Shiny Cowbird (Molothrus bonariensis) Parasitism Records for

Three Globally Threatened Species from the South American

Pampas
Author(s): Adrián B. Azpiroz
Source: The Wilson Journal of Ornithology, 127(4):746-752.
Published By: The Wilson Ornithological Society
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1676/15-007
URL: http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.1676/15-007

BioOne (www.bioone.org) is a nonprofit, online aggregation of core research in the

biological, ecological, and environmental sciences. BioOne provides a sustainable online
platform for over 170 journals and books published by nonprofit societies, associations,
museums, institutions, and presses.
Your use of this PDF, the BioOne Web site, and all posted and associated content
indicates your acceptance of BioOne’s Terms of Use, available at www.bioone.org/page/
terms_of_use.
Usage of BioOne content is strictly limited to personal, educational, and non-commercial
use. Commercial inquiries or rights and permissions requests should be directed to the
individual publisher as copyright holder.

BioOne sees sustainable scholarly publishing as an inherently collaborative enterprise connecting authors, nonprofit
publishers, academic institutions, research libraries, and research funders in the common goal of maximizing access to
critical research.
746 THE WILSON JOURNAL OF ORNITHOLOGY N Vol. 127, No. 4, December 2015

The Wilson Journal of Ornithology 127(4):746–752, 2015

Shiny Cowbird (Molothrus bonariensis) Parasitism Records for Three Globally

Threatened Species from the South American Pampas

Adrián B. Azpiroz1
ABSTRACT.—The Shiny Cowbird (Molothrus
bonariensis) is a generalist brood parasite known to have
parasitized more than 200 species, many of which are able
to rear cowbird young. Here I provide new records of
Shiny Cowbird parasitism on three globally threatened
birds from the Pampas of South America: Black-and-white
Monjita (Xolmis dominicanus; vulnerable), Pampas
Meadowlark (Sturnella defilippii; vulnerable), and Yellow
Cardinal (Gubernatrix cristata; endangered). Cowbirds
parasitized 24 out of 32 monjita nests, four out of 17
cardinal nests and three out of 169 meadowlark nests.
These are the largest nest samples reported for the monjita
and for the meadowlark, documented detailed parasitism
records were lacking until now. In the case of the cardinal,
data reported here complement information recently
obtained in northeastern Argentina. Although habitat loss
and illegal trapping may represent more important threats
than brood parasitism, more studies are needed in order to
establish the impact of brood parasitism on the fragmented
1
Departamento de Biodiversidad y Genética, Instituto de
Investigaciones Biológicas Clemente Estable, Ministerio de
Educación y Cultura, Avenida Italia 3318, CP. 11600, Mon-
tevideo, Uruguay; e-mail: aazpiroz@iibce.edu.uy
and declining populations of these threatened Pampas
passerines. Received 7 January 2015. Accepted 7 June 2015.
Key words: brood parasitism, globally threatened, Pam-
pas birds.
Brood parasitism results in costs to host species
because it compromises productivity (Johnsgard
1997, Peer et al. 2005). In order to counteract para-
sitism effects many hosts have evolved specific
strategies, such as parasite recognition, nest con-
cealment and defense, and the recognition and
ejection of parasite eggs (Gochfeld 1979, Johns-
gard 1997, Peer et al. 2005, Krüger 2007). Brood
parasitism has been implicated in the declines of
several birds, including globally threatened species
(Ortega et al. 2005, BirdLife International 2014a).
The Shiny Cowbird (Molothrus bonariensis) is
the most extreme generalist among brood parasites
(Ortega 1998, Lowther 2014). This bird is known
 SHORT COMMUNICATIONS
to have parasitized 267 species; 97 of which are
confirmed to have reared cowbird young (Lowther
2014). The main impact of Shiny Cowbird parasit-
ism is the puncture of host eggs, which reduces
host’s clutch size and increases the probability of
nest abandonment (Reboreda et al. 2003). Here I
report several observations of Shiny Cowbird para-
sitism events for three globally threatened birds
from the South American Pampas. These records
are based on the largest nest samples known for
the monjita and the meadowlark. Detailed brood
parasitism records for these two passerines were
lacking and some previous reports have even
been questioned. In the case of the cardinal I pro-
vide additional details that complement recently
published data from Argentina.
SPECIES ACCOUNTS
Black-and-white Monjita (Xolmis dominicanus)
The Black-and-white Monjita is native to east-
ern Argentina, southern Brazil and Uruguay (with
unconfirmed reports for Paraguay) and is classified
as threatened at national (Bencke et al. 2003,
López-Lanús et. al. 2008, Azpiroz et al. 2012)
and global (BirdLife International 2014d) levels.
This monjita builds a very concealed nest (Fontana
1997) and the adult pair shows strong association
to the nest when breeding. Males usually perch
very visibly and frequently close (,10 m) to the
incubating female (ABA, pers. obs.). This behavior
probably serves as an effective cue for searching
cowbirds. Black-and-white Monjitas in the Chafa-
lote area often tolerated the cowbirds’ presence
nearby (ABA, pers. obs.). The monjita’s incuba-
tion and nestling periods are approximately 15–
16 and 13–14 days, respectively (ABA, unpubl.
data). The Black-and-white Monjita is similar in
size (ca. 20 cm) to the Shiny Cowbird.
From September to November 1997 I found and
monitored a total of 32 nests of this species at two
sites in the surroundings of Sierra de Chafalote (ca.
34u 259 44″ S; 54u 159 01″ W and 34u 209 45″ S;
54u 039 12″ W), southern Rocha department, Uru-
guay. The frequency of parasitism was 75% (24/32
nests) and parasitism intensity was 2.39 ¡ 1.08
eggs per parasitized nest (mean ¡ SD; range 1–
5; n 5 23; Fig. 1). In a subsample of 12 nests,
punctured host eggs were found in eight nests
and host eggs disappeared from eight nests during
incubation; only four of these 12 nests included
both punctured and removed eggs (in the later
set, removals followed puncturing events). Among
747
parasitized nests, four produced single cowbird
fledglings while one produced a monjita fledgling
(in the latter, the cowbird egg did not hatch). Addi-
tionally, one other nest produced one host and two
parasite fledglings. Known fates of the other para-
sitized nests were: nine predated, one lost to fire
and five abandoned (for two other parasitized nests
fates were unknown). Cowbird eggs (n 5 20)
found in Black-and-white Monjita´s nests were
heavier than host’s eggs (n 5 20; mean ¡ SD:
4.46 ¡ 0.56 g vs. 3.89 ¡ 0.61 g; t-test: t 5
−3.04, P 5 0.004; sample distributions were tested
a priori for normality and equal variance). Because
eggs from a given clutch are not statistically inde-
pendent, I averaged host egg weights in each nest
and used these averages to run the tests.
Brood parasitism was not recorded in seven
other Black-and-white Monjita´s nests reported
from San Francisco de Paula, Rio Grande do Sul,
Brazil (Fontana 1997), Laguna de Castillos,
Rocha, Uruguay (Gambarotta et al. 1999) and
Puerto Boca, Entre Ríos, Argentina (Fraga 2003).
On the basis of the data presented above brood
parasitism was reported for the first time for this
species by BirdLife International (2000), but no
details were provided. This new information sug-
gests that the monjita is heavily parasitized in this
region and confirms its status as a cowbird host;
there is no evidence of recognition and ejection
of parasite eggs.
Pampas Meadowlark (Sturnella defilippii)
The Pampas Meadowlark is a grassland spe‐
cialist with only a few extant populations in eastern
Argentina and central and northern Uruguay. It for-
merly inhabited southern Brazil but there are no
recent records (Bencke et al. 2003). It is considered
threatened at both national (López-Lanús et. al.
2008, Azpiroz et al. 2012) and global (BirdLife
International 2014c) levels. The nest of the Pampas
Meadowlark is placed on the ground, usually well
hidden under clumps of grass or other herbaceous
vegetation and far from suitable vantage points
(Gochfeld 1979, Cozzani et al. 2004). The incuba-
tion period is approximately 13 days (ABA,
unpubl. data) and the nestling period is 9–11 days
(Cozzani et al. 2004, Fraga 2011). Males and
females remain together during the breeding sea-
son and males usually perch very visibly but at a
distance (5–25 m) from the incubating female
(Gochfeld 1979). Female are particularly secretive
during breeding (Gochfeld 1979; ABA, pers. obs.)
748 THE WILSON JOURNAL OF ORNITHOLOGY N Vol. 127, No. 4, December 2015
FIG. 1. A multiply parasitized nest of Black-and-white Monjita found at Sierra de Chafalote in November 1997. Host
eggs are white (A. Azpiroz).
and this behavior probably reduces female cow-
birds’ chances of locating nests. Pampas Meadow-
lark breeding areas are characterized by a general
lack of high perches and this limits opportunities
for cowbird nest searching and localization (Goch-
feld 1979). The Pampas Meadowlark and Shiny
Cowbird are similar in size, but the former is hea-
vier (males average ca. 32% and females ca. 50%
heavier than nominate bonariensis cowbird coun-
terparts; Fraga 2011).
I found a nest with one parasite egg and two host
eggs on 31 October 2008, 5 km southwest of Cer-
ros de Vera (31u 369 08″ S; 56u 489 48″ W), south-
eastern Salto department, Uruguay. In this nest,
which produced two meadowlark fledglings, the
cowbird egg did not hatch. In the same area, I
located a second nest on 24 November 2011,
which had one cowbird egg and three meadowlark
eggs (Fig. 3). This nest was predated. I found a
third nest with one cowbird egg and three host
eggs on 15 November 2013, 15 km northeast of
Cerro Colorado (33u 439 33″ S; 56u 479 55″ W),
eastern Flores department. Uruguay. I could not
determine the fate of the nest. These three parasi-
tized nests were recorded in a sample of 169 Pam-
pas Meadowlark nests (parasitism frequency 5
1.8%) observed between 2003 and 2014 in Salto
(163), Tacuarembó (2) and Flores (4) departments,
Uruguay. I have observed adult Pampas
Meadowlarks feeding fledglings in many occa-
sions (.20) but these instances never involved
cowbird chicks (see also Gochfeld 1979). In the
Bahía Blanca area, southern Buenos Aires pro-
vince, Argentina, Gochfeld (1979) and Cozzani et
al. (2004) found 11 (in 1970 and 1971) and 16
(in 2003) nests respectively, none of which were
parasitized. Likewise, no parasitized nests were
recorded in another sample of 11 nests found in
the same region in 2013 (N. Cozzani,
unpubl. data).
There are very few previous reports of the Pam-
pas Meadowlark as a host of Shiny Cowbird brood
parasitism and none of them are documented. All
refer to observations of parasitized nests but do
not provide sufficient detail. Withington (1888)
found two parasitized nests in Lomas de Zamora,
Buenos Aires province, Argentina. Given the lack
of additional observations, Friedmann et al.
(1977: 61) commented “these records may be
looked upon with some suspicion as to their identi-
fication, but without other evidence they cannot be
dismissed”. A second report that seems to have
been overlooked by the latter (Friedmann 1929,
Friedmann et al. 1977) is that of Smyth (1928)
who mentioned the Pampas Meadowlark as one
of the victims of Shiny Cowbirds in Argentina
(no further details were included). G. H. Orians
in a personal communication to Gochfeld (1979)
 SHORT COMMUNICATIONS
FIG. 2. Yellow Cardinal nest with two host chicks (left), a parasite chick and a parasite egg (right) found west of Pirarajá
in November 2011 (A. Riccetto).
reported cowbird brood parasitism on Pampas
Meadowlark but provided no additional data. It is
worthwhile noting that Friedmann (1931) and
Friedmann et al. (1977) erroneously used syno-
nyms of Sturnella defilippii (i.e., Trupialis mili-
taris and Pezites militaris, respectively) to report
parasitism records for other closely related taxa
(Sturnella militaris and Sturnella loyca, respec-
tively) but these do not correspond to Pampas
Meadowlark (see Friedmann [1934] for a clarifica-
tion of the former). Gochfeld (1979) suggested that
Pampas Meadowlark may be a rejector species car-
rying cowbird eggs far from the nest which might
make parasitism difficult to detect. Repeated visits
to the two parasitized nests found in Salto depart-
ment, Uruguay, provided no evidence of rejection
behavior. Close similarity in size and color
between Pampas Meadowlark and Shiny Cowbird
eggs (Fig. 3) may preclude safe egg ejection by
the host (Gochfeld 1979). In sum, data detailed
here represent the first documented reports of
brood parasitism on this species. Parasitism rates
seem to be low at present and effective host status
is yet to be confirmed.
Yellow Cardinal (Gubernatrix cristata)
The Yellow Cardinal inhabits open woodlands
in Argentina, southern Brazil and Uruguay and is
classified as threatened, both regionally (Bencke
749
et al. 2003, López-Lanús et. al. 2008, Azpiroz et
al. 2012) and globally (BirdLife International
2014b). It places its open cup-shaped nest well
concealed within thorny trees within open wood-
lands (de la Peña 2013; Domínguez et al. 2015;
A. Riccetto, pers. comm.; ABA, pers. obs.). Males
usually sing from elevated perches (e.g., top of
trees) in the surroundings of the nest. The Yellow
Cardinal’s incubation and nestling periods are
approximately 13 and 14 days, respectively (Dom-
ínguez et al. 2015). The Yellow Cardinal is similar
in size and weight to female nominate race Shiny
Cowbirds (Fraga 2011, Domínguez et al. 2015).
Four parasitized nests were recorded ca. 30 km
west of Pirarajá (33u 449 25″ S; 54u 459 38″ W),
Lavalleja department, Uruguay (A. Riccetto, pers.
comm.). One nest with two Shiny Cowbird chicks,
two host chicks, one cowbird egg and one host egg
was found on 19 November 2011, (Fig. 2). The
host’s egg was punctured. Begging behavior of
the cowbird chicks was particularly conspicuous
which contrasted with the much more silent beha-
vior of cardinal chicks (A. Riccetto, pers. comm).
Observations made two weeks later suggested
that the nest had been predated. A second nest
with one host and one cowbird egg was found on
27 November 2014. The cowbird egg was removed
from the nest by the observer and eleven days later
four new cowbird eggs were found (along with the
750 THE WILSON JOURNAL OF ORNITHOLOGY N Vol. 127, No. 4, December 2015
FIG. 3. Pampas Meadowlark nest with one parasite egg (right) found close to Cerros de Vera, November 2011 (A.
Azpiroz).
host egg). A second nest found on 16 December
2014 had one host and one parasite egg (the nest
was not revisited). The three parasitized nests
were recorded in a sample of 16 active nests found
in the same region (parasitism frequency 5 19%;
A. Riccetto, pers. comm.). In the same area another
Yellow Cardinal pair was observed together with a
fledged Shiny Cowbird on 12 December 2014 (A.
Riccetto, pers. comm.). Finally, one nest found in
November 2005 in southeastern Salto department
was not parasitized (ABA, pers. obs.).
Until recently, brood parasitism records for Yel-
low Cardinals were scarce. Friedmann (1934) iden-
tified the Yellow Cardinal as a host of the Shiny
Cowbird based on comments from de Azara.
According to de Azara (1942), local people identi-
fied “crestudos” (i.e., “Red-crested Paroaria coro-
nata and Yellow cardinals”) as hosts of this
cowbird among other passerines. The inclusion of
this species in more recent cowbird host lists (e.
g., Friedmann and Kiff 1985, Lowther 2014)
seems to have been based solely on this circum-
stantial evidence. In a recent review of the cow-
birds’ hosts in Argentina the Yellow Cardinal
was not included (Salvador 2012). Pereira Guerra
(2013) reported a nest with three Shiny Cowbird
eggs and one host egg found on 20 December
2004 southwest of Pirarajá, Lavalleja department,
Uruguay (this is same area as the parasitized nests
reported above; A. Riccetto, pers. comm.).
Approximately three weeks later two cowbird
fledglings were seen accompanying the Yellow
Cardinal pair (Pereira Guerra 2013). A recent com-
prehensive breeding biology study conducted in
northern Argentina revealed a parasitism frequency
of 33% and additional instances of multiple para-
sitism (Domínguez et al. 2015). Based on all this
information it may be concluded that, at least
locally, the Shiny Cowbird may parasitize the Yel-
low Cardinal at intermediate frequencies and that
multiple parasitism and host status (sensu Lowther
2014) are confirmed. Available records provide no
evidence of recognition and ejection of parasite
eggs (Domínguez et al. 2015).
Despite clear reproductive costs, the Shiny
Cowbird has been implicated in the endangered
status of few South American species. This may
reflect the fact that other threats such as habitat
loss are more important factors than brood parasit-
ism, or alternatively, that the general lack of
knowledge regarding basic breeding biology of
most endangered species precludes a comprehen-
sive assessment of parasitism effects (Ortega et
al. 2005). A recent detailed study of Yellow Cardi-
nal breeding biology identified brood parasitism as
a potential threat for all remaining populations
(Domínguez et al. 2015). Habitat loss is the main
threat behind the decline of Black-and-white
 SHORT COMMUNICATIONS
Monjita and Pampas Meadowlark populations.
Habitat loss also affects Yellow Cardinals but ille-
gal trapping for the cagebird trade has been identi-
fied as the most important problem (Bencke et al.
2003, Chebez 2008, Azpiroz et al. 2012). Although
brood parasitism may be an issue of lower relative
concern for these threatened passerines, it is worth
noting that small populations may be more suscep-
tible to parasitism because they lack the swamping
effect of large populations (Rothstein 2004, Peer et
al. 2005). In addition, as in the case of incidental
predation (Vickery et al. 1992), small bird popula-
tions may be more sensitive to “incidental parasit-
ism”, the fortuitous encounter of nests by
cowbirds when they are searching for other more
common species’ nests. In the face of continued
agriculture and afforestation expansion in the Pam-
pas region, more studies that generate detailed
information on brood parasitism effects on threa-
tened bird populations are needed.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I thank A. Riccetto for providing novel data on Yellow
Cardinal nesting biology, including brood parasitism infor-
mation. I am grateful to P. E. Lowther who provided several
comments and suggestions to improve the first draft of this
manuscript. Two anonymous reviewers also contributed
valuable comments that were used to improve an early ver-
sion. I also thank R. Fraga for assistance with key references.
E. Méndez, N. Martínez Curci and N. Cozzani participated
in fieldwork in Salto Department and N. Cozzani also con-
tributed Pampas Meadowlark unpublished data from Bahía
Blanca, Argentina. S. Carvalho and J. C. Rudolf provided
details on the locations of Pampas Meadowlark populations
in Tacuarembó and Flores departments that allowed subse-
quent studies by the author. Finally, the author’s fieldwork
was supported by The Rufford Foundation and PROBIDES.
LITERATURE CITED
AZPIROZ, A. B., M. ALFARO, AND S. JIMÉNEZ. 2012. Lista Roja
de las aves del Uruguay: una evaluación del estado de
conservación de la avifauna nacional con base en los
criterios de la Unión Internacional para Conservación
de la Naturaleza. Dirección Nacional de Medio
Ambiente, Montevideo, Uruguay.
BENCKE, G. A., C. S. FONTANA, R. A. DIAS, G. N. MAURÍCIO,
AND J. K. F. MÄHLER JR. 2003. Aves. Pages 189–479 in
Livro vermelho da fauna ameaçada de extinção no Rio
Grande do Sul (C. S. Fontana, G. A. Bencke, and R. E.
Reis, Editors). EDIPUCRS, Porto Alegre, Brazil.
BIRDLIFE INTERNATIONAL. 2000. Threatened birds of the
world (A. J. Stattersfield and D. R. Capper, Editors).
Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain.
BIRDLIFE INTERNATIONAL. 2014a. IUCN Red List for birds.
BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK. www.birdlife.
org (accessed 2 November 2014).
751
BIRDLIFE INTERNATIONAL. 2014b. Species factsheet: Guberna-
trix cristata. BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK.
www.birdlife.org (accessed 2 November 2014).
BIRDLIFE INTERNATIONAL. 2014c. Species factsheet: Sturnella
defilippii. BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK.
www.birdlife.org (accessed 2 November 2014).
BIRDLIFE INTERNATIONAL. 2014d. Species factsheet: Xolmis
dominicanus. BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK.
www.birdlife.org (accessed 2 November 2014).
CHEBEZ, J. C. 2008. Los que se van: fauna argentina amena-
zada. Volume 2. Aves. Albatros, Buenos Aires,
Argentina.
COZZANI, N. C., R. SÁNCHEZ, AND S. M. ZALBA. 2004. Nidifi-
cación de la Loica Pampeana (Sturnella defilippii) en la
provincia de Buenos Aires, Argentina. Hornero
19:47–52.
DE AZARA, F. 1942. Apuntamientos para la historia natural de
los páxaros del Paraguay y Rio de la Plata. Volume 1.
Biblioteca Americana, Montevideo, Uruguay.
DE LA PEÑA, M. R. 2013. Nidos y reproducción de las aves
argentinas. Ediciones Biológica, Santa Fe, Argentina.
DOMÍNGUEZ, M., J. C. REBOREDA, AND B. MAHLER. 2015.
Impact of Shiny Cowbird and botfly parasitism on the
reproductive success of the globally endangered Yel-
low Cardinal Gubernatrix cristata. Bird Conservation
International 25:294–305. doi:10.1017/S0959270914
00015X
FONTANA, C. S. 1997. Description of the nest and eggs of the
Black-and-white Monjita Heteroxolmis dominicana.
Cotinga 8:79–81.
FRAGA, R. M. 2002. Notes on new or rarely reported Shiny
Cowbird hosts from Argentina. Journal of Field
Ornithology 73:213–219.
FRAGA, R. M. 2003. Distribution, natural history and conser-
vation of the Black-and-white Monjita (Heteroxolmis
dominicanus) in Argentina, a species vulnerable to
extinction. Ornitología Neotropical 14:145–156.
FRAGA, R. M. 2011. Family Icteridae (New World black-
birds). Pages 684–807 in Handbook of the birds of the
world. Volume 16. Tanagers to New World blackbirds
(J. del Hoyo, A. Elliot, and D. A. Christie, Editors).
Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain.
FRIEDMANN, H. 1929. The cowbirds: a study in the biology of
social parasitism. Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, Illi-
nois, USA.
FRIEDMANN, H. 1931. Additions to the list of birds known to
be parasitized by the cowbirds. Auk 48:52–65.
FRIEDMANN, H. 1934. Additional notes on the birds victi-
mized by the Shiny Cowbird (Molothrus bonariensis).
Ibis 76:340–347.
FRIEDMANN, H. AND L. F. KIFF. 1985. The parasitic cowbirds
and their hosts. Proceedings of the Western Foundation
of Vertebrate Zoology 2:225–304.
FRIEDMANN, H., L. F. KIFF, AND S. I. ROTHSTEIN. 1977. A
further contribution to knowledge of the host relations
of the parasitic cowbirds. Smithsonian Contributions
to Zoology 235:1–75.
GAMBAROTTA, J. C., A. SARALEGUI, AND E. M. GONZÁLEZ.
1999. Vertebrados tetrápodos del Refugio de Fauna
Laguna de Castillos, Departamento de Rocha. Releva-
mientos de Biodiversidad 3:1–31.
752 THE WILSON JOURNAL OF ORNITHOLOGY N Vol. 127, No. 4, December 2015
GOCHFELD, M. 1979. Brood parasite and host coevolution:
interactions between Shiny Cowbirds and two species
of meadowlarks. American Naturalist 113:855–870.
JOHNSGARD, P. A. 1997. The avian brood parasites: deception
at the nest. Oxford University Press, New York, USA.
KRÜGER, O. 2007. Cuckoos, cowbirds and hosts: adaptations,
trade-offs and constraints. Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London, Series B
362:1873–1886.
LÓPEZ-LANÚS, B., P. GRILLI, E. COCONIER, A. DI GIACOMO,
AND R. BANCHS (Editors). 2008. Categorización de las
aves de la Argentina según su estado de conservación.
Aves Argentinas /AOP and Secretaría de Ambiente y
Desarrollo Sustentable, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
LOWTHER, P. E. 2014. Lists of victims and hosts of the para-
sitic cowbirds (Molothrus). Field Museum of Natural
History, Chicago, Illinois, USA. www.fieldmuseum.
org/science/blog/brood-parasitism-host-lists (accessed
7 August 2014).
ORTEGA, C. P. 1998. Cowbirds and other brood parasites.
University of Arizona Press, Tucson, USA.
ORTEGA, C. P., A. CRUZ, AND M. E. MERMOZ. 2005. Issues
and controversies of cowbird (Molothrus spp.) manage-
ment. Ornithological Monographs 57:6–15.
PEER, B. D., S. I. ROTHSTEIN, M. J. KUEHN, AND R. C.
FLEISCHER. 2005. Host defenses against cowbird (Molo-
thrus spp.) parasitism: implications for cowbird man-
agement. Ornithological Monographs 57:84–97.
PEREIRA GUERRA, D. 2013. El Cardenal Amarillo en las Sier-
ras de Lavalleja. Imprenta Acuario, Minas, Lavalleja,
Uruguay.
REBOREDA, J. C., M. E. MERMOZ, V. MASSONI, A. A. ASTIÉ,
AND F. L. RABUFFETTI. 2003. Impacto del parasitismo
de cría del Tordo Renegrido (Molothrus bonariensis)
sobre el éxito reproductivo de sus hospedadores. Hor-
nero 18:77–88.
ROTHSTEIN, S. I. 2004. Brown-headed Cowbird: villain or
scapegoat? Birding 36:374–384.
SALVADOR, S. A. 2012. Victims of Shiny Cowbirds (Molo-
thrus bonariensis bonariensis) in Argentine Republic.
Historia Natural (Tercera Serie) 2:117–138.
SMYTH, C. H. 1928. Descripción de una colección de huevos
de aves argentinas. Hornero 4:125–152.
VICKERY, P. D., M. L. HUNTER JR., AND J. V. WELLS. 1992.
Evidence of incidental nest predation and its effects
on nests of threatened grassland birds. Oikos
63:281–288.
WITHINGTON, F. 1888. On the birds of Lomas de Zamora,
Buenos Aires, Argentine Republic. Ibis 30:461–473.