CH-5

INDIAN MARITIME UNIVERSITY SEMESTER II

T.S. Chanakya

Course B.Sc.(NS) Syllabus -2018-4th Revision

Code- UG 21 T4305

Subject – CARGO HANDLING AND STOWAGE

Question Type-Hand Out

Compiled by Capt. Deepak Karan

Some contents & diagrams are downloaded from internet-public domain – URL
mentioned for reference. Information are used for educational purposes only

Ventilation and cargo sweat

1. Humidity: Amount of water vapour contained in parcel of Air
2. Absolute humidity(not much in use)
 is the measure of water vapor (moisture) in the air, regardless of temperature. It is
expressed as grams of moisture per cubic meter of air (g/m3).
 The maximum absolute humidity of warm air at 30°C/86°F is approximately 30g of
water vapor – 30g/m3. The maximum absolute humidity of cold air at 0°C/32°F is
approximately 5g of water vapor – 5g/m3.
3. Relative humidity:

 The most commonly used measure of humidity is relative humidity.

 Relative humidity can be simply defined as the amount of water in the air relative
to the saturation amount the air can hold at a given temperature multiplied by 100.
 Air with a relative humidity of 50% contains a half of the water vapour it could hold
at a particular temperature.
 4. Dew Point:

 Dew point is an indicator of how much water is in the air and relative humidity is a
measurement of how close the air is to saturation.
 The dew point is the temperature to which air must be cooled to become saturated
with water vapor.
 When further cooled, the airborne water vapor will condense to form liquid water (dew).
When air cools to its dew point through contact with a surface that is colder than the air,
water will condense on the surface.
5. Hygroscopic and Non Hygroscopic cargo
 Cargo ventilation on ships is important for both hygroscopic and non-hygroscopic
cargoes.
 Hygroscopic cargo has natural water/moisture content. for instance, agricultural, fish
and forest cargoes.

 This type of cargo is mainly plant products, which absorb, retain, and release water
within the cargo.
 This water leads to significant heating and spreading of moisture in the cargo and result
in caking or spoiling or cargo. Hygroscopic products include grain, rice, flour, sugar,
cotton,tobacco, cocoa, coffee and tea.
 For example rice has a moisture content of around 14 per cent. It is important to note that
these cargoes can absorb and release moisture. It is more likely that damage is caused
when moisture is absorbed.
 A hygroscopic cargo with a moisture content and temperature such that water vapour
will leave the cargo and enter the hold air will result in the build up of moist air and
increase the risk of sweat.
 Non-hygroscopic
 Non-hygroscopic cargoes contain no moisture; for example, steel. Whilst non-
hygroscopic cargoes may be wet before shipment, e.g., because they have been
affected by rain before loading, it is better to avoid shipment of wet cargo rather than face
the difficult task of deciding whether or not to ventilate.
 Non-hygroscopic cargoes do not give off moisture, but may absorb or be damaged by it.
6. Why there is need of cargo ventilation?

Why is there a need for ventilation of cargo spaces?

1.Most cargoes are loaded in cargo holds which are closed before proceeding to sea to prevent
any external elements like bad weather, water, heat, cold from affecting the cargo inside. But
when the voyage is long, keeping the hatch totally closed, can cause various problems
such as:

a) Deterioration of cargo due to ship/ cargo sweat

b) Ventilation of cargo may be necessary to remove heat, dissipate gas, help prevent
condensation and/or remove taint.

c) Heat may be generated by live fruit, wet hides, vermin, and commodities liable to
spontaneous combustion

d) Cargo damage due to heating of cargo. if we do not ventilate the cargo spaces there will
be an increase in the temperature of the hold, especially when the ship is sailing from a
colder to a warmer region as the deck which is exposed to the sunlight will heat up and
by conduction the temperature of the air inside the hold will begin to rise.
e) An increase in the sea water temperature will also have the same effect on the shipside
plating and consequently on the hold temperature.

2. Hazards posed due to presence of a dangerous gases in the hold emitted by cargo (Toxicity,
flammability etc).

3. Gases which may require dissipation include inflammable and explosive gases such as those
emitted by coal, vehicle exhausts in Ro-Ro ships, CO2 and ethylene from ripening fruit and
vegetables.

4. The removal of existing or residual taint by means of ventilation may be carried out in
conjunction with an ozonating unit and may be required to reduce the probability of sensitive
cargo becoming affected by the taint, or to improve working conditions for labour.

5.Accelerated corrosion of the ship's structure

 7.Dew point

 All air contains water vapour of varying quantities.

 The dew point indicates the amount of moisture in the air.
 The higher the dew point, the higher the moisture content of the air at a given temperature.
 Conversely, the dew point of humid air will be higher than the dew point of dry air.
 Dew point temperature is defined as the temperature to which the air would have to cool (at
constant pressure and constant water vapour content) in order to reach saturation.
 A state of saturation exists when the air is holding the maximum amount of water vapour
possible at the existing temperature and pressure.
 Condensation of water vapour begins when the temperature of air is lowered to its dew
point and beyond.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1OxwRKe_dIA
8.Ship Sweat : Rule #1

a) Condensation occur when, WARM, MOIST, UNSATURATED air cooled to its Dewpoint
b) Load – Warm moist area
c) Sails – Cooler area
d) Cold air +cold sea water cools the hold bulkheads
e) When warm unsaturated air of the Hold comes contact to the ship hold cold
structure/steel/ bulkheads then hold air cooled to dew point , condensation starts
f) Water droplets formed at the ship steel structure.
g) Water droplets falls on Cargo, gets damaged

Ship sweat
a) Load at warm moist area- Warm +Moist + Unsaturated air

2.Sails to cooler area

Case 2 : : When cargo itself is warm and moist ,ship sweat also aggravates .moisture
releases in cargo hold comes contact with cold steel and condenses & water droplets
produces

Case3 : 3 .Unseasoned, wet cargo ,green dunnage also releases the moisture content in
the hold .comes contact with ship structure ,water droplets produces
Ship’s sweat, Formation of condensation on the underside of the hatch covers,

Characteristic damage to a grain cargo

arising from ship’s sweat. A distinctive linear pattern of superficial deterioration
(discolouration and mould growth) at the surface of the stow, where liquid moisture has
dripped back down onto this bulk grain cargo from the underside of the closed hatch
covers. The banding pattern mirrors the layout of the metal structures above
9.Cargo sweat

1.Loads in cold area

2.Sails to warmer areas

3.! IF IF!! warm moist air is introduced to cargo hold

4.Introduced air will be cooled by the cold cargo

5.If introduced air is cooled to dew point ,condensation will start and water droplets will be
formed on cargo

Reason : In appropriate Ventilation , !!! IF

Load in cold Area

Reaches Warm Area

Reaches Warm Area
Summary :

9.a Cargo sweat: Consider the following case:

 A ship has loaded steel cargo at Antwerp in January for shipment to Singapore. Antwerp in
January is a winter zone and the temperature is low.
 As the cargo spaces would be sealed after completion of loading, the cargo and the
air temperature inside the hold will be cold.
 During the voyage to Singapore the outside atmospheric temperature will rise as the ship
passes from winter to the tropical zone.
 Compared to the volume of air inside the hold, the volume of air brought into the
hold through the ventilator ducts at any given time is small.
If ventilation is permitted - the warm moist air entering the cold cargo space will be
cooled and if cooled below its dew point will condense on the cold steel cargo surface
causing cargo sweat. This can cause the steel to rust.

Here the solution is to restrict ventilation. Do not ventilate when passing from a cold area
to a warm area, always allow the air and cargo in the hold to warm up naturally.

9.b Ship Sweat Exactly the same phenomenon causes ship's sweat.

 Consider a ship having loaded cargo in a warm region is proceeding towards a cold
region. For example: bagged rice is loaded in Bangkok, in November, for shipment to
Inchon in South Korea.
 At the time of loading, the ambient temperature in Bangkok was 26 degrees C. The cargo
and the air inside the cargo hold is warm and moist and would continue to remain so for
some time after the hold is sealed.
 Air and seawater temperature starts to drop as the voyage progresses.
 As the seawater and the outside air cools the air inside the hold which is in close contact
with the steel plates also cools.
 When this parcel (air inside the hold adjacent to the steel plates) is cooled below its dew
point, water vapour is given out which condenses on the ship's structure forming "ship's
sweat".
 This does not directly cause a cargo problem but when the moisture droplets run down
the beams and drips onto the cargo, which it invariably does, it may result in cargo
damage and subsequent claims.
10.Rules for ventilation

a) Dewpoint Rule
1. VENTILATE if the dew point of the air inside the hold is higher than the dew point
of the air outside the hold.
2. DO NOT VENTILATE if the dewpoint of the air inside the hold is lower than the
dewpoint of the air outside the hold.

Hold Dew Outside Dew Remarks

point point
30 27 Ventilate
30 33 Do not ventilate

b) Three Degree Rule

 In many instances it is impracticable to measure hold dewpoint temperatures accurately,

or at all
 In such cases. ventilation requirements may be estimated by comparing the average
 cargo temperature at the time of loading with the outside air temperature several
times a day.
 Ventilation may then be carried out on the following basis;
 #1 . VENTILATE if the dry bulb temperature of the outside air is at least 3°C cooler than
the average cargo temperature at the time of loading.
 #2 DO NOT VENTILATE if the dry bulb temperature of the outside air is less than 3°C
cooler than the average cargo temperature at the time of loading, or warmer.
 In order to apply the Three Degree Rule, it will be necessary for the ship’s staff to take a
number of cargo temperature readings during loading.
 Hand-held infrared thermometers are ideal for this task and are relatively inexpensive

Average Hold temp Outside temp Remarks

during loading
30 27 Ventilate outside at least
3deg cooler
30 28 Do not ventilate
Outside <3deg cooler
10 c.Practical Rule – From book

Outside Dewpoint Hold temp Remarks

temp
26.8 24 Do not ventilate
25.5 26 Ventilate
21.1 21 If required then only
,otherwise man entry

DPOA>HT-Don’t Ventilate

DPOA<HT -ventilate

10 d.General Note

 RULE OF THE THUMB: "HOT TO COLD, VENTILATE HOLD

 COLD TO HOT, VENTILATE NOT
Information taken from - https://nauticalclass.com/need-for-ventilation-of-cargo-spaces/

11.a The sea conditions – If, in adverse sea conditions, there is a risk of sea spray entering the
ventilation openings to the cargo spaces, no ventilation should take place and the ventilator openings
should be closed and sealed.

11.b. Inspections of the cargo spaces – The cargo spaces should be inspected regularly to check for
signs of sweat (providing it is safe to enter).

11c. Hours of darkness – Providing ventilation can and should be carried out, based on the above
considerations, ventilation should continue to take place night and day.

A failure to ventilate at night will probably be viewed unfavourably by a court or arbitration tribunal,
unless of course there was a valid reason not to ventilate.

11d. Shippers’ instructions – Shippers may have special instructions for ventilation. If these are at
odds with what the vessel would expect, it would be prudent to obtain the views of an expert

11e. Expert advice – If there is any doubt about ventilation, expert advice ought to be sought.

12.a. Hygroscopic cargo –

 Cold to warm climate If a stable cold cargo is carried to a warm climate, ventilation
will always be unnecessary.
 Indeed, in some circumstances ventilation may lead to cargo damage

12.b. Hygroscopic cargo –

Warm to cold climate:- Vigorous surface ventilation of the cargo spaces will almost
certainly be required due to the likelihood of ship sweat developing

12.c Non-hygroscopic cargo –

 cold to warm climate: Ventilation is never required.
 Cargo sweat is liable to occur if warm moist air comes into contact with cold
cargo. Therefore holds should usually remain sealed to allow the cargo and
internal air to warm gradually during the voyage

12.d Non-hygroscopic cargo –

 warm to cold climate
 Ventilation is largely irrelevant. The development of significant ship sweat is very
unlikely.
 12 e Combined cargoes :

 Problems may arise if hygroscopic and non-hygroscopic cargoes with different

inherent temperatures are loaded into the same compartment.
 Their ventilation requirements may differ, resulting in damage to one or other of
the products in spite of normal routines being followed.
 As far as possible, hygroscopic and non-hygroscopic cargoes should not be
 stowed together.
 12f. Temp monitoring
 Temperature Monitoring

 Many bulk cargoes are liable to spontaneous combustion or ship or cargo sweat. The
only possible way to obtain an early warning of the start of spontaneous combustion is by
monitoring the temperature of the cargo holds.
 Many ships are fitted with `temperature ports', ie pipes that are fitted beside the cargo
hold access ladders into which thermometers can be lowered to obtain the hold
temperature.
 The best practice is to leave the thermometers within the ports and withdraw them when
a reading is desired.
 However, if the ship is not fitted with temperature ports, the sounding pipes could also
be used to obtain temperatures. Whichever method is used for measuring temperature:

 i) The thermometers should be reset before introducing them into the pipes
 ii) the thermometers should be left in the pipes for some time (2-3 minutes at least)
 iii) the temperature should be measured at least 2-3 height levels within the hold
 iv) the temperature should not be measured solely at the surface of cargo as it is likely to
be quite different from that at the bottom of the cargo hold.
13.Ventalation system

o Vessels are normally fitted with one of two systems:

o Natural (Airflow not assisted by Fan)
o Mechanical.(airflow assisted by fan)
o Controlled atmosphere (controlling a space’s temperature and carbon
dioxide)
o Natural ventilation simply describes a system whereby ambient air is allowed to
enter and leave the hold naturally, via trunking connecting the hold to and above
deck level.

o Mechanical ventilation describes a system whereby air movement is forced,

usually by electrical fans that are fitted in the ventilation trunking. These can
usually be operated so as to either draw air into or eject air out of the hold.

14. Location of ventilators

15. ventilation carrying out methods
15.aThrough ventilation: In this case air is passed through the entire area of the hold right
 down to the bottom.
 This can be achieved by means of ducts, double layering of the bottom dunnage and use
of side battens to allow free flow of air.
 The air entering through one set of ventilators reaches the bottom of the compartment via
 trunkings, rises upwards through the cargo and finally exhausts out of another set of
 ventilators.
 In case of natural ventilation this is achieved by turning the leeward ventilator
 into the wind and the windward ventilator away from the wind, thereby achieving a
 greatest air flow rate which is required for through ventilation.
 Some cargoes like Rice bags are stowed in blocks to encourage through ventilation.

15.b Surface ventilation:

 Certain cargoes like coal give off flammable gas and generate heat due to exothermic
reaction. If the heat generated over a period of time is sufficiently high, then the presence
of the flammable gas and the atmospheric oxygen in the right proportion could lead to
spontaneous combustion.
  Hence it is important that the flammable gas is expelled but at the same time too much
oxygen should not be injected into cargo.
 This is achieved by only ventilating the cargo on the surface known as surface
ventilation.
 This is achieved by trimming the windward side natural ventilator to the wind and the
 leeward side ventilator away from the wind giving a very easy flow to the wind.
 If the ventilator has trunkings which lead to the bottom of the hold - it should be kept shut.
 This type of ventilation also helps to control the rise in temperature of both the cargo
and the hold spaces
 . Cargoes requiring surface ventilation must be compactly stowed

16. Types of Ventilators

16.a For natural Natural ventilation

16.b Mechanical ventilation

https://www.hydracaptainsclub.gr/portfolio-item/bulk-carriers-general/

 Mushroom ventilators are usually closed by turning the wheel which is set on top.
 This brings a damper plate inside the mushroom cowl into contact with the lip of the
ventilator trunk.
 A rubber (neoprene) seal is set into the damper plate, and it must be in good condition to
ensure a watertight fit.
 The seal can be inspected when the ventilator is open by looking upwards into the
ventilator cowl from a position on deck beside the ventilator.
 The grille in a mushroom ventilator is usually fitted in several parts, located in the position
illustrated, and must be renewed if damaged.
 The shaft of the wheel must be greased and working freely. If the shaft is coated with
grease and the grease has become contaminated with dust and grit from the cargo the
shaft is likely to jam. Before the ventilator is opened, the contaminated grease should be
removed from the shaft.
 Then the treated part should be wiped with a rag soaked in paraffin before the ventilator
is opened and closed and the shaft greased.
 The wheel must be clearly marked with the OPEN and CLOSE directions, and the
marks should be checked to be sure that they have not been reversed – mistakes can
easily occur on older ships when the original plates have wasted, and been replaced by
painted signs.
17.Mechanical forced ventilation

 This method overcomes the disadvantages of thenatural ventilation system.

 The design of the ventilator is shown in below figure.
 The whole arrangement is permanently fittted on deck or on mast house.
 Electrical blowers are fittted inside the ventilator to either inject the air into or exhaust
the air from the compartment

Requirement Setting Result

 Surface  The blowers of the  As the air with the gases is
ventilation ventilators on one expelled from the compartment,
required side of the automatically fresh air enters
 Harmful gases compartment are through the ventilators on the
to be expelled operated in the opposite side, without the help
exhaust mode of the blowers.
 Opposite side  This process enables the gases
blowers-no need of to be physically dragged out of
running blowers the compartment and be
replaced by fresh air.
 When through  Blowers of one set  With the build-up of pressure
ventilation is of ventilators are inside the compartment, the air
required and operated in the is automatically exhausted out
expelling of inlet mode to force of the other set of ventilators
gases is not of the fresh air into the without operating the
paramount compartment. blowers.
importance,  Other set of
Blowers-No need of
running
  As blowers of only one set of ventilators will be operated at a time, these should be
periodically inter-changed during the voyage to avoid over-stressing the same blowers.
 To restrict ventilation
 Stop the blowers
 close the trunking.by turning wheel on top of the ventilator,flaps
gets closed
 These Flaps are also effective in preventing entry of water during bad weather and in
controlling a fire, which may occur inside the compartment. They are commonly referred
to as Fire Flaps.
 Spark arrestor are also fitted

18.Dry cargo - Dehumidifiers

Humidity in the hold of a ship is usually high when at sea and when carrying cargoes that are
easily damaged then a supply of dry air may be an essential. Bringing humidity levels down to
appropriate levels will require the use of a dehumidifier which may or may not be equipped with
a recording function that registers the humidity level on a constant basis.

Dehumidifiers draw the air from the hold passing it through a desiccant such as silica gel to
absorb moisture. Dehumidifiers may also be used after hold washing to speed drying in
preparation for the next cargo.

Reducing the humidity. Humidity and condensation can cause damage to cargoes and also to
the holds or tanks containing them. Dehumidifying of the areas prevents these problems, and
the two most widely used systems employ either refrigeration or desiccant.

In the refrigeration systems the air is cooled, and the amount of water vapour it can hold is
reduced, with the excess condensing on the chiller surface. The condensed water has to be
either collected into a container or pumped away.

In the desiccant method, a medium (silica gel, for instance) is used to absorb the moisture from
air before it is blown into the hold to replace the humid air. Heat is then used to dry the
desiccant. The released water vapour is vented outside the controlled atmosphere.

Dehumidifier – A substance or a machine used to reduce humidity in holds or cargo tanks.

Calcium chloride and silica gel are water-absorbing chemicals (desiccants) commonly in use.
19.Fumigation :

 Many agricultural products shipped in bulk, such as grains, seed cakes and logs, may
have insects living on or within the cargo and may also have larvae or eggs
 present.
 In order to prevent the spread of insects and pests within cargoes, fumigation may be
carried out
 Fumigation is the introduction of poison into a space to suffocate any insects or
pests within
 Fumigation is the process of releasing toxic gases (pesticides) into a cargo hold or
compartment for the purpose of eliminating or avoiding infestation by insects or other
pests that may cause the cargo to deteriorate.
 Fumigation may take place either prior to and/or after loading of the cargo. In-transit
fumigation is preferred by shippers and charterers because it reduces time in port.
 Hazards :The hazards associated with fumigation on board ships are:
 • Toxicity, risk of poisoning
 • Flammability
 • Heat
 Due to these hazards, fumigation and the handling of fumigants should only be carried
out by authorised professional fumigators under the supervision of a fumigator in charge
 “in-transit fumigation”- controversial , “in-transit fumigation” may affect the safety and
health of crew and other persons on board significantly.
 Generally speaking, in-transit fumigation should be avoided,
 Types of fumigation
The most widely used fumigants are phosphine-evolving gases (hydrogen phosphine) such as
aluminum phosphide, magnesium phosphide, gastoxin or magtoxin.
 These fumigants come in solid form, i.e., pellets, and are usually placed on the surface of the
stow or inserted just beneath it.
 Methyl bromide is applied in gaseous form from cylinders which connect to the holds via specially
provided pipework. Methyl bromide fumigation is not allowed in-transit and requires the crew to
be disembarked whilst it is carried out
20..Cargo ventilation Requirement

IMSBC CODE

Ventilation means exchange of air from outside to inside a cargo space.

.1. Continuous Ventilation means ventilation that is operating at all times.

.2. Mechanical Ventilation means power-generated ventilation.

.3. Natural Ventilation means ventilation that is not power-generated.

.4. Surface Ventilation means ventilation of the space above the cargo