ECE 

546
Lecture 04
Resistance, Capacitance, Inductance
Spring 2022

Jose E. Schutt-Aine
Electrical & Computer Engineering
University of Illinois
jschutt@emlab.uiuc.edu

ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 1
 What is Extraction?
- + - +

-
+

+
- + - +

Process in which a complex arrangement of

conductors and dielectric is converted into a netlist
of elements in a form that is amenable to circuit
simulation.
Need Field Solvers
ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 2
 Electromagnetic Modeling Tools

We need electromagnetic modeling tools to analyze:

Transmission line propagation
Reflections from discontinuities
Crosstalk between interconnects
Simultaneous switching noise

So we can provide:
Improved design of interconnects
Robust design guidelines
Faster, more cost effective design cycles

ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 3
 Field Solvers – History
1960s 1990s
Conformal mapping techniques Adapting methods to parallel computers
Finite difference methods (2-D Laplace eq.) Including methods in CAD tools
Variational methods

1970s 2000s
Boundary element method Incorporation of Passivity
Finite element method (2-D) Incorporation of Causality
Partial element equivalent circuit (3-D)

1980s
Time domain methods (3-D) 2010s
Finite element method (3-D) Stochastic Techniques
Moment method (3-D) Multiphysics Tools
rPEEC method (3-D)

ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 4
 Categories of Field Solvers

• Method of Moments (MOM)

• Application to 2-D Interconnects
• Closed-Form Green’s Function
• Full-Wave and FDTD
• Parallel FDTD
• Applications

ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 5
 Capacitance
Relation: Q = Cv
Q: charge stored by capacitor
C: capacitance
v: voltage across capacitor
i: current into capacitor
dv dQ
i (t )  C 
dt dt
1 t
v(t )   i ( )d
C 0
ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 6
 Capacitance

d
+
V


A : area
 oA
C= d
o : permittivity

For more complex capacitance geometries, need to use

numerical methods

ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 7
 Potential and Charge Distribution

How do we find the potential due to a charge distribution?


 2    Poisson’s Equation

First find solution for infinitely small point source at origin

 2    r 

Solution is Green’s function g(r, r’). Potential is then found

via superposition.
  x ', y ', z '
  x, y, z    dx ' dy ' dz '
4 R
ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 8
 Capacitance Calculation
 (r )   g (r , r ') (r ')dr '

 (r )  potential (known)

g (r , r ')  Green ' s function (known)

 (r ')  charge distribution (unknown)
Once the charge distribution is known, the total charge Q can
be determined. If the potential =V, we have
Q=CV
To determine the charge distribution, use the moment method

ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 9
 Method of Moments
Operator equation

L(f) = g

L = integral or differential operator

f = unknown function

g = known function

Expand unknown function f

f   nf n
n
ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 10
 Method of Moments
in terms of basis functions fn, with unknown coefficients  to get
n

  L (f
n
n n )g
Finally, take the scalar or inner product with testing of weighting
functions wm:


n
n wm , Lf n  wm , g

with wm , g   wm  r ' g  r , r ' dr '

Matrix equation
lmn  n    g m 
ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 11
 Method of Moments
 w1 , Lf1 w1 , Lf 2 ...
 
lmn    w2 , Lf1 w2 , Lf 2 ...
 .......... ............. ...
 1   w1 , g 
 n    2  
 m   w2 , g
g 


 .   . 

Solution for weight coefficients

 n   nm   g m 
   l 1

ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 12
 Moment Method Solution

D  
  x ', y ', z '
  x, y, z    dx ' dy ' dz '
E   4 R


  
2

 R  x  x '   y  y '   z  z '

2 2 2


L  

Green’s function G: LG = 

ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 13
 Basis Functions
Subdomain bases
  
1 xn   x  xn 
P  xn    2 2
0 otherwise


x1 x2 xn

  
1  x xn   x  xn 
T  xn    2 2
0 otherwise

x1 x2 xn

Testing functions often (not always) chosen same as basis

function.

ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 14
 Conducting Plate
Z

Y
2b

2b
2a X
Sn

2a conducting plate

a a
  x ', y ', z '
  x, y, z    dx '  dy '
a a
4 R

 = charge density on plate

ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 15
 Conducting Plate
Setting  = V on plate

 x  x '   y  y '
2 2
R

a a
  x ', y ', z '
V  dx '  dy '
 x  x '   y  y '
2 2
a a 4

for |x| < a; |y| < a

a a
q 1
Capacitance of plate: C    dx '  dy '  x ', y ', z '
V V a a

ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 16
 Conducting Plate
Basis function Pn
 s s
1 xm   x  xm 
2 2

 s s
Pn  xm , yn   1 yn   y  yn 
 2 2
0 otherwise


Representation of unknown charge

N
  x, y     n f n
n 1

ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 17
 Conducting Plate
Matrix equation:
N
V   lmn f n
n 1
Matrix element:

1
lmn   dx '  dy '
 xm  x '   yn  x '
2 2
xm yn 4

1 N
C    n sn   lmn
1
sn
V n1 mn

ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 18
 Parallel Plates
z

2a

x
d

2a

Using N unknowns per plate, we get 2N  2N matrix equation:

[l tt ] [l tb ] 
[l]   bt 

[l ] [l ]
bb


Subscript ‘t’ for top and ‘b’ for bottom plate, respectively.

ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 19
 Parallel  Plates
Matrix equation becomes  l mn

tt
 ltbmn   nt    g mt 

Solution:     l  l   g nt 
t  tt tb 1 
m  mn 

charge on top plate
Capacitance C 
2V
1
 
2V top
 n sn
t

Using s=4b2 and all elements of  

gt  V

C  2b  l2
 tt
l 
tb 1
mn
mn

ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 20
 Inductance
Relation:  = Li
: flux stored by inductor
L: inductance
i: current through inductor
v: voltage across inductor
di d 
v(t )  L 
dt dt
1 t
i (t )   v( )d
L 0
ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 21
 Inductance
Magnetic Flux
z

r
 H
I R
Idl

Total flux linked

  Inductance = Current
   B  dS
S

ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 22
 2‐D Isomorphism

Electrostatics Magnetostatics

 zˆ  nˆ  tVi  0  zˆ  nˆ  t Azi  0

qs  1 
nˆ    ritVi    nˆ   t Azi    o J z
o  ri 
CV  Q LI  
Consequence: 2D inductance can be calculated from 2D capacitance formulas

ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 23
 2-D N-line LC Extractor using MOM

s w
t

h
r

• Symmetric signal traces

• Uniform spacing
• Lossless lines
• Uses MOM for solution

ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 24
 Output from MoM Extractor
Capacitance (pF/m)
118.02299 -8.86533 -0.03030 -0.00011 -0.00000
-8.86533 119.04875 -8.86185 -0.03029 -0.00011
-0.03030 -8.86185 119.04876 -8.86185 -0.03030
-0.00011 -0.03029 -8.86185 119.04875 -8.86533
-0.00000 -0.00011 -0.03030 -8.86533 118.02299

Inductance (nH/m)
312.71680 23.42397 1.83394 0.14361 0.01128
23.42397 311.76042 23.34917 1.82812 0.14361
1.83394 23.34917 311.75461 23.34917 1.83394
0.14361 1.82812 23.34917 311.76042 23.42397
0.01128 0.14361 1.83394 23.42397 312.71680
ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 25
 RLGC: Formulation Method Electrical and Computer Engineering

y
x
z

3 350 m
(x,y,z)
r=1
y=dn
n  t 70 m
2 2
y=dn-1
n-1
y=dn-2  r=3.2 100 m
1 t
1
r=4.3 200 m
(x o ,y o ,z o ) 150 m
y=dm P.E.C.
P.E.C.
m
y=dm-1
m-1
y=dm-2

Closed-Form Spatial Green's Function

* Computes 2-D and 3-D capacitance matrix in multilayered dielectric

* Method is applicable to arbitrary polygon-shaped conductors

* Computationally efficient
• Reference
– K. S. Oh, D. B. Kuznetsov and J. E. Schutt-Aine, "Capacitance Computations in a Multilayered Dielectric
Medium Using Closed-Form Spatial Green's Functions," IEEE Trans. Microwave Theory Tech., vol. MTT-
42, pp. 1443-1453, August 1994.

ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 26
Multilayer Green's Function
Optional Top Ground Plane
y=dNd
Nd, o Nd
y=dNd-1

y=d2
2, o 2 y
y=d1
1, o 1 x
y=0
Bottom Ground Plane

ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 27
 Extraction Program: RLGC
RLGC computes the four transmission line parameters, viz., the capacitance matrix C, the
inductance matrix L, the conductance matrix G, and the resistance matrix R, of a multiconductor
transmission line in a multilayered dielectric medium. RLGC features the following list of
functions:

ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 28
 RLGC – Multilayer Extractor
• Features
– Handling of dielectric layers with no ground plane, either top or bottom ground plane
(microstrip cases), or both top and bottom ground planes (stripline cases)
– Static solutions are obtained using the Method of Moment (MoM) in conjunction with
closed-form Green’s functions: one of the most accurate and efficient methods for static
analysis
– Modeling of dielectric losses as well as conductor losses (including ground plane losses
– The resistance matrix R is computed based on the current distribution - more accurate than
the use of any closed-form formulae
– Both the proximity effect and the skin effect are modeled in the resistance matrix R.
– Computes the potential distribution
– Handling of an arbitrary number of dielectric layers as well as an arbitrary number of
conductors.
– The cross section of a conductor can be arbitrary or even be infinitely thin

• Reference
– K. S. Oh, D. B. Kuznetsov and J. E. Schutt-Aine, "Capacitance Computations in a
Multilayered Dielectric Medium Using Closed-Form Spatial Green's Functions," IEEE
Trans. Microwave Theory Tech., vol. MTT-42, pp. 1443-1453, August 1994.

ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 29
 RLGC – General Topology
350 m
r=1
70 m

r=3.2 100 m

r=4.3 200 m
150 m

P.E.C.

Three conductors in a layered medium. All conductor

dimensions and spacing are identical. The loss tangents of
the lower and upper dielectric layers are 0.004 and 0.001
respectively, the conductivity of each line is 5.8e7 S/m, and
the operating frequency is 1 GHz

ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 30
3-Line Capacitance Results

3

 t
2 2

 t
1 1

P.E.C.

350 m
r=1
70 m

r=3.2 100 m

r=4.3 200 m
150 m
P.E.C.

Capacitance Matrix (pF/m)

142.09 21.765 0.8920 145.33 23.630 1.4124
   
21.733 93.529 18.098 22.512 93.774 17.870
0.8900 18.097
 87.962 
 1.3244 17.876 87.876 
 

Delabare et al. RLGC Method

ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 31
 Modeling Vias
l1

Possible P.E.C.
y=dn
Nd

y=dn-1

2 y
y=d1
1 x
l2 l3
y=0
Possible P.E.C.

Medium
Via
1.6 2
4 l2
4.02
50
l1

3.2

1 l3
50
4
4.02

Via in multilayer medium Equivalent circuit

ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 32
 Modeling Discontinuities

l1
l
l l1 l2

w1
w

ce ce
l2
w2

Open
Bend

l1 l3 l3
l1 l2
l1 l2 l1 l2
w1
w1 w2

ce l2 ce
w2

Step
T-Junction

ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 33
 3D Inductance Calculation
Loop Inductance
I
I

a 

I
ak
I

 1   1 
Lloop

   B  da     A  da
I I a I a
 
QUESTION: Can we associate inductance with piece
of conductor rather than a loop? PEEC Method

ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 34
 Partial Inductance (PEEC) Approach
QUESTION: Can we associate inductance
with piece of conductor rather than a loop?
I
I

a 
I
ak
I

 
4 4 1  dli  dl j
Lloop         dai da j
i1 j1 ai a j aia j li l j 4 ri  rj

DEFINITION OF PARTIAL INDUCTANCE
 
1  dli  dl j
L pij        dai da j
ai a j 4 a a l l ri  rj
 i j i j

4 4
Lloop    sij L pij
i1 j1

ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 35
 Circuit Element K
[K]=[L]-1
• Better locality property

• Leads to sparser matrix

• Diagonally dominant

• Allows truncation of far off-diagonal elements

• Better suited for on-chip inductance analysis

ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 36
 Locality of K Matrix

h 1 2 3 4 5

w s

11.4 4.26 2.54 1.79 1.38   103 34.1 7.80 4.31 3.76 
 4.26 11.4 4.26 2.54 1.79   34.1 114 31.6 6.67 4.31
   
[ L]   2.54 4.26 11.4 4.26 2.54  [ K ]   7.80 31.6 115 31.6 7.80 
   
1.79 2.54 4.26 11.4 4.26   4.31 6.67 31.6 114 34.1
1.38 1.79 2.54 4.26 11.4   3.76 4.31 7.80 34.1 103 

ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 37
 Package Inductance & Capacitance

Component Capacitance Inductance

(pF) (nH)
68 pin plastic DIP pin† 4 35
68 pin ceramic DIP pin†† 7 20
68 pin SMT chip carrier † 2 7

† No ground plane; capacitance is dominated by wire-to-wire

component.

†† With ground plane; capacitance and inductance are determined by

the distance between the lead frame and the ground plane, and the lead
length.

ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 38
Package Inductance & Capacitance

Component Capacitance Inductance

(pF) (nH)
68 pin PGA pin†† 2 7
256 pin PGA pin†† 5 15
Wire bond 1 1
Solder bump 0.5 0.1

† No ground plane; capacitance is dominated by wire-to-

wire component.

†† With ground plane; capacitance and inductance are

determined by the distance between the lead frame and
the ground plane, and the lead length.

ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 39
 Metallic Conductors


Area th
Leng

Re s ist an ce : R
Length
R
  Area
Package level: Submicron level:
W=3 mils W=0.25 microns
R=0.0045 /mm R=422 /mm

ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 40
 Metallic Conductors
Metal Conductivity
 -1 m 10-7)

Silver 6.1
Copper 5.8
Gold 3.5
Aluminum 1.8
Tungsten 1.8
Brass 1.5
Solder 0.7
Lead 0.5
Mercury 0.1

ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 41
 Dielectrics
Dielectrics contain charges that are tightly 
bound to the nuclei
Charges can move a fraction of an atomic 
distance away from equilibrium position
Electron orbits can be distorted when an 
electric field is applied

+
+ E
- -

ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 42
 Dielectrics
Charge density within volume is zero
Surface charge density is nonzero

sp

D=o(1+e)E=E

ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 43
 Dielectric Materials

1
v
LC

Material Conductivity (-1-m-1)

Germanium 2.2
Silicon 0.0016
Glass 10-10-10-14
Quartz 0.510-17


tan  


ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 44
 Dielectric Materials

r

1
v
LC

Material r v(cm/s)
Polyimide 2.5-3.5 16-19
Silicon dioxide 3.9 15
Epoxy glass (FR4) 5.0 13
Alumina (ceramic) 9.5 10

ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 45
 Conductivity of Dielectric Materials
r j i

Material Conductivity ( -1 m-1)

Germanium 2.2
Silicon 0.0016
Glass 10-10 - 10-14
Quartz 0.5 x 10-17


Loss TANGENT : tan 

ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 46
Combining Field and Circuit Solutions

Network Macromodel
Field Solution
Description Generation

Circuit
 Bypass extraction Simulation
procedure through the use
of Y, Z, or S parameters
(frequency domain)

ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 47
 Full‐Wave Methods

 B
 E   Faraday’s Law of Induction
t

  D
 H  J  Ampère’s Law
t

D   Gauss’ Law for electric field

B  0 Gauss’ Law for magnetic field

FDTD: Discretize equations and solve 
with appropriate boundary conditions

ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 48
 FDTD ‐ Formulation
 FDTD solves Maxwell’s equations in time-domain
E 1
  H
t  0
H 1
   E
t 0

• Problem space is discretized

• Derivatives are approximated as
u u (v0  v)  u (v0  v)

v 2v

• Time stepping algorithm

• Field values at all points of the grid are updated at
each time step
ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 49
Finite Difference Time Domain (FDTD)
z
E y

H z
y

x E x E x

Ez
Ez

E y
H x

H y H y

E y
H x
Ez

E x E x
H z

E y

Space Discretization
ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 50
 FDTD – Yee Algorithm

c t
E  i, j , k   E
n
x
n 1
x 
 y
 H zn1/2  i, j , k   H zn1/2  i, j  1, k  
z

c t
    i, j, k  1 
Ey
n 1/2 n 1/2
y  H i , j , k  H
 z y y
Hz
x
Ex Ex
Ez Ez
Ey Hx
Hy Hy
Ey
Hx Ez
Ex Ex
Hz

c t n
Ey
H n 1/2
x  i, j , k   H  n 1/2
x
 y
 E z  i , j  1, k   E z  i, j , k  
n

c t n1/2

 z
 E y  i, j , k  1  E yn  i, j , k  

ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 51
 2D-FDTD

Ey
Ex
Hz
y

x
1
Enx  i  , j  En1  i  1 , j  t  H n 1/2  i  1 , j  1   H n1/2  i  1 , j  1  
 2  x  2   o y  z  2 2
z  2 2 
1
Eny  i, j    En1  i, j  1   t  H n1/ 2  i  1 , j  1   H n1/2  i  1 , j  1  
 2
y  2   o x 
z  2 2
z  2 2 
n1/2  1 1 n 1/2  1 1 t  n  1   E n  i  1 , j 
Hz i
 2 , j   H i  , j   E i  , j 1
2  2 2   o y   2  x
2 
z x

t  n  1 1
E y  i 1, j    Ex  i, j   
n
-
 o x  2 2 

ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 52
Absorbing Boundary Condition: 2D-PML Formulation

Simulation Medium PML Medium

E x Hz E x Hz
o  o  E x 
t y t y
E y H E y Hz
o  z o  E y  
t x t x
H z E x E y H z E x E y
o   o   * Hz  
t y x y
t y x
x
 *

o o
No reflection from PML interface

ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 53
 Importance of the PML
 Example: Simulation of the sinusoidal point source
PML is “on”

PML is “off”

ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 54
Some Features of the FDTD
 Advantages
• FDTD is straightforward (fully explicit)
• Versatile (universal formulation)
• Time‐domain (response at all frequencies can be obtained 
from a single simulation)
• EM fields can be easily visualized

 Issues
• Resource hungry (fields through the whole problem space 
are updated at each step)
• Discretization errors
• Time domain data is not immediately useful
• Problem space has to be truncated 
ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 55
 Pros of The FDTD Method
• FDTD directly solves Maxwell’s equations providing all 
information about the EM field at each of the space sells at 
every time‐step

• Being a time‐domain technique, FDTD directly calculates the 
impulse response of an electromagnetic system. Therefore? A 
single FDTD simulation can provide either ultrawideband 
temporal waveforms or the sinusoidal steady‐state response 
at any frequency within the excitation spectrum

• FDTD uses no linear algebra

• Being a time‐domain technique, FDTD directly calculates the 
nonlinear response of an electromagnetic system 

ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 56
 Cons of The FDTD Method
• Computationally expensive, requires large random access 
memory. At each time step values of the fields at each point 
in space are updated using values from the previous step

• FDTD works well with regular uniform meshes but the use of 
regular uniform meshes leads to staircasing. Implementation 
of nonuniform meshes, on the other hand, requires special 
mesh‐generation software and can lead to additional 
computer operations and instabilities

• Requires truncation of the problem space in a way that does 
not create reflection errors

ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 57
 Numerical Dispersion
• Occurs because of the difference between the 
phase speed of the wave in the real world and 
the speed of propagation of the numerical 
wave along the grid 

Distortion of the pulse

propagating over the grid

(time domain data is recorded

at different reference points)

ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 58
 Setting Up a Simulation
Main steps:
Discretize the problem space – create a mesh
Set up the source of the incident field
Truncate the problem space – create the 
absorbing boundary conditions (ABC)

We are using (mainly):  t T 
2
 0
Rectangular mesh

pulse  e  spread 

Plane wave source with Gaussian distribution
Perfectly matched layer (PML) for the ABC

ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 59
 3D FDTD for Single Microstrip Line
Computational domain size: 90x130x20 cells
(in x, y, and z directions, respectively) T=100

* Cell size 0.026 cm

* Source plane at y = 0
* Ground plane at z = 0
* Duroid substrate with relative permittivity 2.2.
Electric field nodes on interface between
duroid and free space use average permittivity
of media to either side.
* Substrate 3 cells thick T=300
* Microstrip 9 cells wide

Figures on the left show a pulse propagating along the

microstrip line. A Gaussian pulse is used for excitation.
A voltage source is simulated by imposing the vertical
Ez field in the area underneath the strip.
 3D FDTD for Patch Antenna

Microstrip antenna at Microstrip antenna at

T=300 T=400

Patch dimensions 47 x 60 cells

ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 61
Simulation of the Microstrip Antenna
Frequency‐Dependent Parameters 
  fft(inc)  
• S11 for the patch antenna S11 ( )  20  log  abs 
  fft( ref ) 


Our simulation By D. Sheen et. al

ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 63
Simulation of Microstrip Structures

• Source setup:

• Microstrip Patch Antenna

ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 64
 Microstrip Coupler
• Branch line coupler

• Scattering parameters of the branch line 
coupler

Our simulation By D. Sheen et. al

ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 65
 Single Straight Microstrip
• Comparison with measured data

Comparison is only qualitative,

since parameters used correspond
to the line with (length/2)

ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 66
 Single Straight Microstrip
• Simulation with length doubled (example of 
what happens when the mesh is bad)

ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 67
 Single Straight Microstrip
• Simulation with the adjusted mesh

ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 68
 Meandered Microstrip Lines
• Test boards were manufactured

ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 69
 Simulation and Measurements

• Scattering parameters
for the m‐line #3 

ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 70
 Comparison with ADS Momentum 
• The line was also simulated with Agilent ADS 
Momentum EM simulator

ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 71
 Comparison with ADS Momentum
• S21 parameters

ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 72
 References

• A. Taflove, S.C. Hagness, Computational Electrodinamics: The Finite –
Difference Time‐Domain Method. 3‐d edition. Artech House Publishers, 
2005.
• D. Sullivan, Electromagnetic simulation using the FDTD method, IEEE 
Press series on RF and microwave technology, 2000. 
• D.M. Sheen, S.M. Ali, M.D. Abouzahra, J.A. Kong, “Application of the 
Three‐Dimensional Finite‐Difference Time‐Domain Method to the 
Analysis of Planar Microstrip Circuits”, IEEE Trans. Microwave Theory 
Tech., vol. 38, no 7, July 1990. 

ECE 546 – Jose Schutt‐Aine 73