarized in charts, graphs or tables and analyzed
statistically
-Surveys are mostly used in descriptive and explanatory research
* is the collection of information on a wide range of cases, each case being
investigated only on
a particular aspect under consideration

Information or data which can be sourced through survey include

- behavior - Attitudes, beliefs and opinions -Characteristics -Expectations
-Self – classification

Factors which contributed to growth in survey

1) Computers- made the sophisticated statistical analysis of large-

scale survey data sets feasible and easy
2) Organisations- new research centres with an expertise and
interest in quantitative research were established.
3) Data storage- Collection, storage and sharing of information on
hundreds of variable for thousands of respondents expanded the
use of surveys
4) Funding by governments, NGOs etc
 5) Methodology – survey technique advanced as errors were
identified and corrected through prior researches. Improved
statistics for data analyzing data were devised.

Case study
-Is a research that is an in-depth examination of an extensive amount of
information about very few cases or units for one period or across multiple
periods of time. Many features are examined in depth of few cases over a
duration of time

Is a strategy for doing research which involves an empirical investigation of a

particular contemporary phenomenon within its real life context using multiple
sources of evidence. Is the detailed and thorough investigation of a few cases.

-Elements are not a representative of the population

-Non probability sampling methods are used to select cases
-Cases can be individuals, groups, movements, geographical units
-Data can more detailed, varied and extensive
-Researcher intensively investigate 1 or 2 cases focusing or several factors
-Uses the logic of analytic instead of enumerative induction
-Is a or use a qualitative approach
-Mostly used in exploratory research.

RESARCH INSTRUMENTS/ RESEARCH TOOLS

- Are data collection forms on which data is recorded as it is collected. As a

tool to collect data, a research instrument must be a reliable and validly
measure what the researcher seeks to measure. Its designs must ensure
that the correct research issues are addressed and that accurate and
appropriate data for statistical analysis is gathered.
- The common research instruments are questionnaires, interview
schedules, observation forms, check lists, document schedules and
evaluation schedule are discussed below.
QUESTIONNAIRE
- This is a formalized set of questions to obtain and record specified and
relevant data with tolerable accuracy and completeness. It is a set of
questions which will help in meeting the objective of the research through
directing the questioning process and promoting clear and proper
recording.
- Is a data collection tool on which written questions are presented to be
answered by the respondents.
- Can be defined as a systematic compilation of questions to assemble
desired information
- Is an important tool in normative survey for gathering widely scattered data
from scattered sources where seeing the respondents personally is
impossible for verbal oral communication
- Is flexible data collection tool for quantitative and qualitative data
- Suitable if large respondents are to be reached

OJECTIVES OF A QUESTIONNAIRE
- To translate the data needed into a set of specified questions that the
respondents can and will answer.
- To uplift, motivate and encourage the respondent to become involved in
the interview, to co-operate and to complete the interview.
- To minimize response error which is the error that arises when respondents
give inaccurate answers as their answers are mis-recorded or misanalysed.

TYPES (FORMS) OF QUESTIONNAIRES

a) Structured questionnaire
Is a closed form of questionnaire containing closed ended questions.
Contain definite, concrete and direct questions. Contain questions
requiring short check responses and or restricted answers. Answers are
fixed and the only best answer is chosen. Are in form of multiple choose
questions. Can be dichotomous ( eg Yes or No) or multi-chotomous (with
more than alternatives) multiple choose questions. Restricts respondent’s
response by selecting a response from the supplied alternatives or
providing short answers without any further explanations
 Mostly questions are presented in the same wording so that respondents
reply to the same questions

Easy to fill, requires less time, keep respondents on the subject, more
objective and acceptable.

Easy to administer, tabulate and analyse

b) Unstructured questionnaire
Are open form, open ended or unrestricted questionnaires. Respondents
are not restricted in their responses. Can respond in their own words (free
response). No clues are provided (Is non-directive). Calls for depth
interview or depth response to solicit attitudes and motives
Mostly used in motivational research.

Rearrangement of the form and questions as well addition or subtraction of

questions can be made

May contain partially completed questions or statements

Both structured or unstructured questionnaire can be disguised or

undisguised. Disguise refers to the amount of knowledge concerning the
purpose of the study or data communicated to respondents by the data
collection method.

Disguised Questionnaires- Is a questionnaire which attempts to hide the

purpose of study, that is, purpose of the study is not made known to
respondents. Therefore there can be a structured disguised
questionnaires or Unstructured disguised questionnaires

Undisguised Questionnaire- Is a questionnaire in which the purpose of the

study is made obvious. The researcher can use projective methods to
conceal the truth subject of the study. Similarly can be unstructured
undisguised questionnaire or unstructured undisguised questionnaire.

NB A questionnaire containing both closed questions and open ended

questions is a semi structured questionnaire. This happens because it may
be impossible to have a completely closed or open ended questionnaire
c) Fact questionnaire require factual information not opinions or attitudes

d) Opinion questionnaire (Opinionnaire) requires opinions, attitudes or

preferences
of respondents. Attempts to measure the attitude or belief of an individual
i.e. opinionaire or attitude scale. How people feel, or what they believe as
their attitude. Attitude in the inner feeling is an individual which is difficult,
impossible to describe. Opinion is what a person says on certain aspects of
the issue under consideration. It the outward expression of an attitude
holds by an individual.

An opinionaire is defined as a special form of inquiry used by researchers to

collect the opinions of a sample of population on certain facts or factors of
the problem under consideration. The opinions will then be be further
quantified, analyzed and interpreted. Opinionnaire makes use of statements
or questions on different aspects of the problem under investigation. Solicits
responses on either a three point or five point scale eg Agree, disagree,
undecided agree or strongly agree, agree, uncertain, disagree and strongly
disagree.

Mostly used in researches of the descriptive type which deamand surveys of

opinions of the concerned individuals

NB Sociometry is a questions technique for describing social relationship that

exist between individuals in a group. Is a tool to measure social distance. Is the
study of measurement of the social choices that people make. Is used to reveal
group structures by showing preferences that persons in the group have for each
other and the way in which individuals persons are chosen or preferred or ignored
or rejected. Eg of questions : “Whom would you like to be a monitor of your
class?”

DESIGNING THE QUESTIONNAIRE

The process can be presented as a series of steps as shown below:

1. DETERMINE SPECIFIC DATA TO BE SOUGHT

2. DETERMINE THE TYPE OF INTERVIEW that is administration method

3. DETERMINE CONTENT OF INDIVIDUAL QUESTIONS

4. DECIDE ON THE QUESTION STRUCTURE

5. DETERMINE QUESTION WORDING

6. DETERMINE ORDER OF QUESTONS

7. IDENTIFY THE FORM AND LAYOUT

8. REPRODUCE THE QUESTIONNAIRE

9. ELIMINATE BUGS BY PRE- TESTING

10 FINAL DRAFT

DISCUSSION STEPS WHEN DESIGNING A QUESTIONNAIRE

1. SPECIFY THE DATA BE SOUGHT (NEEDED)

The first step in questionnaire design is to specify the data needed. The
researcher must
determine exactly what is to be measured.

2. SPECIFY THE TYPE OF INTERVIEW

The researcher should determine the type of interview to use, in which the
questionnaire is the be used, that is personal, telephone, or mail. The type of
interview
influences questionnaire design and how the questionnaire will be
administered.

In personal interview, respondents may not see the questionnaire. There is face
to face
interaction with the interviewer, therefore length, complex and varied
questions can be asked.
The interviewer records the responses on the interview schedule.
 In telephone interview the respondents interact with the interviewer but they do
not see
the interviewer. This limits the types of questions that can be asked to short and
simple
ones.

In mail interviews, the questionnaires are self administered thus the questions
must be
simple and detailed instructions must be provided. The interviewee records his
or her
responses

3. DETERMINE CONTENT OF INDIVIDUAL QUESTIONS

In determining what to include in individual questions, the researcher must
ensure that
every question in the questionnaire contributes to the exact requirements of
some
specific required responses, and collection of required data for the objective
of the study

4. DECIDE ON THE QUESTIONS STRUCTURE

A question may be structured or unstructured
.
(a) Unstructured questions – are open ended questions, that is, respondents
answer in
their own words. These are also called free answered questions. Open
ended
questions are good as first questions on a topic. They enable the
respondents to
express general attitudes and opinions which can help the researcher
interpret their
responses to structured questions

(b) Structured questions –are close ended questions that pre-specify the set of
response alternatives and the responses format. Close ended questions
may be
multiple, dichotomous or scale.
 (i) Multiple Choice/ Multichotomous questions- In multiple choice
questions,
the researcher provides a choice of answers and the respondents are
asked to
select one or more of the alternatives given.

(ii) Dichotomous – this is the extreme form of a close –ended question and
has
only two response alternatives e.g. yes or no, agree or disagree male or
female
etc often the two alternatives of interest are supplemented by a neutral
alternative e.g. no opinion, don’t know, both or none.

(iii) Scale – are close ended questions that employ primary scale of
measurement
(such as nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio) or non- cooperative scales
to
capture the responses e.g. Do you intend to buy a new car within the
next six
months?

Definitely Probably Undecided Probably Definitely

will buy will not buy will buy not will not buy
1 2 3 4 5

5. DETERMINE THE QUESTION WORDING

- Question wording is the translation of the desired questions content and
structure into words that respondents may clearly and easily understand.
- Poorly worded questions can result in non- response errors i.e. respondents
answering incorrectly. Unless the respondents and researcher assign
exactly the same meaning to the questions the result will be seriously
biased.

Points to note when formulating questions

a) A question should clearly define the issue being addressed
b) Ordinary words should be used in a questionnaire and they should match
the vocabulary level of the respondent.
 c) The words used in a questionnaire should have a single meaning which is
known to the respondents i.e. avoid ambiguous words.
d) Avoid leading questions e.g. Question which gives respondents clues as to
what the answer should be.
e) Avoid implicit alternatives i.e. alternatives that are not explicitly expressed.
f) Avoid implicit assumptions.
g) Avoid generalizations and estimates.
h) Avoid barrel (double) questions., that is, two questions in one

(6) DETERMINE THE ORDER/SEQUENCE OF QUESTIONS

Questions should be asked in a logical order. All questions that deal with a
particular topic should be asked before beginning a new topic. The questions
should
be grouped into logical and meaningful categories. Easier questions should be
sequenced before difficult and complex questions.

Approach on order of questions

a) Starting with simple to difficult and complex ones. This is the normal order.
b) From complex to simple

Question order or sequence falls into three(3) categories

a) Overall questionnaire organization
b) Question order effects
c) Context effects

a) Organisation of questionnaire
Sequence of questions should minimize discomfort and not confuse
respondents. A questionnaire should start with an introduction fro
instructions, identification information, explaining the survey (in a different
font and colour) followed by opening, middle and ending questions

Opening questions should be pleasant, interesting and easy to

answer for respondents to feel comfortable about the questionnaire.
Avoid boring background and threatening questions

Middle questions
 Questions should be organized into common categories of topics.
Each category of questions should have a short introductory
statement. Questions topics should flow smoothly and logically

Ending questions
Avoid ending with highly threatening questions. Questions should
summarise, ask opinions and suggestions. End with a thank you.

b) Question order effects is an organization in which a topic or some

questions asked before others influence respondent’s answers to later
questions

c) Context effects. Wording of questions should be simply and in line with

the vocabulary level of the respondent.

(7) IDENTIFY THE FORM AND LAYOUT

The format, spacing and positioning of questions can have a significant effect
on the
results, especially self-administered questionnaires. It is a good practice to
divide
questionnaire into a several logical parts. Poor layout may result in non-
response

Good layout improves accuracy, completeness and helps the flow of the
questionnaire. Is most important and may determine response rate by
persuading respondents

-Questionnaire should be clear, neat and easy to follow, have identifying

information (the
introduction) The introduction should:
-explain purpose of the survey
-Provide identification information
-have instructions on how to answer the questions
-have element of confidentiality
*Should be a different font style, colour etc different from the
questions’ font style, colour etc
-Each question in a questionnaire should be numbered
-Never crumb the questionnaire
-Make a cover sheet or face sheet for each questionnaire
-Put the time, date, the interviewer’s name, respondent identification number
(not name) spaces on questionnaires or observation form

*Mail interviews may include a polite, professional cover letter on letterhead

stationery, identifying the researcher contact details and purpose of the study

(8) REPRODUCE THE QUESTIONNAIRE

The questionnaire should be reproduced on good quality paper, on side of a
page, on
a single or double paged paper.

(9) ELIMINATE BUGS BY PRE TESTING

Pre testing refers to testing of the questionnaire on a small sample of
respondents for
the purpose of improving the questionnaire by identifying and eliminating
potential
problems. This is done prior to administering to the targeted population
sample. Is a pilot
test aimed at improving the questionnaire/interview schedule

Methods of improving questionnaire through pilot tests

a) Think aloud interviews

Allow respondents to explain his or her thinking out loudly during the
process of answering each question

b) Retrospective interviews and targeted probes

After completing a questionnaire, the respondent explains to researchers the
process used to select response or answers

c) Expert evaluation
Having an independent panel of experienced survey researchers reviews and
critiques of the questionnaire
 d) Behaviour coding
Researchers monitor interviews, using audio or videotapes for
misstatements, hesitations, missed instructions, non-response, refusals,
puzzled looks, answers that do not fit any of the response categories etc

e) Field experiments
Researchers administer alternative forms of the questionnaire items in field
settings and compare results.

f) Vignettes and debriefing

Interviewers and respondents are presented with short, invented “lifelilke”
situations and asked which questionnaire response category they would use.

(10) Printing the final draft for administration

Points to consider when designing a questionnaire

 Should deal with significant topics only
 Seek data which cannot be obtained through other means or tools
 Should be attractive, neat in appearance and items clearly categorized
 Directions or instructions should be clear, complete and unique terms
clarified
 Simply worded. Each question dealing with one idea and contain
unambiguous questions
 Questions should be objective and not leading
 Questions should be in good order, mostly from general to more specific
ones
 Avoid offending, annoying and embarrassing questions
 Avoid descriptive adjectives and adverbs
 Avoid double questions
 Avoid double barrel questions, that is, two in one
 Should carry adequate number of responses and spaces
 Should be easy to interpret, tabulate, summarize and analyze
 A questionnaire should be self-administered

PRINCIPLES OF A QUESTIONNAIRE
  BREVITY – research questions should be written or asked as briefly as
possible subject to their being understood by respondents
 RELEVANCY – unless a question is relevant to the purpose of the research, it
should not be included in a questionnaire. Likewise unless a word is
relevant to a particular question, it should not be included in the question.
 OJECTIVITY – unless a question is worded objectively, it should not be
asked. The answer to a non-objectivity question is already known and
there’s no need for asking.
 CLARITY – research questions should be as non-ambiguous as possible and
technical jargon should be avoided
 SPECIFICITY – a question must be specific and address one issue only.

INTERVIEW SCHEDULE
This is a data collection form with a list of questions on which data is recorded
as it is collected through personal(face to face) interview by the researcher.
This is the other term used to describe the personal interview questionnaire
and the telephone interview questionnaire.

Designing of an interview schedule as discussed under questionnaire design

The difference between a interview schedule and a questionnaires

All interview schedules are questionnaires but not all questionnaires are interview
schedules.
i) Questionnaires are self administered while interview schedules are
administered by the interviewer. Questionnaires clearly highlight their
purposes, introduce themselves and give instructions to the
interviewee but interview schedules everything is done by the
interviewer
ii) A questionnaire is completed by an interviewee while the interview
schedule by the interviewer
iii) Room for including other questions on the interview during
interviewing is possible which is not so with mail
interviews(questionnaire)

Types of questions which can be included in both interview schedules and

questionnaire
a) Open –ended questions
Are unstructured, free response questions. Are questions in which
respondents are free to offer any answer they wish in the question in their
own wording.

Advantages of open ended questions

-Permit an unlimited and unexpected number of possible answers
-Respondents can answer in detail and can qualify and clarify responses
-Unanticipated findings can be discovered
-Permit adequate answers to complex issues
-Permit creativity, self-expression and richness of detail
-Reveal a respondent’s logic, thinking process and frame of reference

Disadvantages of open ended questions

-Comparisons and statistical analysis may be very difficult because different
respondents
give different degree of detail in answers. and other responses may be
irrelevant or
buried in useless detail
-Coding responses is difficult
-Articulate and highly literate respondents have an advantage
-Questions may be too general for respondents who lose direction
-Responses are written verbatim, which is difficult for interviewers because
of difference
in level of vocabulary
-A greater amount of respondent’s time, thought and effort is necessary
which may lead
to boredom and non responses
-Respondents can be intimidated by other questions
-Answers take up a lot of space in the questionnaire

b) Closed ended questions

Are structured, fixed response questions in which respondents must choose
from a fixed set of answers. Questions can dichotomus, multichotomus or
scale questions

Advantages of closed questions

 -Easier and quicker for respondents to answer
-Answers of different respondents are easier to compare
-Answers are easier to code and statistically analyse
-Response choices can clarify question meaning for respondents
-Respondents are more likely to answer about sensitive topics
-There are fewer irrelevant or confused answers to questions
-Less articulate or less literate respondents are not at a disadvantage
-Replication is easier

Disadvantages of closed questions

-Can suggest ideas that the respondent would not otherwise have,
therefore answers not
purely respondent’s own idea.
-Respondents with no opinion or no knowledge can answer anyway
-Respondents can be frustrated because their desired answer is not a
choice
-It is confusing if many similarly response choices are offered
-Misinterpretation of a question can go unnoticed
-Distinctions between respondents’ answers may be blurred
-Clerical mistakes or marking the wrong response is possible
-Force respondents to give simplistic responses to complex issues
-Force people to make choice they would not make in the real world.

c) Partially open questions are semi structured questions containing both

open and closed ended characteristics or questions

d) Sleeper questions are questions about non-existent people or events to

check whether respondents are being faithful

e) Contingency questions are a two part survey question in which a

respondent’s answer to a first question directs him or her either to the next
questionnaire item or to a more specific and related second question.

Principles of good question writing

-Avoid jargon, technical terms, slangs and abbreviations
-Avoid ambiguity, confusion and vagueness
 -Avoid emotional language and prestige bias eg words like murderous
freedoms, peace
and any associate with prestigious or very respected person
-Avoid double-barreled questions eg Does your company have a pension
and health
insurance policy? Do you support or oppose the idea?
-Avoid leading (loaded) questions eg You don’t smoke, do you?
- Avoid asking questions that are beyond respondents’ capabilities and
what can be
difficult to recall
-Avoid false premise questions. Eg “The Post Office is open too many hours.
Do you
want it to open four hours or less?
-Avoid asking about distant future intentions
-Avoid double negatives “I haven’t got no job” “ Do you disagree with
those who do not
want to build a new swimming pool in the city” Are grammatically
incorrect and
confusing. Second negative is used for emphasis.
-Avoid overlapping or unbalanced response eg Did you find the service at
our hotel to be :outstanding, excellent, superior or good

OBSERVATION FORM/SCHEDULE
Is a data collection form with a list off clearly defined observable factors, on
which data is recorded as it is collected by the researcher
After each observable factor, a space is provided for the observer to record the
observations. Recording can be either by writing a few descriptive words or by
check mark to indicate the presence, absence or frequency of the
phenomenon being measured or a direct mark against each factor

Designing an observation Schedule

The researcher should design an observation form that identifies the required
data clearly, makes it easy to record the data accurately and simplifies an
observation form as a consistent measuring instrument. The researcher needs
to answer the following questions:
 1) Who should be observed?
2) What should be observed?
3) When should the observation take place?
4) Where should the observation take place?

Characteristics of a good observation form

o Should identify clearly the required data
o Should record all the data correctly
o Should simplifying the coding of data
o Should be brief, not too long
o Factors to be observed should be logically categorized

The defined observable factors that are relevant to the problem should be
grouped into logical categories and worded. This enables the researcher to
record many different observations quickly and ensure that does not overlook any
relevant evidence.
The form and layout as well as the reproduction of observation forms should
follow the same guidelines discussed for questionnaires. Like questionnaires,
observation forms require adequate pre testing.

OTHER RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS

a) Checklist – Is a data collection form with a list of clearly defined observable
factors, on which data is recorded as it is collected by the researcher during
observation or abstraction. Used for collecting secondary data
b) Document Schedule – Is a data collection form with a list of questions, on
which data is recorded as it is collected from various documents such as
files and books etc
c) Evaluation Schedule – Is data collection form with a list of question, on
which data is recorded to measure the performance of a particular activity
such as rural development programme

Threats to the validity of collected data

Compbell and Stanley (1963) coined the phrases, “Threats to validity” for
alternative explanations of data that might explain a finding as well as or
better than the explanation intended by the researcher.
1. Descriptive mortality.
 Mortality refers not only to death of subjects but also to individuals
dropping out of a group making it no longer representative of the
population of study. Mortality is a serious problem in survey research
where the researcher starts a representative sample but selectively loose
subjects who do not return the questionnaire. The ones who do return the
questionnaire are probably comfortable dealing with the topic, where as
those who are uncomfortable with it do not return it, the mortality factor.

8. Instrument decay is due to a change in the measuring instrument over

the course of the study. Refers to, for instance, rules made up in the
course of using an observation checklist where, on encountering a
situation not provided for by rules for checklist, the researcher makes up
other rules or forgetting the decision and make up a different rule for
the same next instance. Inconsistency is using the instrument may be a
reasonable alternative explanation rather that some characteristics of
the group as originally intended.

In qualitative research, the observer is the instrument. We have to

wonder how the observer’s changes in the perception of the observed
over the period of the study and how that affects the observations. The
most serious change of this type is “going native” losing perspective on
the group observed and becoming entirely one of them.

Sadler (1981) in an article describing the mind’s cognitive limitations as

they affect qualitative data gathering, notes that there is long history of
efforts to identify the sources of distortion that cause the mind to make
errors of judgment and inference. Listed a number of information
processing limitations, man y of which will be similar to qualitative
researchers but all of should be of concern to both of them. These are :

a) Data overload
b) Availability of information
c) Positive and negative instances- research shows that people tend to
ignore
information that conflicts with already held hypothesis even
intelligent
 individuals adhered to their own hypothesis with remarkable
tenacity when they
could produce confirming evidence for them.
d) Correlation and co-occurrence
e) Internal consistency, redundancy and novelty of information
f) Base rate proportion is the frequency with which a behavior occurs.
There is
great difficulty judging base rate from small samples
g) Uneven reliability of information or data- people tend to treat data
from an
unreliable source almost the same way as data from reliable
sources
h) Confidence in judgment – once an assessment is made people have
been shown
to have an almost unshakable confidence in the correctness of their
decision,
even in the face of considerable relevant, contrary evidence.
i) First impression

DATA PREPARATION ,PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

1 Data Preparation – Is the process of translating or transforming raw data

into a form suitable for analysis. The process takes place after data
collection but prior to data analysis. Its purpose is to prepare the data for
analysis. Act as a preliminary step to data analysis. Some common data
preparation activities are classification, editing, coding, and tabulation are
discussed below

A) CLASSIFICATION OF DATA
- Is the process of arranging data into groups or classes on the basis of
common characteristics. Data having common characteristics are placed in
one class. Classification of data is usually done according to attributes or
class intervals.

Classification on the basis of attributes

 Attributes refer to the particular characteristics of the population
Attributes can be
descriptive or numerical

Descriptive attributes such as sex, education, marital status etc.

are qualitative and cannot be measured in numerical terms e.g.
Zimbabwean population
can be classified as follows:

TOTAL POPULATION

Rural Urban
Male Female Male Female
Literate Illiterate Literate Literat Illiterate Literate
e

Numerical attributes are quantitative and measurable attributes. Are

expressed and expressible in numbers e.g. age, height, income etc

Classification on the basis of class intervals

Is numerically based, that is, based on statistical variables
- Unlike descriptive characteristics, numerical characteristics refer to
quantitative phenomenon which can be measured through some statistical
units. Data relative to income, production, expenditure, investment etc can
be classified according to these statistical variables. When the goal of data
classification is to arrange a set of data into a useful form, frequency
distribution provides a general approach to data classification.

In frequency distribution raw data is represented by distinction groups

called classes. The number of measurement in each class is called the class
frequency. In this way the data set which may be very large is condensed
into smaller, more manageable set of numbers.

B) EDITING OF DATA
Editing of data is the review of data collection form with the objective of
increasing accuracy and precision. Researchers edit data to discover errors
and omissions, and where, possible correct them. Editing is usually done in
two stages, that is, field edit and central office edit.
i) Field Edit
Is a preliminary edit, typical conducted by a field supervisor which is
designed to detect the most glaring omissions and inaccurate in a
completed data collection form.
Items commonly checked for are completeness, legibility,
comprehensibility, consistency and uniformity. This is mostly for
verification of data so as to identify conformity to physical traits.

ii) Central office edit

Is a thorough, more complete, complicated scrutiny and correction of
competed data collection forms. Unlike the field edit, central office edit
depends less on follow-ups procedures and more deciding what to do with
the data. It focuses on validation of data.

C) CODING OF DATA
Coding is the assignment of a code(symbol) to represent a specific
response to a question along with the data record and column position (or
field) that code will occupy. A field represents an item of data, such as sex
of the respondent. A record consists of related fields such as sex, marital
status, house hold size, age, occupation etc.

Coding at act as a technical procedure by which data are categorized.

Involves specifying the alternatives categories/classes into which the
responses are to be placed and assigning codes(symbols) to these classes.
The codes can be numerical, alphabetical or alpha-numerical.

Steps in coding

1- Determining and specifying categorises or classes to which the

responses are to be placed. The number of classes will depend on
the response format (choices) expected. The categorize should be
mutually, exclusive, and exhaustive so that every response falls into
one category.

2- Assigning code numbers to the classes eg 1 for yes , 2 for no answer

 Rules to be observed when assigning codes:
i) Locate only one character in each column
ii) Mostly use numeric codes and not letters of the alphabet
iii) Have as many columns as are necessary to capture all the
variables
iv) Use other codes for no information eg “I do not know” can be
given code
8, “No” can be coded 9 and none response coded 10
v) Code in a respondent’s identification number on each record.

Coding of closed questions is simple because the coding is

established when the data instrument is being designed.
Respondents code themselves and also their responses

Coding open ended questions can be very difficult as the coder has to
determine category basing on answers that are not always
anticipated but which may be different

3 Preparing a separate code book, is the final step, which contain the
general instructions indicating how each item of data was coded.
Should list the code for each variable and the categories included in
each code.

Coding can either be pre-coding or post coding.

Pre-coding
- Pre-coding is determining the codes at the time of designing the data
collection instruments and therefore the codes can be printed on forms.
This form of coding is most appropriate for questions that are dichotomous,
multiple choice and scale (closed questions)
- For these forms of questions the researcher knows the potential symbols
which will be assigned to the different responses. This greatly reduces the
task of later data preparation and also tends to reduce coding errors and is
less time consuming. E.g. question 3 on a data collection instrument is
about the marital status of the respondents with two possible answers i.e
either yes or no. The researcher may give codes 1=yes and 2=no.
 Post coding
- is determining the codes after data collection forms have been completed.
This form of coding is most appropriate for open-ended questions. One
approach is for the researcher to sample about 20% of the completed data
collection forms and examines the specific responses to specific questions.
From this sample then establishes the necessary categories that are
appropriate to summarize the data for coding purposes.

After categories have been established each data collection form must be
reviewed and particular responses put into the appropriate categories. The
codes used to identify the appropriate category should be written in the
margins of the appropriate data collection instruments.

D) TABULATION
- Is a method of presenting statistical data in a table. A statistical table is an
orderly and systematic presentation of numerical data in columns and
rows. Data is tabulated according to quantitative characteristics and nature
of variables. The main object of a statistical table is to arrange data into a
physical presentation of numerical facts to attract and direct the attention
of the reader automatically to relevant information. It facilitates
comparison by bringing related items of information close to one another.

Statistical table on putting and counting the number of cases that fall into
the various categories
Tabulation can be simple tabulation or cross tabulation

Simple tabulation involves counting a single variable. It may be repeated

for each of the variable in the study but the tabulation for each variable is
independent.

Cross tabulation is when two or more variables are treated at the same
time, that is, counting the number of codes that fall into each of the
covered categorises when the categorises are based on more variables
considered at the same time eg. One male and female are earning 150 per
month

In tabulation the researcher should be able to:

 i) Determine the degree of non-response
ii) Locate a blunder which is an error that arises when editing, coding
or tabulating data
iii) Locate an out lier. These are observations which are different in
magnitude from the rest of observations
iv) To determine the empirical distribution of variables in question
v) To calculate summary statistics

PRINCIPLES OF GOOD TABULATION

 Every table should be numbered to facilitate reference to it.
 Every table should have a brief but descriptive title. At the end there
should be a note of the source of the data, which the researcher has used.
Whether it is based on the researchers own survey data or secondary data.
 Give brief descriptive headlines to rows and columns showing clearly the
units which quantities are recorded. If necessary the units of
measurements should be defined in a foot note.
 Use different lines to break up a large table. Double lines or thick add a
great deal for the a table to be understood.
 Don’t overcrowd tables. If the volume of the data is large, two or more
simple tables are better than one cumbersome table.
 Whenever it is useful, insert both row and row totals.
 Enclose the table within a book frame to make it look attractive.
 Should be neat, a messy table conveys nothing

COMPUTER AID
 Computer data processing is faster and more accurate than manual data
processing. The coding of data permits the transferring of data from data
collection form into a computer readable form which can then be
processed by the computer.
 Computer processing is depended on what is referred to as data structure.
A data structure is simply the way the data is positioned in a storage
medium. The researcher must organize coded data into the appropriate
data structure.
 Computers have direct data transfers capability through terminal, keyboard
or optical reader, to either disk or tape storage. With direct data entry, the
researcher organizes coded data into fields, records and files that
constitutes the components of data base system.
  The collection of characters (ie code) that represents a sign items of data is
referred to as a field. A group of related field is treated as a unit is referred
to as a record.
 A collection of related records that are stored together called a file.

DATA ANALYSIS
- Is the application of statistical techniques to refine and manipulate data in
order to make references about variables or is the application of analytical
methods to manipulate data. May result in understanding the inter-
relationship between variables and the quantitative meaning of data
relating to them becoming evident.
- Data analysis is aimed at testing the formulated hypothesis either for
acceptance or rejection.

TESTING OF HYPOTHESIS
- The hypothesis that were formulated need to be tested for their
acceptance or rejection. A hypothesis is tested by making use of a pre-
decision rule which is applied on sample data and which guides the
researcher in deciding whether to accept or reject the hypothesis on the
basis of the outcome of the sample drawn. Hypothesis testing may take
the following form (terms) :-

1 The study of hypothesis for logical consistency Is a phase of thinking. The

study consists of:
Firstly it consists of checking the logical reasoning by which the
consequences of the hypothesis are deduced for verification.

Secondly it involves checking the hypothesis for agreement with the

already known laws of nature. The hypothesis must not disagree
with those principles of science which are considered valid beyond
reasonable doubt.

2 The study of hypothesis for agreement with facts

Is the study of hypothesis for agreement with facts the researcher
organizes. Researcher argues truthness or falseness of hypothesis under
given conditions. Probes into whether these conditions are present. If the
 conditions are not present, then he should restart his hypothesis and
collect fresh data for making the study worthwhile.

After testing a hypothesis may be accepted or rejected. Sometimes the facts

and data may suggest the revision or modification of the hypothesis for the
purposes, verifying statistical techniques are available for manipulating data to
test different kinds of hypothesis. The technique to be adopted depends upon
convenience, availability and reliability of data, knowledge of the researcher
and the level of sophistication required. Hypothesis testing is a procedure of
arriving at a decision of either accepting or rejection a hypothesis.

These are standard steps which should be followed when testing the validity of
hypothesis, which are:
1. Stating the Null Hypothesis (Ho)
2. Stating the alternative hypothesis (H1)
3. Stating the level of significance and determine the Z values.
4. Stating the decision rule.
5. Calculating the test statistic.
6. Making a conclusion.

Data analysis should be done to refine data so as to get information for testing
hypothesis. Various data analysis techniques can be used

DATA ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES

Manual and statistical techniques can be used but statistical techniques are
widely used in data analysis. Manual techniques are mainly used on qualitative
data and are based on human judgement.

Various statistical techniques are used for manipulation of data to test

hypotheses. The technique to be adopted depends upon convenience, availability
and reliability of data, knowledge of the researcher and the level of sophistication
and required accuracy.
The following are some of the reasons why statistical techniques are considered
important in research:-
1. Statistics are the tools to judge the significance of the data and make
maximum use of the data collected.
2. Statistics techniques permit the most exact kind of description of the
observed phenomenon. They force the researcher to be definite and
precise in the thinking and procedures, this helps in the formulation
of hypothesis for testing.
3. Statistical tools enable the researcher to test theories empirically. If
the data is not consistent with the theoretical predictions, the theory
should be revised or rejected. If the theory is judged valid, further
empirical analysis may be needed to measure relationships.
4. Statistical techniques help in summarizing the result in a meaningful
manner.
5. Statistical tools help the researcher in drawing general or broad
conclusions.

Statistical techniques widely used in research are :-

A. Measures of central tendency
B. Measures of dispersion
C. Time series analysis
D. Measures of relationships

1. MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

Define the centre of any given data set. Three common measures of
central tendency are mean, mode and medium.

i) Mean refer to the average of the data set. Types of averages are
arithmetic (simple), geometric and harmonic mean.

Arithmetic mean is obtained by summing up given values and then

dividing by the number of values. Is the widely used mean. Can
calculated for both grouped and ungrouped data

Mean for ungrouped data = +(x) x = values or numbers ,+ =

summation
n n = number of values
 Mean for grouped data = +(fx) + = summation, f = frequency
+f x = class mid point

Geometric mean is the Nth root of the product of a given N scores

obtained as a result of measurement. Mostly used for averaging
ratios
3
Geometric mean = AxBxC

Harmonic mean is used for averaging rates of changes eg speed

= n
+(1/x)

Advantages of mean
-Consider every score in the data set
-The result is more stable as compared to other measures of location
-Easy to calculate and understand
-Very useful when comparing different data set

Disadvantages of mean
-Can be affected by extreme scores eg in 1,4,5,6,28. 28 affect the
mean upwards
-Cannot be used in a incomplete distribution

ii) Median is the middle number found when scores are put in array
(ascending or descending order). Splits the data set into two equal
halves above and below the median number. Similarly can be
calculated both for grouped and ungrouped data. On ungrouped
data, the scores should be noted whether are odd or even .

Median for ungrouped data

i) 8, 5, 6, 10, 13 = 5,6, 8, 10, 13 = 8

ii) 8, 4, 5, 6, 10, 13 = 4, 5, 6, 8 10, 13 = 6+8 = 7

2
Median for grouped data = L + i (n/2 - cf(m)
fm
L = lower class boundary of the median class
i = class interval or width
n = sample size or (sum of all frequencies)
cf = the cumulative frequency prior to the median class
fm = frequency of the median class

Advantages of median
-Is insensitive to extreme scores
-Useable in an incomplete distribution (open ended distribution)
-Can be calculated from any data set excluding nominal data
-Easy to obtain by mere inspection

Disadvantages of median
-Is less stable
-Consider only one or two scores not considering all values
-Applicable to few operations
-Is time consuming because of need to arrange scores in array.

iii) Mode is the most frequent occurring score in a given data set. There
can be more than one mode for a given data set or no mode at all.
Can be deduced from grouped and ungrouped data

For ungrouped data is seen by grouping is array

For grouped data L + i (D1)

(D1+D2)
L = Lower class boundary of the modal class
i = class interval
D1 = frequency of the modal class less frequency of the class above it
D2 = frequency of modal class less frequency of the class below it

Advantages of mode
-Useable on nominal data, that is, qualitative variable data eg sex
-Locates the highest concentration of scores
 -Not affected by extreme values
-Can be calculated even if all the values in a data set are unknown

Disadvantages of mode
-Do not necessitate comparison
-Is less stable

Relationship between mean, median and mode

Three relationships exists which are normal distribution, positively skewed
and
negatively skewed distribution.

a) If the mean = median= mode, the distribution is said to be normal

distribution and that’s, it has got a line of symmetry, hence is not
skewed to any side. The distribution is bell shaped as below:

b) If the mean is greater than the median, greater that the mode, the
distribution is positively skewed. Is more heaped to the left of the
line of symmetry. Its skewness is greater than zero. Mean is a true
representative of the distribution.

c) If the mean is less than the mode, less than the median, the
distribution is negatively skewed, that is, more heaped to the right of
the line of symmetry. Skewness is less than zero. Mean is not a
representative of the distribution.

*Skewness measures the extended deviation of data set from the line
symmetry and is represented by the formula = Mean – Mode
Standard deviation
2. MEASURES OF DISPERSION
Dispersions is a measure of scattered ness of items around the central
values. It shows
how the observations are deviated from the central values.
The methods of measuring dispersion are range, quartile deviation, mean
deviation, standard deviation, coefficient of variation and Lorenz curve.
Range is the difference between the highest and the lowest values in a
given distribution. Mostly used with statistical quality control

Advantages
-Is simple to calculate and understand

Disadvantages
-Is influenced by extreme values and hence not reliable
-Do not indicate the degree of clustering

Quartile deviation also known as semi-inter quartile range

Is similar to the range but differ in that a middle quarter range is found thus
leaving out the effect of unusual extreme scores, thus, eliminating the
extreme value effect as on the range. The bottom and top quarters are not
considered. Quartiles divide the given distribution into four (4) equal parts
that is Q1, Q2, Q3 and Q4.
The quartile deviation = Q3-Q1
2
Mean deviation Is the average deviation of all values ina given data set
from the distribution mean (arithematic mean). Is found by adding up
deviations of all values from the distribution mean and dividing by the
number of items. Negative signs are ignored. The mean deviation should
be +x

Ungrouped data = +(x –X) X = arithematic mean

n x = value in the data set
+ = summation mark
Grouped data = +[f(x-X)
+f f = frequency x = class mid point
Standard deviation
Is the square root of average of the differences of the individual scores
from the aarithematic mean. Is the mostly used used measure of dispersion
about the mean. The larger the standard deviation in comparison with data
size, the wider the spread of data around the mean.

For ungrouped data = +(x – X)2

N
 Grouped data - Population = +f(x – X)2

-Sample +f(x – X)
+f – 1
Lorenz Curve
This curve is graphic method of showing to what extent different variables
deviate from uniformity or to show degree of deviation in order to make
comparisons. If two variables are constantly relative to each other, a
percentage changes for the other variable. This situation may be
represented on a graph by a straight line. This line is always 45 degree to
the origin and is known as the line of uniformity or equal distribution.

Line of unequal
distribution

Line of equal distribution

Coefficient of variation (Cv) is used to compare the variability of the data when
two sets of
data are given. Is given by the formula

Cv = x 100
x(mean)

3 TIME SERIES ANALYSIS

 It shows how data will fluctuate. A set of observations of a random variable
are arranged in chronologically i.e. according to time. Represents data
 measured regularly over a period The utility of time series analysis can be
summarized as follows:-
 It helps to understand past behavior
 It helps in planning future operations
 It helps in knowing current accomplishment.

4 MEASURE OF RELATIONSHIP
The measures of relationship or association are correlation and regression
analysis.

Correlation analysis indicates the extent to which a relationship exists

between at least two
sets of data under consideration and closeness between two variables. The
correlation is a
value -1 < r < 1 inclusive

When r = 1 indicates a perfect positive correlation

r = -1 indicates a perfect negative correlation
r = 0.5 indicates a positive correlation

For 0.5 < r > 1, the relationship is said to be strong correlation

0 < r > 0.5, represents a weak positive correlation
-0.5 < r > 0 , is a weak negative relationship

When r = 0 there is no relationship

Regression analysis is a quantitative method which attempts to set a

forecasting model
to estimate the value of dependant variables under circumstances in which an
acceptable
correlation exists between the dependant variables and one or more
independent variables.
The general equation for regression analysis is a straight line y = mx + c where
m is the
gradient and c is the y intersection

Errors associated with data analysis

 i. Absolute error:- is an error that gives the greatest the difference between
the true value and the approximate value. Is an error that gives the greatest
difference that exists between the approximate value and the true actual
value. In measurement, the absolute error is half the smallest of
measurement e.g for centimeters is 0.5 cm. If a number is rounded to 10 or
100, the absolute error is 5 and 50 respectively. For one decimal places,
the smallest unit of measurement is 0,1 therefore the absolute error is 0.05

ii. Relative error:- is the absolute error expressed as a proportion of the true
value. Is given by the formula = absolute error x 100
Actual error

iii. Standard error:- is the standard deviation of the sampling distribution.

DATA PRESENTATION
The results of the data analysis should be presented in a form suitable
effective for communication of the results.
The form of presentation will depend on :
-The purpose for which the information is desired.
-Type of results and findings, that is, qualitative or quantitative

Some of the common methods of data presentation are discussed below:-

a) NARRATIVE
 This is the textual presentation of research results i.e. reporting the
results in words. The use of words allows explanation emphasis and
interpretation to be made. However, personal bias can distort the data
and data which does not fit the researcher’s pre-concerned ideas maybe
omitted or not dealt with in sufficient depth. Suitable only for qualitative
data

Disadvantages
-Personal bias can distort data
-Ambiguity is at extreme
-Language difference and vocabulary may be a problem
-Interpretation of data is not at a glance
 b) TABLES
 Tabulation is common method of presenting statistical data. A table
displays detailed statistical information precisely so that interpretation of
results can be at a glance. However, no interpretation of results can be
given in the table. It is also difficult to emphasize any particularly
interesting reading unless heavier type, underlining or a foot notes are
used to enhance understanding of tables. The principles of good
tabulation have already been discussed.

c) DIAGRAMS AND CHARTS

 There are various diagrams and charts that can be used to give a pictorial
presentation of data. A chart or diagram cannot present information
precisely, but it can give a quick overall impression of the findings.
 Can give a quick overall impression of findings by a mere glance and then
encourages reading text to have a more complex account of findings.

General rules to be followed when drawing diagrams or charts etc.

 Give clear and brief tittles.
 Label the axis clearly
 Scales of values and their origins should be clearly checked.
 Excessive details should be avoided.
 Reference to the source of data should be made or an accompanying table
provided.

The popular types of diagrams and charts are bar charts, pie carts and
pictograms.

d) GRAPHS
 Diagrams and charts are primarily intended to present data whereas
graphs go further than this and help in the analysis and interpretation of
data.
 In some cases, graphical methods are usually not as precise as calculation
but their speed and overall insight they give them evaluate tools of the
researchers.

e) EQUATIONS AND SYMBOLS

 The symbols used in equations should be adequately explained.
4) INTERPRETATION OF DATA
-Is done after data presentation
-The product of data analysis is research results or findings.
-Presenting a mere summary of statistical results is not enough.
-The researcher should interpret the results in light of the research
questions, objectives and
hypothesis being addressed.

The process of interpretation is essentially one of the stating what the results
of the findings show. Among others it shows or answers the following
questions;-
 What do the research results show?
 What is their significance?
 What is the solution to the original problem?
The interpretation of the results leads to conclusions and recommendations as
discussed below

a) Developing Conclusions from findings and hypothesis

In interpreting results, conclusions are drawn with direct reference to the
research objectives and hypothesis of the study. There should be a conclusion
for each objective and for the acceptance or rejection of hypothesis.

The researcher should compares the objective with the findings and draws
conclusions on how much and in what manner the objectives have been
achieved to enable the readers to turn to the conclusions section, and find
specific conclusion relative to each objective.

In the same way the researcher must also be specific with reference to the
hypothesis of the study. Researcher should be specific to the hypothesis of
study by indicating whether it has been accepted or rejected. In doing so,
should carefully review the evidence for and against each hypothesis.

The element of comparison is fundamental to all research interpretations.

Comparisons of one’s investigational findings, with a criterion, with results of
other comparable investigations with normal or ideal conditions or with
opinions of expert forms an important aspects of:-
  Appropriate depth and breadth so as to meet caliber of
research.
 Feasibility of research problem.
 Time frame.
 Availability of resources.
 Justification and purpose of the research.
 Usefulness of the aims and objectives.

INTERPRETATIVE EFFORTS OF THE RESEARCHER

Once conclusions have been drawn reflecting some properties of the
population, one can estimate how far these characteristics or conclusions can
be generalized to a large population and predict modification which would
have to be taken into consideration when undertaking such a generalization.

Each generalization must agree with facts revealed by the investigation.

The researcher should also check each generalization against the facts and
experience of other investigations and previously established generalization.

Developing recommendations from findings and conclusions.

- Based on the research results and conclusions the researcher makes
recommendations to the decision maker.
- Recommendations are suggestions for application and implementation to solve
the organizational problem drawn by the researcher basing on findings and
conclusions
- Recommendations should be feasible, practical, actionable and directly usable
as inputs into managerial decision making.
COMMUNICATION OF RESEARCH RESULTS

Items to include when reporting survey research

a) The sampling frame used eg telephone directories

b) Dates on which the survey was conducted
c) The population represented by the sample
d) The size of the sample from which the information was collected
e) Sampling methods and steps
f) Methods of survey used eg face to face, telephone interviews
g) The exact wording of the question asked
h) Organizations that sponsored the survey
i) The response rate or percentage of those contacted who actually
completed the questionnaire
j) Any missing information or Do not know responses when results in specific
questions are reported.