LE ROEX et al.
GROUP I KIMBERLITE PETROGENESIS
Fig. 2. Selected major element variation diagrams for Kimberley kimberlites. Filled symbols are aphanitic kimberlite; open symbols are
macrocrystic kimberlite.
of the range. Al2O3 and TiO2 both show a broad
negative correlation with MgO and Mg number, and
have similar abundance ranges ( 0
5 to 5
5 wt %;
Fig. 2b and c). CaO describes an excellent negative
correlation with SiO2 (Fig. 2d), ranging from
20 wt % in the most evolved aphanitic samples to
5 wt % in the most macrocryst-rich. There is no
correlation between CaO and CO2, arguing against
control by calcite. FeO (total Fe as FeO) shows
little correlation with MgO in the macrocrystic sam-
ples ( 7---9 wt %), but the two oxides correlate nega-
tively in the aphanitic varieties, with FeO reaching
13
6 wt % in the most evolved Wesselton Floors
sill samples (Fig. 2e). Alkali elements show a general
2269
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scatter, although the most evolved aphanitic kimberlite
samples from Wesselton Floors sill complex have K2O
abundances that are significantly higher and clearly
displaced from the rest of the samples (Fig. 2f ). P2O5
abundances show a very broad negative correlation
with decreasing MgO, ranging from 0
4 to44 wt %.
CO2 contents are variable, ranging from 1 to
12 wt %; H2O ‡ (loss on ignition at 950 C minus
CO2) correlates positively with MgO within the apha-
nitic varieties, and negatively within the macrocrystic
varieties, with a maximum reached in kimberlites with
27 wt % MgO (Table 1). There is no systematic
difference in major element composition of the kimber-
lites from the different pipes, although the aphanitic
 JOURNAL OF PETROLOGY
Fig. 3. Variation of selected incompatible trace elements in Kimberley kimberlites. Symbols as in Fig. 2.
samples from the Wesselton Floors sill complex and
Bultfontein tend to have the most evolved (lowest Mg
number) compositions.
Trace elements
Trace element concentrations are highly variable.
Ni and Co show a strong correlation with Mg number,
with Ni decreasing from 1500 to 350 ppm
and Co from 100 to 56 ppm, with decreasing
MgO (Table 1). Cr abundances are high ( 600---
2800 ppm), and show considerable scatter. The high
field strength elements (HFSE) and light rare earth
elements (LREE) are likewise high in abundance (Zr
160---910 ppm; Nb 75---400 ppm; Th 8---40 ppm; La
64---335 ppm; Ta 3
3---35
6 ppm) and show good
mutual correlations (Fig. 3). In contrast, the large ion
VOLUME 44 NUMBER 12 DECEMBER 2003
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lithophile elements, although high and variable in
abundance (Rb 6
6---158 ppm; Ba 300---3250 ppm; Sr
360---2260 ppm; Pb 0
7---24
8 ppm), do not show strong
correlations either amongst themselves or with the
HFSE. It is clear from Fig. 3 that the macrocrystic
kimberlite samples (and aphanitic samples rich in
small olivine phenocrysts) have lowest immobile
incompatible element abundances and highest compa-
tible (Ni, Co) element abundances (Table 1). Whereas
some element pairs (e.g. Th---La, La---Ce, Zr---Hf ) show
tightly constrained positive correlations [e.g. Zr/Nb ˆ
2
03  0
3; Th/U ˆ 4
0  0
6; Ba/Nb ˆ 7
9  3
7; La/
Th ˆ 8
9  0
8 (Fig. 3); Zr/Hf ˆ 49  4; Table 1],
other pairs (e.g. Zr---La, Nb---La, Hf---La) differentiate
the Wesselton Floors sills, aphanitic dykes from
DuToitspan and Bultfontein, and two samples (K3/
158, K3/608) from the De Beers pipe, from the majority
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Fig. 4. Chondrite-normalized REE abundances in selected Kimberley kimberlites. (a) shows a selection of samples with diverging LREE
patterns, (b) shows a selection of samples with sub-parallel REE patterns. Shaded field shows the effect of 40% accumulation of garnet
lherzolite, or fractionation of 40% olivine. Normalizing values from Sun & McDonough (1989). Filled symbols aphanitic; open symbols
macrocrystic.

of macrocrystic samples which have higher Nb, Zr
and Hf for a given La content (Fig. 3). The aphanitic
samples from Bultfontein pipe (K8/10, K8/17) and
four of the aphanitic Wesselton Floors sill complex
samples (K1119/2, K5/1, K5/86, K5/94) are consider-
ably more enriched in incompatible elements than the
rest of the sample suite, and show more scatter in their
incompatible element abundance ratios (Fig. 3).
Although compatible elements such as Ni are low in
this group of rocks (5800 ppm), Cr abundances are
both higher (2800 ppm) and lower (51200 ppm) than
in the majority of macrocrystic samples ( 1500 ppm
Cr; Table 1).
Figure 4 shows chondrite-normalized rare earth ele-
ment (REE) patterns for selected samples from the
various pipes. All samples are strongly LREE enriched
(La/Smn ˆ 5
2  0
4; La/Ybn ˆ 126  27), with La
abundances in the range 300---1400 times chondrite,
and Lu at 3---10 times chondrite. The aphanitic kim-
berlite samples (e.g. K8/17) are clearly more strongly
enriched in total REE abundances, but retain REE
patterns that are sub-parallel to the macrocrystic kim-
berlites (Fig. 4b). There is no systematic difference in
the REE patterns between the kimberlite pipes, but it
is clear that, amongst the analysed samples, two sets of
REE pattern can be recognized, each including apha-
nitic and macrocrystic varieties: one group comprises
samples with largely sub-parallel patterns (Fig. 4b),
differing only in absolute concentration by the same
relative amount across all REE (La/Ybn ˆ 102  26),

2271
 JOURNAL OF PETROLOGY
Fig. 5. Primitive mantle normalized trace element patterns in Kimberley kimberlites interpreted to be free of crustal contamination (see text
for discussion). Symbols as in Fig. 2: open symbols are macrocrystic samples; filled symbols are aphanitic samples. Normalizing values from
Sun & McDonough (1989).
and the other comprises samples having very similar
heavy REE (HREE) abundances, but with a range in
LREE abundances (Fig. 4a; La/Ybn ˆ 163  47).
When normalized to primitive mantle abundances,
the kimberlite samples all show strong, and largely sub-
parallel, trace element enrichment patterns, with max-
imum values being reached in the region of Ta to La
(Fig. 5). Superimposed on the smooth, sub-parallel
enrichment patterns are a number of negative
anomalies, the most important being Ti, Sr, K and
Rb. A subset of samples also have strong positive Pb
anomaliesÐthese are attributed to crustal contamina-
tion and are not shown in Fig. 5, but are discussed
further in a later section. The magnitude of these
anomalies (expressed as X/X for element X, where
X is the interpolated primitive mantle normalized
value assuming a smooth variation between the nor-
malized values of the two adjacent elements) is vari-
able, with Sr/Sr ˆ 0
62  0
22, K/K ˆ 0
25  0
16
and Ti/Ti ˆ 0
46  0
17, but is less variable for Sr
and Ti than for K and Rb. In terms of their overall
primitive mantle normalized patterns, macrocrystic
kimberlite samples and olivine phenocryst-rich
aphanitic kimberlite samples show least absolute
VOLUME 44 NUMBER 12 DECEMBER 2003
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enrichment, whereas the more evolved aphanitic vari-
eties from Wesselton Floors sills show strongest enrich-
ment, with some being displaced by a substantial
amount from the majority of samples (factor of four;
Fig. 5). Otherwise, kimberlite samples from the five
pipes show no significant, systematic, difference in
their primitive mantle normalized patterns.
PETROGENESIS
Lying at one compositional extreme of the broad spec-
trum of mafic---ultramafic mantle-derived magmas,
kimberlites are furthest removed from the familiar pet-
rogenetic processes of basalt generation. Additionally,
the hybrid nature of kimberlite magmas has compli-
cated the detailed understanding of their petrogenesis.
One of the most significant obstacles is considered
to be the difficulty in identifying what constitutes a
true `primary' kimberlite magma (Mitchell, 1986).
Furthermore, it is possible that `primary' kimberlite
magma is itself generated by complex petrogenetic
processes.
The roles of late-stage deuteric alteration, fluid
migration, and crustal and mantle assimilation are all
2272
 LE ROEX et al. GROUP I KIMBERLITE PETROGENESIS
important complications that need to be carefully eval-
uated before the mantle source region characteristics
and the primary petrogenetic processes giving rise to
the parental kimberlite magma can be investigated in
detail. Through a systematic approach to removing, as
best as possible, the effects of identifiable later stage
processes, we show below that a number of important
constraints can be placed on the petrogenesis of the
Group I kimberlites from Kimberley.
Low-temperature alteration
The high volatile contents of kimberlite magmas and
their concentration into any residual fluids upon par-
tial solidification results in several effects that may
influence the whole-rock chemistry of kimberlite. Petro-
graphic studies of the matrix of kimberlites reveal the
widespread presence of a late crystallizing assemblage
dominated by cryptocrystalline serpentine (`serpo-
phite') and calcite. Amoeboid pools of this residual
fraction exist in various degrees of segregation from
the predominantly silicate-oxide groundmass (Skinner
& Clement, 1979; Clement & Reid, 1989). In extreme
cases this segregation may lead to distinct carbonatitic
bodies, such as those observed in the Benfontein
(Dawson & Hawthorne, 1973) and Wesselton sills
(Mitchell, 1984) or the Premier Mine (Robinson,
1975). The water-rich character of these high-
temperature fluids results in pervasive deuteric altera-
tion effects, particularly the extensive serpentinization
of olivine macrocrysts and phenocrysts.
This late-stage, high-temperature, fluid movement
has the potential to perturb the initial concentrations
of fluid mobile elements such as the alkaline and alka-
line earth elements (Rb, K, Ba, Sr, etc.), U and Pb.
That such a process has occurred in the Kimberley
kimberlite intrusions is well illustrated by contrasting
the behaviour of immobile incompatible elements such
as Zr, Nb, La, Hf and Th, all of which display coherent
correlations (Fig. 3), with that of the mobile elements,
which tend to display more scatter when plotted
against an immobile element such as La (e.g. K2O,
Fig. 2f; Rb and Ba, Fig. 3e and f ). Since in the absence
of phlogopite crystallization, the bulk partition coeffi-
cients for K, Rb and La during crystallization should
all be significantly less than one in kimberlite magma,
positive correlations would be expected between
these elements (even in the presence of minor perovs-
kite, where the La partition coefficient of 41 would
result only in a change of slope). Although not
shown, Sr and Pb show similar variations to K and
Rb, whereas U, also known to be fluid mobile,
describes a very good correlation with La, indicating
that its concentration has remained robust. The abun-
dance variations of these elements, although still
2273
informative given their high absolute concentrations
relative to their degree of variability, need to be used
with caution in evaluating the petrogenetic history of
kimberlite magmas.
Crustal contamination
A characteristic feature of most kimberlite magmas is
the abundance of xenolithic fragments, and particu-
larly crustal fragments, dislodged from the wall rock
en route to the surface. The Kimberley kimberlites are
no exception, and crustal fragments are ubiquitously
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present and evident both in hand specimen and in thin
section. Although every care was taken to avoid such
fragments when crushing the samples, it was impossible
to be sure that none were inadvertently crushed. More-
over, given the low melting temperature of much of the
local crustal material (shales, siltstone), it is more than
likely that some xenolithic fragments were fully or
partially assimilated by the kimberlite magma prior
to solidification.
The influence of crustal assimilation on the geochem-
istry of the Kimberley kimberlites is well illustrated
by a plot of SiO2 vs MgO (Fig. 2a). All known upper-
crustal rocks in the Kimberley stratigraphic section
have higher SiO2 and much lower MgO than kimber-
lite, and it is clear that a subset of samples are displaced
from the main trends towards low MgO and elevated
SiO2. Another characteristic feature of crustally con-
taminated mafic magmas is a positive Pb anomaly (Pb/
Pb  1) on a primitive mantle normalized diagram
(e.g. le Roex et al., 2001). Figure 6a shows the primitive
mantle normalized trace element patterns of a subset
(for clarity) of the same suite of samples with elevated
SiO2 shown in Fig. 2a, and highlighted in the insert to
Fig. 6b, and it is clear that all have substantial positive
Pb anomalies. On a plot of Ce/Pb vs SiO2 there is a
broad negative correlation, with this same group of
sample plotting at the high-SiO2, low-Ce/Pb end of
the correlation. As crustal rocks generally have higher
Pb contents than mafic magmas, positive Pb anomalies
can be generated through crustal contamination, but,
equally, the known mobility of Pb in the weathering
environment can also lead to such anomalies. As kim-
berlite magmas have Pb concentrations of a similar
order to those in crustal rocks (10---20 ppm, Rudnick
& Fountain, 1995), the cause of this positive anomaly is
ambiguous. The presence of a significant positive Pb
anomaly (Pb/Pb 41
25) in all rocks displaced from
the general trend in Fig. 6b (insert) to elevated SiO2
(but low MgO), argues for a relationship to crustal
contamination. However, some samples have minor
positive Pb anomalies without obvious disturbance of
their SiO2 content, suggesting also a role for late-stage
fluid mobility. The variable abundances of K, Rb and Ba
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Fig. 6. (a) Primitive mantle normalized trace element patterns for selected crustally contaminated and uncontaminated kimberlite samples.
Positive Pb anomaly and raised HREE abundances in crustally contaminated samples should be notedÐthe latter inferred from the raised
SiO2 content [shown as filled symbols in insert to (b)]. Only one pattern of an uncontaminated sample is shown for clarityÐfurther examples
of the patterns of uncontaminated kimberlite are shown in Fig. 5. (b) Gd/Lu vs SiO2, illustrating depressed Gd/Lu ratio in crustally
contaminated samples (shown as filled symbols in insert). Normalizing values from Sun & McDonough (1989).

are similarly evident in otherwise very similar trace
element patterns (Figs 2f and 3e, f ), and these varia-
tions are likewise interpreted to reflect a combination
of their known fluid mobile behaviour (deuteric altera-
tion) and crustal contamination.
Kimberlite magmas have particularly steep REE
patterns, with low HREE abundances, only slightly
higher than chondritic. In contrast, crustal rocks tend
to have rather flat HREE patterns with absolute abun-
dances ( 10  chondrite) greater than kimberlite
(Rudnick & Fountain, 1995), and contamination by
such material will therefore have a greater relative
impact on the HREE. This crustal influence is evident
in the disturbance (shallowing) of the HREE slopes of
the SiO2- and Pb-enriched samples highlighted in
Fig. 6, and the associated decreased Gd/Lu ratio in
these samples (Fig. 6b). In subsequent discussions and
figures, and particularly in evaluating petrogenetic
models, all samples showing one or more of the above-
mentioned features have been excluded as having had
their compositions compromised by such open-system
processes. A total of 19 out of the original 54 samples
were excluded on this basis.
Aphanitic kimberlites
Although the constancy of inter-element ratios breaks
down in the most evolved aphanitic kimberlites, the
otherwise similar trace element ratios shown by the
Kimberley kimberlites (e.g. U/Th, Zr/Nb, La/Sm,

2274
 LE ROEX et al. GROUP I KIMBERLITE PETROGENESIS
Fig. 7. (a) Ni vs Mg number and (b) FeO vs MgO in Kimberley
kimberlites. Olivine fractionation curves were calculated assuming
equilibrium crystallization, KDFe ---Mg for olivine ˆ 0
36 (Herzberg &
O'Hara, 2002) and DNi ˆ 124/MgO --- 0
9 (Hart & Davis, 1978).
Grey circle shows composition of inferred primary magma composi-
tion (see text for further discussion). Symbols as in Fig. 2.
Zr/Hf ) suggest derivation from a common, broadly
homogeneous, mantle source region. The role for
crystal---liquid fractionation in the evolution of the
Kimberley kimberlite magmas is illustrated by a plot
of Ni vs Mg number (Fig. 7a), as is the relationship of
the aphanitic kimberlites to the macrocrystic variety.
The observed continuum of compositions across the
range of aphanitic kimberlite samples, extending from
the least MgO-rich macrocrystic samples, is qualita-
tively consistent with dominant control by olivine in a
continually evolving magma, rather than through par-
tial melting, which would lead to broadly constant Ni
and Mg number (e.g. Hanson & Langmuir, 1978).
It is clear from a plot of FeO vs MgO (Fig. 7b) that,
whereas the macrocrystic kimberlite samples have rela-
tively constant FeO content, there is a distinct change
in slope shown by the less MgO-rich aphanitic
Bultfontein and Wesselton Floors sill samples. The
rapid increase in FeO with decreasing MgO is clearly
not consistent with olivine-only control (Fig. 7b), but is
broadly consistent with olivine plus calcite (abundant
2275
Fe-free groundmass phase) control. Furthermore,
whereas some HFSE (Ti, Nb, Ta) describe coherent
changes with Mg number and MgO across the range of
kimberlite compositions, supportive of simple olivine
control, this does not hold for Zr, La or Th, for which
the correlation breaks down in the most evolved apha-
nitic Wesselton Floors sills kimberlite samples. This
decoupling requires processes more complex than sim-
ple olivine control in the origin of at least some of the
highly evolved aphanitic Kimberley kimberlites. Given
that this breakdown in correlation occurs only in the
most evolved samples from sills, or cross-cutting late-
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stage dykes, we suggest that it might result from com-
plex crystallization processes within a stagnant magma
body, where the final residual melt, in equilibrium
with late-stage minor accessory phases such as apatite,
monazite, zircon and phlogopite (e.g. Mitchell, 1995),
in addition to abundant olivine and calcite, is expelled
from the host crystalline matrix.
Primitive mantle normalized plots show that the
highly aphanitic kimberlites have overall trace element
patterns uniformly displaced to higher concentrations,
relative to those shown by the macrocrystic kimber-
lites, by a factor of up to four across the range from La
to Yb (Fig. 5). Such sub-parallel enrichment is more
readily achieved by fractionation processes en route to
solidification than by partial melting. Given that for a
garnet lherzolite residue, the bulk D values for these
elements are of a similar order of magnitude to the
likely degree of melting (F 52%, e.g. Dalton &
Presnall, 1998), the absolute concentrations are not
particularly sensitive to degree of melting. For exam-
ple, a change in degree of melting by a factor of four
(e.g. from 2% to 0
5%), will cause only a two-fold
increase in highly incompatible element abundances
(e.g. La), but more importantly, in the presence of
residual garnet, less incompatible elements such as Yb
will remain largely constant or even decrease in abun-
dance (this is illustrated in detail in a later section;
see Fig. 9). To generate a uniform three- to four-fold
enrichment across the full spectrum of incompatible
elements (including HREE) through partial melting
processes in the garnet stability field is thus unlikely,
and is more readily achieved through crystal fractiona-
tion processes in the absence of garnet. However, to
achieve even a 2
5-fold enrichment in incompatible
elements, starting from a Mg number of 0
86 and
assuming completely incompatible element behaviour
(bulk D 50
001), requires at least 60% fractional
crystallization. To avoid Ni being completely depleted
if olivine is the dominant component of the fractionat-
ing assemblage (Fig. 7a), phases other than olivine
(with lower DNi ) to decrease the bulk D (e.g. calcite)
must also be involved in the process. The geochemical
evidence is broadly consistent with the aphanitic
 JOURNAL OF PETROLOGY VOLUME 44 NUMBER 12 DECEMBER 2003

Kimberley kimberlites being the result of extensive

crystal---liquid fractionation, via complex congelation
crystallization in stagnant magma bodies, of a parental
kimberlite magma more MgO-rich than the least
evolved aphanitic sample analysed.

Mantle entrainment and macrocrystic

kimberlite
Olivine macrocrysts, ubiquitous to most kimberlite
magmas, are commonly believed to represent disaggre-
gated mantle-derived xenoliths in view of their anhe-
dral habit similar to that observed in peridotite

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nodules, and the common deformation features (e.g.
Clement, 1982; Shee, 1985) that are not expected to be
sustained in a liquid. This qualitative view is supported
by the occasional presence of peridotitic garnet, phlo-
gopite and Cr-diopside xenocrysts. The rarity of ortho-
pyroxene has been argued to be a consequence of
reaction with, and complete resorption by, the highly
silica-undersaturated host kimberlite magma (Shee,
1985). The origin of olivine macrocrysts is central to
determining the composition of the primary Kimberley
kimberlite magma(s) and is investigated further by
considering the geochemical impact of mantle entrain-
ment and partial assimilation.
Figure 8 shows the variation of Ni and Sc with
respect to SiO2 in the Kimberley kimberlites, with
macrocrystic and aphanitic kimberlites being distin-
guished. Also shown are representative compositions Fig. 8. Ni and Sc vs SiO2 in Kimberley kimberlites. Aphanitic
kimberlites with 525 wt % SiO2 are not shown. Representative
for olivine, orthopyroxene, garnet and Cr-diopside compositions of olivine, orthopyroxene, garnet and clinopyroxene
from mantle xenoliths from the Kimberley region are from Bultfontein garnet lherzolite (Gregoire et al., 2003). The
(Gregoire et al., 2003). It is clear that the macrocrystic position and composition of the marked garnet lherzolite was deter-
kimberlite samples define a trend that is at an angle to mined by use of the lever rule. Symbols as in Fig. 2.
that defined by the aphanitic kimberlite samples and
does not extend directly towards olivine (as would be
Kimberley kimberlites, and at the high-SiO2 and
expected if the olivine macrocrysts represented accu-
-MgO end of the aphanitic kimberlites, corresponding
mulated olivine) but requires a component poorer in
to the break in slope between the macrocrystic and
Ni. In the Sc---SiO2 diagram the need for a phase other
aphanitic kimberlite varieties on many variation
than olivine, and specifically one containing Sc, is
diagrams (e.g. SiO2---MgO, Fig. 2a; FeO---MgO,
equally evident. The trend defined by the macrocrystic
Fig. 7b). This composition has 26---27 wt % SiO2,
kimberlite samples is best accounted for by entrain-
26---27 wt % MgO, Mg number 0
86, 2
2 wt %
ment of garnet lherzolite with an average composition
Al2O3, 2
2 wt % TiO2, 1---2 wt % K2O, 12 wt %
of 57% olivine, 25% orthopyroxene, 12% clinopyrox-
CaO, 7 wt % CO2 and 8 wt % FeO as read from
ene and 6% garnet. By application of the lever rule, up
variation diagrams (samples most similar to this
to 35% entrainment of garnet lherzolite is required to
compositional point include K119/2, K6/55 and K8/
account for the spectrum of macrocrystic kimberlite
115). It is noteworthy that the SiO2, MgO and
compositions, which is in good agreement with the
Al2O3 composition of this inferred primary kimberlite
observed abundances of olivine macrocrysts.
magma corresponds closely to that predicted for
0
6---0
7% melting by interpolation of the experi-
Primary magma composition mental data of Dalton & Presnall (1998). The CaO
Accepting the above arguments implies that the pri- content of the inferred primary magma ( 12 wt %)
mary kimberlite magma composition, prior to lherzo- is, however, significantly lower than that of the
lite entrainment and partial assimilation, would lie at experimental kimberlite melt ( 18 wt %, Dalton &
the low-SiO2 and -MgO end of the macrocrystic Presnall, 1998).

2276