Crystal Filed Theory:

1. Crystal field theory was proposed and developed by Hans Bethe and Vanvleck in 1935
to explain the colour and magnetic properties of coordination compounds.
2. It mainly explains about to ionic crystal.
3. The centre of a coordination compound is a metal atom or ion, which is surrounded
by a number of oppositely charged ions or neutral molecules(ligands)
4. These ions or molecules are linked to the metal atom or ion through a coordinate
relationship.

Advantages of Crystal Field Theory:  

The crystal field theory has a number of advantages, which are stated below.

1. The stability of complexes can be described using this idea. The more crystal field
splitting energy there is, the more stable the system will be.
2. Complexes’ colour and spectrum can be explained using this approach.
3. The magnetic characteristics of complexes are explained by this hypothesis.
4. CFT predicts a gradual change in magnetic properties of complexes rather than the
abrupt change predicted by VBT. 
5. According to VBT, the bond between the metal and the ligand is covalent, while
according to CFT it is purely ionic.
6. The bond is now considered to have both ionic and covalent character. Unlike valence
bond theory.

1
Postulates of Crystal Field Splitting Theory:

The following are the fundamental assumptions of crystal field theory.

1. This theory considers the metal ion as being placed in the electrostatic field created by
the ligand.
2. This theory considers a complex as a combination of central ion surrounded by
molecules with electric dipoles called as ligands.
3. That means according to this theory ligands are considered as point charges or point
dipole.
4. The bonding between the metal cation and ligand arise due to the electrostatic attraction
between metal cation and ligand.
5. The bond between the metal and ligand is considered as purely ionic.
6. The repulsive force arise between metal and ligand are responsible for splitting of d
orbitals.
7. All 5d orbitals in an isolated metal ion have the same energy and are referred to as
degenerate orbitals.
8. When a metal is added in a ligand solution,
9. All ligands approach the metal ion in spherically symmetric geometry among the corners
by this the energy of five d-orbitals increase due to the degeneracy is not lifted.
10. In the second step the ligands try to approach towards the metal ion then it destroys
degeneracy of d-orbital during the formation of complex.

2
Weak Field Ligands:

1. In presence of some ligands splitting occurs very less i.e., the energy difference between
the d-orbitals is very less. So, those ligands are called as Weak field Ligands.
2. Ligands that produce a small Δare called weak-field ligands .

3. and lie at the left end of the spectrochemical series.

4. Weak field ligands cannot make pairing of electrons to the metal atoms. They are π donor ligands, e.g.,
halide ions are weak field ligands.

Strong Filed Ligands:

1. In presence of some ligands splitting occurs very high/large i.e., the energy difference
between the d-orbitals is very high/large. So, those ligands are called as Strong field
Ligands.

2. Strong field ligands have large Δ.

3. They are π-acceptor ligands.
4. They have the tendency of pairing of electrons of the metal ions.

3
High Spin Complex:

1. If the magnetic moment of the metal atom remains same in the presence of ligand
field then the resulting complex is known as High Spin Complex
2. The complexion with the greater number of unpaired electrons is known as the high spin
complex.
3. High spin complexes are expected with weak field ligands whereas the crystal field
splitting energy is small Δ. 

Low spin complex:

1. If the magnetic moment of the metal atom decrease in the presence of ligand field
then the resulting complex is known as Low Spin Complex.
2. The low spin complex contains the lesser number of unpaired electrons.
3.  The low spin complexes are expected with strong field ligands cause maximum pairing
of electrons due to large Δo.

 High spin – Maximum number of unpaired electrons.

 Low spin – Minimum number of unpaired electrons.

 [Co(CN)6]3- – Low spin complex

 [CoF6]3- – High spin complex

Spectrochemical Series:

1. A spectrochemical series is an arrangement of ligands in order of their capacity to

generate splitting.

4
 2. I  < Br  < S   < Cl  < F  < OH < C O < O  < H O < NCS  < NH  < en < CN  < CO 
– – 2-   – – – 
2 4
2-  2-
2
–
3
–

3. The spectrochemical series is a result of experimentation.

4. The sequence is difficult to explain since it includes both the influence of 𝛔 and 𝚷
bonding.

Crystal Field Splitting:

1. Crystal field splitting energy is defined as the difference in energy between the eg and
t2g orbitals.
2. Definition: Crystal field splitting is the difference in energy between d orbitals of ligands.
Crystal field splitting number is denoted by the capital Greek letter Δ.
3. Crystal field splitting explains the difference in colour between two similar metal-ligand
complexes.
4. Because of this repulsion, the d-orbital splits into two sets of d-orbitals with differing
energies, eg and t2g.
5. Crystal field splitting is the splitting of a d-orbital under the influence of a ligand’s
electrostatic field, and the ramifications lie at the heart of Crystal field theory.
Factors affecting orbital splitting energy:
 Oxidation state of the metal
 Nature of the metal
 Geometry of the coordination entity
 Nature of the ligand

Limitations of Crystal Field Splitting:

Crystal field theory has a number of flaws, which are described below.

1. The notion that the interaction between the metal and the ligand is exclusively
electrostatic is far from realistic.
2. This hypothesis exclusively considers the d-orbitals of the core atom. The s and p orbitals
aren’t studied at all.
3. This idea is unable to explain why some metals exhibit considerable splitting while others
exhibit minimal splitting.
4. Because P bonding is observed in many complexes, this theory fails to explain how it is
possible to have p bonding.
5. The orbitals of the ligands have no significance in this view. As a result, it is unable to
explain any ligand orbital characteristics or their interactions with metal orbitals.

Crystal Field Stabilisation Energy:

5
 1. Under the influence of crystal field, the d-orbitals of the central metal ion splits into t2g
and eg sets.
2. The energy gap between these two sets is equal to Δo or 10Dq
3. The stability that occurs from ligand binding is known as the crystal field stabilisation
energy (CFSE).
4. CFSE is usually calculated by assigning a value -4Dq for each electron placed in t2g
orbitals and a value of +6Dq for each electron placed in eg orbitals.
5.

6
Note: The conversion between Δoct and Δtet used for these calculations is
Δtet=Δoct×49

7
Magnetic properties and colour of the metal complexes CFC:

Magnetic properties of the substance depends on the number of unpaired or

paired electrons and their arrangement of atoms and molecules.

Magnetic Susceptibility or volume susceptibility:

1. The strength of the samples interaction to the magnetic field.
2. The measure of how much a material will be magnetized in an applied
magnetic field.
X =M/H
Where,

 Χ : magnetic susceptibility
 M: magnetization
 H: field intensity

The magnetic properties of a substances were classified into four categories

namely:

A. Diamagnetic Property:
1. When a substance is placed in a magnetic field, if the intensity of the
substance magnetic field decrease, such substance is called
Diamagnetic.
2. Diamagnetism: repelled to the magnetic field and no unpaired
electrons.
3. All of the electrons are paired.
4. Small negative susceptibility.
5.  Magnetic susceptibility is χ<0 which means it is always a negative value
for diamagnetic material.
6. These materials are independent of temperature.
7. As these materials magnetize in the opposite direction, they do have a
small amount of magnetization intensity.
8. Gold, tin, mercury, water, etc are examples of diamagnetic
materials.
9. Diamagnetic materials have a constant relative permeability.
10.If the substance having paired electrons give zero resultant magnetic
moment and thus diamagnetic.
11. Eg: KCl, N2, MgCl2, NiCl2.6H2O etc.
12. Zn, Cd, Hg (+2state shows diamagnetism)

B. Paramagnetic Property:
1. The substance which when placed in a magnetic field allows the
magnetic lines of forces to pass through them is called paramagnetic
substance.

8
 2. A paramagnetic substance when placed in magnetic field align itself
parallel to external magnetic field.
3. Magnetic materials which align with the magnetic field are known as
paramagnetic materials.
4. Magnetic susceptibility is χ>0 which means it is always a small positive
value for paramagnetic materials.
5. One or more unpaired electrons.
6. These materials are temperature dependent.
7. These are weekly attracted by magnets with relative permeability
1.00001 to 1.003.
8. Alkaline earth metal, aluminium, oxygen etc are some of the examples
of paramagnetic materials.
9. Ex: [Ni(H2O)6]Cl2, [CoCl4]-2

C. Ferromagnetic Property:
1. If the magnetic dipoles of the adjacent atoms in a paramagnetic
substance are all parallel and aligned in the same directions is said to be
ferromagnetic.
2. Strongly attracted in magnetic field.
3. Possess unpaired electron.
4. In the magnetic field spin of all metals ions get aligned in same
direction.
5. As temperature decrease continuously at particular temperature, the
ferromagnetic substances becomes paramagnetic substances.
6. The temperature is called “Curie temperature”.
7. Ex: CrO2, FeO3O4 etc.

D. Antimagnetic Property:
1. They repelled in a magnetic field.
2. Possess unpaired electrons.
3. In magnetic field the spin of all metals ions get aligned in a such a way,
they get paired up.
4. They increase with increase in temperature.
5. After a particular temperature it becomes paramagnetic. This
temperature is called Neel Temperature or Neel Point.

9
Spin only magnetic moment:

1. When electrons move around freely, they create a magnetic field; this
magnetic field created by electron motion is known as the magnetic
moment.
2. A spin-only magnetic moment occurs when an electron rotates on its own
axis and generates a magnetic field.

The formula for the calculation of spin only magnetic moment

1. μs=√ n(n+2) 
2. Here, “n” is the number of unpaired electrons.
3. The unit for a spin-only magnetic moment is the Bohr magneton (BM).

To calculate spin only magnetic moment,

μ=√ 4s(s+1)  where s= Spin magnetic moment.
μ=√ n(n+2)  where n= Number of unpaired electrons.

n=1 , 1.73 BM,

n=2 , 2.82 BM,
n=3 , 3.87 BM,
n=4 , 4.89 BM,
n=5 , 5.91 BM,
n=6 , 6.92 BM,

Colour of the transition Metal Complex:

When a white light is allowed to fall on the complex the following things may
occur.
1. The complex may absorb the whole light, in this case complex appears
black.
2. The complex may reflex ¿transmit) the whole light, in this case it
appears white.
3. The complex may absorb some of it and may reflect ¿transmit) the
remaining light, in this case the complex has the same colour i.e., it is
coloured.

10
 4. The absorption of light , by the colored complexes takes place in the
visible region of the spectrum which extends from 4000A° to 7000A° in
wavelength.
5. The coloured of the absorbed light is different from that of the
transmitted light.
6. The colour of that absorbed light and in fact, the colour of the complex.
7. The relation between the colours of absorbed and transmitted light as
given below:

8. So, if the complex absorbs red colour, the colour opposite to red is
complementary colour i.e., green and complex appears in green colour.

11
Detection of Complex Formation Basic Principles of various
methods:

a) Change in Chemical Properties:

1. The chemical properties of the metal ion in complex don not exhibit
normal reactions in the same metal ion in solution,
2. Which is the positive evidence for the complexation.

b) Solubility:
1. An increases in the solubility of sparingly double salt provides a definite
indication that one of its ions forms a complex ion in solution.

c) Colour change:
1. Sometimes colour change is accompanied by complex formation.
2. For example when ammonia is added to Cu+2 ion in deep blue colou is
obtained due to the formation of [Cu(NH3)4]2+ SO4

d) Conductance measurement:
1. Generally conductance of solution decreases or increases with the
formation of complex.
2. The change in conductance is due to the presence or absence of ion
during complex formation.

e) Ph Change:
1. Since most of the ligands are either weak acids or weak bases, the
formation of complex is always accompanied by the displacement of one

12
 or more protons of the ligands by metal ion resulting in increase of H+
concentration and cause drop in pH value.
2. pH measurement can therefore be used to detect the formation of
complex.

f) Magnetic Susceptibility:

Magnetic Susceptibility or volume susceptibility:

1. The strength of the samples interaction to the magnetic field.
2. The measure of how much a material will be magnetized in an applied
magnetic field.
X =M/H
Where,

 Χ : magnetic susceptibility
 M: magnetization
 H: field intensity

13