Construction Site Supervision

2/7/2023
Construction Law Chair
Construction Site Supervision (COTM 3221)

Exit -Exam Notes
Chapter 1
Introduction to Construction Site Supervision
Semere M.& Solomon G.
Construction Site Supervision

1. Introduction
1.1. What Is Construction Site Supervision?
1.2. Who Is Construction Supervisor?
1.3. The Construction Environment
1.4. Importance of Construction Site Supervision
1.5. Parties In a Construction Contract
1.6. Construction Project Contract Documents &
Preparation At Head Office of Supervision Hosting
Company (Construction Standards and Codes, Standard
Specifications)
1.7. Construction Site Supervisor's Duties,
Responsibilities Liability and Limitation;
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1.1. What is Construction Site Supervision?

 Inspection/supervision is a critical examination of
some body or something aimed at forming a judgment
or evaluation. Dictionary definition of
Microsoft®Encarta®2009.
 Construction supervision: the process of ensuring
Achievements of targets/Objectives(cost, time, quality
and safety) which has been set at the planning
stage.
 Inspection is one of the means of ensuring compliance
of design and specifications.
 The primary objective of inspection is to ensure
safety of lives and durability of structure.
1.1. What is Construction Site Supervision?

“Supervise”-to direct and inspect work
 The “construction supervisor” is the person who:
 plans,
 directs, and
 coordinates onsite activities that result in

turning drawings &specifications into reality
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1.1. What is construction site supervision?

The supervisor’s job is highly complex and
requires extensive knowledge and skills:
 Technical
 Legal
 Interpersonal etc
1.1 What is construction site supervision?
The supervisor must be able to

 Read, interpret, & execute construction contracts
 Understand the law,
 Plan, schedule, & coordinate the work of the project.
 Understand construction costs & the interaction of
cost, schedule, production, & quality,
 Maintain a safe work environment
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1.1.1 What is Supervised in Construction projects?

 Preparation, input, Mechanism, process & out put of
construction activities.
 Inspection Work For Material & Workmanship
Planning Stage
 Site Investigation
 Building Permits
 Drawings
 Architectural
 Structural
 Sanitary
 Electrical
 Specifications
 Bills Of Quantities
 Temporary Works, Site Layout, Site Establishment,

Storage of Materials
 Material Quality
 Cement
 Sand
 Stone
 Aggregate
 Water
 Reinforcement
 Others
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Earth Works, Excavation & Fill
 Layout
 Safety Measures
 Excavation Techniques
Foundation Work
 Spread Footing
 Piles
 Floating Foundation
 Special Foundation Types
Form Works
Concrete and Reinforcement Works
 Material Types
 Mixing Proportion
 Mixing Quality
 Water/Cement Ratio
 Placing
 Vibration
 Curing
Reinforcement, Types, Quality Control
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 Masonry works
 Roofing and damp proofing works
 Structural steel works
 Metal works
 Structural Timber works
 Finishing works
 Asphalt finish (for road, Air field and compounds)
 Plastering, painting, floor finish, wall finish etc
 Electrical
 Sanitary
 In general, what is specified in the specification & drawings are
supervised for their conformity when changed to construction
reality.
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1.2 Who is construction supervisor?

 From boss point of view:
 Supervisor is somebody whose job is to oversee and guide the work or
activities of a group of other people. (Dictionary meaning: Microsoft®
Encarta® 2009)
 Particularly, in construction, the “construction supervisor” is the
person who plans, directs, and coordinates on site activities that
result in turning drawings and specifications into reality.
 Inspector has the responsibility of ensuring that the structure being
built confirms to the acceptable standards and good workmanship
and quality materials.
 The inspector has professional as well as ethical responsibility to
ensure that the structure is built correctly.
 Most of the buildings and other infrastructure fails due to lack of
proper and professional supervision causing loss of lives & property.
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1.2 Who is construction supervisor?

 The term Supervisor in construction commonly refers to the
Engineer on side of Employer representing consultant or any
firm that has contract with the employer to supervise the
work of builder (contractor).
 However, in general terms, the term supervisor can be used
for any construction professional that looks after his/her
subordinates’ work.
 Even though the supervision activities are carried out by all
professionals, the term supervisor, in this course, refers to
the Engineer having contractual agreement with the
employer for supervising the works (construction activities)
of the builder.
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1.2 Who is Construction Supervisor?

 In addition to this, the term inspector and supervisor are
used synonymously throughout the course.
 The relationship b/n the Supervisor & the contractor
should be partnership rather than advisory & regulatory.
 It is common that inspectors takes side & may think that
anything he/she can do to slow down, hinder or control
the work is to the advantage of the employer.
 The inspector is responsible to control quality of work but if
he/she hinder the progress, the employer will incur additional costs.
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Is complex
Has many risks
Requires varying skills
And is demanding
 Because of the varying nature of the work flexibility is a very
crucial
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The project environment participants:
 Client
 The Contractor
 The Engineer/Architect
 Possibly with differing project delivery methods
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 The environment in which the inspector will exercise his
tasks demands his technical as well as interpersonal skills.
 The Construction Environment is influenced by:
 Contractor attitude,
 Contractor abilities,
 Trade atmosphere,
 Filed team ability,
 Completeness of plans &
 Field conditions
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 Contractor attitude: particularly antagonistic (opposed)
contractor may cause problems in the exercise of the
inspection process
 Contractor abilities: lack of competence of the contractor

may be a cause for a more intensive inspection work
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 Trade atmosphere: the general trade atmosphere will
have an impact either positively or negatively in the
exercise of the inspection process.
 Filed team ability: the skills of the staff assigned by the

contractor to carry out the work can affect the inspection
process
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 Completeness of plans: incomplete plans will be a
cause for delays & misunderstandings between the
inspection team & the contractor.
 Field conditions: the conditions on field in which the

work is being carried out will affect the general work
atmosphere
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1.4. The importance of Construction Site Supervision

 Construction Project Supervision (CPS) is the process of
ensuring that the project is built in accordance with the technical
requirements of the contract documents such as:
• approved plans,
• specifications,
• building codes,
• building code standards &
• applicable local codes & accepted practices.
 The inspector is responsible for ensuring that the contractor
complies with the technical requirements of the work
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1.4. The importance of CSS

 CPS is a process of ensuring compliance with:
 Technical requirements,
 Government regulations and
 Accepted levels of workmanship
 Structures may be designed correctly, but if the actual construction
is carried out with faulty supervision, the intention of the design
works may not be accomplished, resulting in unsafe, and/or
unacceptable structures.
 If the work is executed with faulty supervision, it may result in:
 Change in the intention of the designer
 Unsafe and/or unacceptable structure
 Additional costs to the employer
 Unnecessary delay
 Poor quality of work,…etc
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1.5. Parties in the Construction Contract

 The main parties in the construction contract include:
 The Owner
 The Contractor
 The Engineer/ Architect
 Their relationship is defined by the contract between them.
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The Contract
 A contract between parties is basically an...
Agreement enforceable at law…

 Which contains certain elements...
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ELEMENTS OF CONTRACTS
 Mutual Agreement and Genuine Intention
 Offer & Acceptance
 Capacity to Contract
 Consideration in a Contract
 Lawful Object of a Contract
 Contract Time
 The absence of any one of these elements is sufficient
to void a contract…
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Construction Contracts
 Construction Contracts therefore have certain elements. Such as:
An agreement ..’meeting of minds’
Terms & Conditions
Allocation of Risks between
 Employer (Client) & Contractor
Duties, Responsibilities & Obligations
Role of the ‘Engineer/Architect’
Default & remedies
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Construction Contracts
 The construction contract documents define the
agreement b/n the owner & the contractor.
 It is a two-party agreement that does not include the
designer (For DBB project delivery).
 It is important that the construction contract, whatever

form it may take,
 States clearly the roles & responsibilities of the parties
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Quality Related Functions Of Construction Contracts

 The contract documents can be considered a procedures
manual to help ensure quality.
 It set forth procedures & quality requirements for management &
administration of the contract, such as schedules, shop
drawings, & inspections.
 Construction contract can also be used as a planning tool for quality.
 Parties can look to the various components (specification
requirements, submittals, inspections) to help ensure that
proper attention is given to quality.
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Content of Construction Contracts

 The elements of contract agreement are organized into:
 General Agreement
 General Conditions
 Special Conditions
 Supplementary Conditions (if available/necessary in case of
additional works)
 Technical Section
 Specifications
 Drawings
 BOQ
 The several documents forming the Contract are mutually explanatory
of one another, but in case of ambiguities or discrepancies, the
Engineer may explain & adjust.
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1.6 Contract Documents For Construction Project

Common priorities of contract document
(1) The Contract Agreement (if completed);
(2) The Letter of Acceptance;
(3) Appendix to the contract
(4) Special (particular) conditions of contract (different bonds, retention, Schedules & its
revision, price adjustment etc)
(5) General/standard Conditions of contract
(6) The technical specifications (master format outline)
(7) The drawings/plans
(8) The priced BOQ
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The Construction Contract Documents

 Standard forms of construction contracts have 3 main parts:
 The agreement
 Is quite brief & appears to consist mostly of statements of fact
 The general conditions
Deals primarily with matters that pertain generally to be
construction work and the persons involved.
 The Particular/Special Conditions
 Deals with particular applicable conditions
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Standard forms of contract/ Standard Construction Documents
Families of standard forms of contract include but not

limited to:
 FIDIC (International Federation of Consulting Engineers)
 NEC (Institution of Civil Engineers)
 JCT (Joint Contracts Tribunal)
 ICE (Conditions of Contract Standing Joint Committee)
 ACA (Association of Consultant Architects)
 IChemE (Institute of Chemical Engineers)
 Ethiopian standard forms
 PPA
 EBCS
 BatcoDa
 MoWUD and others
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Standard Construction Documents
Technical standard documents

 Specifications
 ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials)
 ACI (American Concrete Institute )
 SABS (South African Bureau of Standards)
 IS (Indian Standards)
 BS (British Standards)
 ES (ETHIOPIAN STNADARDS)
 BOQ
 Standard Principles of measurement
 Etc
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FIDIC Conditions of Contract

 Red Book: Is intended for Civil Eng. construction works.
 Yellow Book: more suitable for design and build procurement of
plant of Electromechanical works, emphasis on testing,
commissioning procedures, guarantees etc. E.g. petrochemical
plants, power stations, etc.
 Silver Book: for Design –Build Projects (Turnkey Projects)

no Engineer)
 Green book: For works of smaller nature. < US$500,000.
 White Book: for Consultancy Services (Design & Supervision)
 Gold Book: for design, build and operate projects
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1.8. The Construction Contract & Supervisory Role

The Contract documents stipulate the role of
 The Engineer (Supervisor)
 The client
 The contractor
Therefore, the task of the supervisor is defined & limited
in these documents
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1.8: The Role of the Supervisor FIDIC Clause 37.1

(As per FIDIC 4th edition)
 The Engineer & any person authorized by him, shall at

all reasonable times have access to the Site & to all
workshops & places where materials or Plant are being
manufactured, fabricated or prepared for the Works.
 The Contractor shall arrange every facility for &

assistance in obtaining the right to such access.
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1.8: The Role of the Supervisor Clause 37.3

 Dates for Inspection & Testing
 The Contractor shall agree with the Engineer on the time & place
for the inspection or testing of any materials or Plant as provided
in the Contract.
 The Engineer shall give the Contractor not less than 24
hours notice of his intention to carry out the inspection or
to attend the tests.
 If the Engineer, or his duly authorized representative, does
not attend on the date agreed, the Contractor may, unless
otherwise instructed by the Engineer, proceed with the tests,
which shall be deemed to have been made in the presence
of the Engineer.
 The Contractor shall forthwith forward to the Engineer duly
certified copies of the test readings. If the Engineer has not
attended the tests, he shall accept the said readings as accurate.
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1.8: The Role of The Supervisor

Rejection
If, at the time & place agreed in accordance with Sub-Clause 37.3,
the materials or Plant are not ready for inspection or testing or if, as
a result of the inspection testing referred to in this Clause, the
Engineer determines that the materials or Plant are defective or
otherwise not in accordance with the Contract, he may reject the
materials or Plant & shall notify the Contractor thereof immediately.
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The Role of the Supervisor

Examination of Work before Covering up (FIDIC 38.1)
 No part of the Works shall be covered up or put out of
view without the approval of the Engineer & the
Contractor shall afford full opportunity for the Engineer to
examine and measure any such part of the Works which is
about to be covered up or put out of view and to examine
foundations before any part of the Works is placed
thereon.
 The Contractor shall give notice to the Engineer whenever any
such part of the Works or foundations is or are ready or about
to be ready for examination & the Engineer shall, without
unreasonable delay, unless he considers it unnecessary and advises
the Contractor accordingly, attend for the purpose of examining
& measuring such part of the Works or of examining such
foundations.
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 Instructions for Variations
 51.2 The Contractor shall not make any such variation
without an instruction of the Engineer.
 Provided that no instruction shall be required for increase

or decrease in the quantity of any work where such increase
or decrease is not the result of an instruction given under this Clause,
but is the result of the quantities exceeding or being less than those
stated in the Bill of Quantities.
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 Measurement Quantities
 55.1 The quantities set out in the Bill of Quantities are
the estimated quantities for the Works, & they are not
to be taken as the actual and correct quantities of the
Works to be executed by the Contractor in fulfillment
of his obligations under the Contract.
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 Work to be Measured
 56.1 The Engineer, shall except as otherwise stated, ascertain and
determine by measurement the value of the Works in accordance
with the Contract and the Contractor shall be paid that value in
accordance with Clause 60.
 The Engineer shall, when he requires any part of the
Works to be measured, give reasonable notice to the
Contractor’s authorized agent, who shall:
a) forthwith attend or send a qualified representative to assist the
Engineer in making such measurement, &
b) supply all particulars required by the Engineer.
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 Work to be Measured
 Should the Contractor not attend, or neglect or omit to send such
representative, then the measurement made by the Engineer or
approved by him shall be taken to be the correct measurement of
such part of the Works.
 For the purpose of measuring such Permanent Works as are to be
measured by records & drawings, the Engineer shall prepare records and
drawings as the work proceeds & the Contractor, as & when called
upon to do so in writing, shall, within 14 days, attend to examine &
agree such records & drawings with the Engineer & shall sign the same
when so agreed.
 If the Contractor does not attend to examine and agree such records
and drawings, they shall be taken to be correct.
 If, after examination of such records & drawings, the Contractor
does not agree the same or does not sign the same as agreed, they
shall nevertheless be taken to be correct, unless the Contractor,
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1.8. CSS’s Duties & Responsibilities Can Be:

 Check Proposed workmanship and Work method
 The SS checks the work methods to be applied and the capability of the skilled labor to do
the work as per specification.
 Detection of Construction Irregularities
 The SS notify the builder if construction irregularities are detected at site.
So that corrective measures can be taken to rectify the construction

irregularities before carrying out the next stage of construction works.

 Minimize Abortive Construction Works
 The SS work closely with the builder and his sub-contractors in carrying out inspections at
different stages of construction.
 Adhere to Site Inspection Schedule
 The SS shall adhere to the site inspection schedule prepared by the builder.
 To avoid disruption to the overall progress of the construction works at site.
 Ensuring False work is Safe for Use and Dismantling
 The SS should allow the builder to cast concrete or laying of reinforcement bars only after
the structural Engineer as inspected and certified that the false work is safe for use.
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 Safeguard Construction Works to Meet Design Specification
 The SS should visit site frequently to ensure that site construction
works are carried out in accordance with the design specification of
the building structures, especially during construction of critical structural
elements
 Compliance with the Building Regulations
 The building works are designed in accordance with the provision
of the Building Control act and implemented.
 Checklist for Construction of Complex Structures
 The consulting firm (supervisor) should prepare checklists for all
works if possible.
 If not, checklists should be prepared for areas of concern
 Maintain a safe work environment
 Look after the safety of workers and work
 Conduct Essential Tests on Construction Materials
 Imported and local materials are commonly inspected and tested
for their fulfillment of the specification requirements.
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 Coordinate & provide general direction of work and progress.
 Review contractor’s CPM schedules regularly.
 Assist in resolution of construction problems.
 Evaluate contractor claims for the design firm.
 Maintain log of change orders.
 Maintain log of contractor submittals.
 Develop & administer a quality control (QC) program.
a) Proofs of compliance
b) Qualifications of testing services
c) Define required tests
d) Maintain QC reporting system
e) Maintain QC records of all tests and test results
f) Establish frequency of testing
 Physically inspect all construction every day.
 Observe all contractor tests.
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 Maintain daily diary and construction records.
 Maintain record drawing data.
 Respond to Requests for Information (RFI).
 Review contractor progress payment requests.
 Review contractor’s change order requests for design firm.
 Assure that construction area is safe.
 Participate in field management meetings.
 Provide negotiation assistance on contractor claims.
 Review and recommend contractor value engineering proposals.
 Supervise inspection forces and field office staff.
 Report field conditions that prevent original construction.
 On unit-price projects, obtain accurate field measurements.
 On all jobs, verify contractor’s monthly work quantities.
 Assist scheduling and ordering required field services.
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Checklist Preparation
 From your previous lectures and CSS class discussion prepare
compact checklist for:
Excavation
Re bar
Formwork
Concreting
Plastering
Painting
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The Skills of the Supervisor

 In addition to his/her contractual role, the supervisor
must also display a “personal” Skills
 In order to earn the respect of the contractor it is
important that the inspector display excellent
competence in supervision practice.
 In the course of supervision, fairness is of very
important.
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The Skills of the Supervisor

 As a representative of the client, the inspector
needs to exercise professional integrity and a high
ethical standard.
 This will enable to maintain the mutual respect
that is vitally necessary for a smooth execution of
a work.
 Projects experience delays & cost more due to
difficulties b/n inspector & contractor.
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1.Technical skill (The skills of inspection)

Various skills that will assist the inspector:
a) Observation
 Developing good skills of observation is an asset in exercising the duties of an
inspector.
 The ability to have a global as well as abstract form of observation that is
having a wider view of the task to be inspected as well as focusing on details
is critically important.
 It is important to remember issues /points observed as well as keep an
accurate record.
b) Technical competence
 The inspector should be competent in:
 his areas of expertise as well as
 be familiar with current technology & methods of executing construction works.
 In all cases, the inspector must have technical competence well above the
people being supervised, so that he is in a position to guide workers & correct
any faulty work
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2.Interpersonal skills
 The way information is transmitted can affect the way
it is understood.
 The way the inspector transmits guidance to the contract
will contribute either to a good understanding and
reception of the information or create barriers
hindering timely completion.
 Therefore, the inspector develop good interpersonal
communication skills, in speaking, listening etc. in
the process of carrying out inspection duties.
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a) Communication skills
 Communicating =exchange of information.
 The sender is responsible for making the information clear,
unambiguous, & complete so that the receiver can receive it
correctly.
 The receiver is responsible for making sure that the information is received in
its entirety and understood correctly.
 Communication has many dimensions:

 Written & oral, listening and speaking.
 Internal (within the project) & external (to the customer, the media, the
public, etc.).
 Formal (reports, briefings, etc.) and informal (memos, ad hoc
conversations, etc.).
 Vertical (up and down the organization) and horizontal (with peers and
partner organization).
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b) Negotiating
 Negotiating involves conferring with others to reach an agreement.
 Agreements may be negotiated directly or with assistance;
mediation and arbitration are two types of assisted negotiation.
 Negotiations occur around many issues, at many times and at many levels
of the project.
 During the course of a typical project, project staff is likely to
negotiate for any or all of the following:
 Scope, cost, and schedule objectives.
 Changes to scope, cost, or schedule.
 Contract terms and conditions.
 Assignments.
 Resources.
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C) Problem Solving
 Problem solving involves a combination of problem
definition & decision-making. Problem definition requires
distinguishing b/n causes & symptoms.
 Problems may be internal (a key employee is reassigned to
another project) or external (a permit required to begin
work is delayed).
 Problems may be technical (differences of opinion about the best way to
design a product), managerial (a functional group is not producing
according to plan), or interpersonal (personality or style clashes).
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c) Problem Solving
 Decision-making includes analyzing the problem to
identify viable solutions, & then making a choice
from among them.
 Decisions can be made or obtained from the
customer, from the team, or from a functional
manager. Once made, decisions must be
implemented.
 Decisions also have a time element to them the
“right” decision may not be the “best” decision if it is
made too early or too late.
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d) Analytical skills
 In the course of carrying out his tasks the inspector is required to
make decisions that may affect the progress of the work.
 At such times analyzing the situation & weighing alternatives to

arrive at a good decision will be vitally important.
 Therefore, looking at the bigger picture while at the same time

separately understanding critical elements is a task of good
inspection.
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3.Legal
 The supervisor assigned in any construction
projects must be familiar with the condition of
contract, codes, standards and other related laws
of the country…
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The role of the supervisor

The main role of the supervisor is to:
 Inspect
 Guide
 Assist
 Facilitate
 Control quality but not to hinder work
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The Inspector …
 The inspector must have a keen eye, be observant & able
to see critically.
 To do this a thorough knowledge of the procedures for
executing the particular work he is inspecting is necessary.
 Detailed knowledge of the plans & specifications for the particular
work is also a vitally important part of the work.
 He must also be familiar with any revisions or amendments done
to the original documents, and the reason for such changes and
their incorporation into the works.
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Skills of the Supervisor

In summary the inspector must display
 Knowledge
 Integrity
 Ability
 Good judgment
 Good attitude
 patience
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The Construction Site Relations

 Relationships/interactions in construction sites can become strained.
 This may be caused by pressure on meeting deadlines, or even
differing personalities.
 The supervisor should therefore be tactful in handling difficulties in
such a stressful environment.
 One must never allow emotions to govern
 It is always an advantage to perceive peoples moods and daily
stresses which will eventually assist in achieving a positive objective.
 The requirements of the contract must at all times be separated from
personal preferences or bias.
 Communication lines b/n the contractor and the supervisor must also
be maintained at all times, with due care.
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The Construction Site Relations

The inspector should therefore
 Be tactful, avoid confrontation
 Avoid shouting
 Ensure that works attain high standard right from the
beginning
 Explain any ambiguous tasks and Correct it if needed
 Do not delay rectification of work, correct before it
progresses significantly
 When required give prompt replies & be decisive
 Instruct the Forman/supervisor in responsible position only
 Communicate to appropriate personnel only
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Specific duties of the Inspector

 Ensuring compliance by the contractor with the plans, specifications, &
contractual provisions of the project
 Monitoring project progress according to the schedule
 Coordinating & monitoring of reviews, approvals and tests.
 Interpreting contract drawings and specifications
 Rejecting work which is not within the contractual quality, or that
which fails to meet contract requirements
 Stopping work progress when safety concern override basic contractual
commitments
 Approval of shop drawings , materials and samples
 Avoiding labor situations
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Exit -Exam Notes
Chapter 2
2.3. Quality Controlling of Construction Inputs & mechanisms

2.3.1. Quality Definition:
The American Society for Quality (ASQ) defines quality as:
 In technical usage, quality can have two meanings:
 The characteristics of a product or service that bear on its ability to
satisfy stated or implied needs.
 A product or service free of deficiencies.
 Based on customers’ perceptions of a product’s design &
how well the design matches the original specifications…
 The ability of a product & service to satisfy stated or implied needs.
 Achieved by conforming to established requirements within an
Organization.
 Quality in general terms is “fitness for purpose‟, but in building construction it is
more appropriately interpreted as “compliance with contractual requirements‟
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2.3.1. Quality Definition: cont…

 Definition of quality in terms of different perspectives:
 For Engineers: quality is conformation to specification
 From Process Point of View: Quality means conformance with
the process design, standards and specifications.
 From Product Point of View: Quality means the degree of
excellence at an acceptable price
 There are 3 key elements of quality.
 Quality of Design: A product needs to be designed to satisfy
customer needs.
 Quality of Conformance: Closeness with which the finished
product or supplied service matches the specifications of the
original design.
 Quality of Reliability: ability of the finished product to provide
trouble free performance in the field, over an acceptable time period
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Key Dimensions of Quality

 Performance
 Features
 Reliability
 Conformance
 Durability
 Serviceability
 Aesthetics
 Perceived quality
 Value
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Quality Management (QM)

 Based on APM (2012) & ISO (2015), QM encompasses four components:
I. Quality Planning (QP): is the process of identifying quality
requirements and/or standards for the project and its
deliverables, and documenting how the project will
demonstrate compliance with relevant quality requirements
(PMI 2013, PMAJ 2005).
II. Quality Assurance (QA): involves following & meeting
standards to assure stakeholders that the ﬁnal product will meet
their needs, expectations, and requirements. “all the planned &
systematic activities implemented within the quality system that can be
demonstrated to provide confidence a product or service will fulfill
requirements for quality.”
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Quality Management (QM)

III. Quality Control (QC): is a planned and systematic
actions established by the owner or its agent to establish a
level of confidence that project design documents comply
with applicable codes, standards, requirements, speciﬁcations.
IV. Quality Continual Improvement: is an organized creation of
beneficial change to attain extraordinary levels of performance.
 Quality improvement is important to organizations that enable
to reduce deficiencies that create chronic waste affecting
quality.
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Quality Control (QC):

QC consists of:
 Inspection,
 Testing &
 Measurement
 QC activities determine whether acceptance criteria have,

or have not, been met.
 If there is any change, the acceptance criteria for the
change should be approved and communicated.
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Quality in Construction…
 Construction project quality is the fulfillment of the
owner’s needs per:
 Defined scope of works
 Within a budget and
 Specified schedule
 The three components can be called the “construction

project trilogy”
 To satisfy the owner’s/user’s requirements.
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Quality Control in Construction

 Minimum Quality Level is described in the specifications.
 To insure that
 Quality assurance is required
 This is best carried out by checking compliance with specifications…
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Standards Codes & Specifications

 In order to adequately carry out supervision tasks the
supervisor must be well versed and knowledgeable in the
area of construction specifications and standards
knowledge base.
 This is important in understanding the specific

requirements of a project as described in the const.
spec…
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The Importance of The Specification
 There are many design decisions which cannot be

expressed in drawn form.
 These must rely on being expressed in words.
 There are, also, many design decisions which would be too tedious,
or too impractical for some other reason, to be recorded in drawings.
 The specification is thus created to complement the drawings so that
together they convey all the design decisions.
 This is the main reason that a construction specification is primarily a
design document.
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The Importance Of The Specification….
Specifications are
 Written descriptions of the required quality of the
built product and its component products.
 A spec may also include the procedures for

determining that the requirements of the spec have
been met.
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Purpose of Specifications
 Specifications are written descriptions which define quality.
 Together they express the designer's intentions.
 The specification links the drawings with the GCC.
 It complements, without duplication, the information in the
drawings or the general conditions of contract.
 Drawings are graphic descriptions which primarily define
quantity, position and sometimes quality.
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Exit -Exam Notes
Chapter 3
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Means of Quality Assurance & Quality Control

 QA/QC is ensured by:
 Visual inspection,
 Tests,
 Certifications,
 Manufacturer’s installation instructions…
 Experience qualifications
 Factory inspections
 Samples and mockup
 Certified laboratory reports,
 Certificate of compliance or conformance
 Guarantees…
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Quality Inspection:
 An inspection is a specific examination, testing, and
formal evaluation exercise & overall appraisal of a
process, product, or service to ascertain if it conforms to
established requirements.
 It involves measurements, tests, observation (visual
inspection) & gauges.
 Inspection of the finished products
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2.5. Quality Control In Ethiopian Codes
EBCS 2 lays out some general guidelines on Quality

control ….
The emphasis is particularly on concrete works
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Quality Control In Ethiopian Codes

 According to EBCS 2 (Structural use of concrete Chapter 9), Concrete
quality control comprises of a combination of actions & decisions taken in
compliance with specifications and checks to ensure that these are
satisfied.
 Quality control consists of two distinct, but interconnected parts,
namely:
 Production Control &
 Compliance Control.
 Production Control: combination of actions & decisions taken during
production to check the operation & to obtain a reasonable assurance
that the specifications will be satisfied.
 Compliance Control: Comprises a combination of actions and
decisions, in accordance with compliance rules adopted in advance, to
check the compliance of the product with the specifications.
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EX. Inspection of Materials
Inspection of materials on site shall be made at delivery to check
compliance with the specs and the requirements of this Code.
Inspection Prior to Concreting
 This inspection shall be made to check:
 the rigidity of the scaffolding and shuttering
 the leak-tightness of joints between formwork elements
 conformity of the dimensions of the formwork with the
drawings
 the cleanliness of the formwork
 the surface condition of the reinforcement
 the position and size of reinforcement
 the rigidity of the reinforcement securing systems, and the
quality of the joints between bars.
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 Control of Mixing, Transportation & Placement of Concrete
 Accuracy of the mix proportions, checked regularly.
 The consistency of the fresh concrete, checked periodically with

the slump test.
 During concreting, checks shall be made on the deformations
of the formwork & its supporting structure & on any leakage of
water.
 Control for Curing the Concrete
 It must be checked that curing complies with approved
method of curing depending on the environment & on
any special requirements.
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 Construction Procedures
 A site book shall be kept & for large structures, it shall
contain the following information:
 dates on which concreting & stripping of formwork has taken
place
 acceptance of materials and components
 results of tests & measurements
 concrete mix used (type & origin of cement & aggregates)
 inspection and measurement reports of the positioning of
reinforcement
 important instructions received
 description of any incidents.
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 Compliance Controls for Concrete
 Compliance with specified properties of concrete shall be judged
by tests made on proper specimens at an age of 28 days
 Concrete for the specimen shall normally be taken when
the concrete is actually being poured.
 Compliance of prescribed & standard mixes (EBCS 2
Section 8.2) shall be based on checks made on the mix
properties.
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Sampling & Testing Methods
 it is sufficient to make only one test specimen from a
single representative sample for each mix of concrete.
 If more than one specimen is taken, the mix shall be represented by
the mean value of the test results obtained from the various
specimens.
 Each mix from which a sample is taken shall be chosen at random
from among the possible mixes.
 The samples shall, where practicable, be taken at the point of
discharge from the mixer or, in the case of ready-mix concrete, at
the point of discharge from the delivery vehicle.
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 Size of Lot and Frequency of Sampling
 The lot = quantity of concrete produced in the same essential
conditions & subjected to individual assessment.
 The lots shall be defined before the commencement of construction,
by taking into account the number of tests required for a decision (see
EBCS 2 Section 9.3.1.3) as well as the frequency of sampling and
testing to be adopted.
 The minimum rate of sampling shall be decided by the engineer taking
into account the nature of the work.
 Higher rates would be appropriate at the start of the work, to
establish quickly the level of quality, or during periods of production
when quality is in doubt, or for highly-stressed structural elements.
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Quality Control In International Codes
 In general, the ff may be adopted as the minimum

requirement on size of lot & frequency of sampling,
except for the special cases given hereunder:
1.No individual sampling can. represent, on the average, more
than 100 mixes or 100 m3, whichever is the smaller volume
of concrete.
2. For each grade of concrete, at least one sample shall be
taken every week
3. For each grade of concrete, at least two lots shall be made.
 Exception: For small buildings (e.g., having a total volume of
less than 100 m' of concrete) using concrete grade C30 or
lower, Condition (3) need not be complied with.
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Inspection Procedures
 Establishment of detailed inspection procedures.
Site Procedures manual….Forms

 Outline of acceptance/rejection procedures.

 Preparation of a chart showing all tests required (Inspection & test plan)
 When they are needed,
 The frequency of sampling and testing,
 The material being tested, and
 Who is obligated to perform the tests
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Establishment of who will be responsible
 For calling the laboratory
 For pickup of samples
 For testing,
 Who will call for special inspectors when needed, and
 To whom such outside people will be directly responsible on the
project.
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 Identification of who must physically prepare samples for
testing, the contractor or the inspector;
 Establishment of ground rules for acceptable timing of
work operations after sampling and testing;
 Mandatory scheduling must be provided to
 Make samples and tests,
 Make corrections needed before work may be allowed

to continue.
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2.4. Quality Controlling of Work Progress (Process)
 Controls & approvals of different construction stages (work permit

(inspection check list), Work method, safety concerns etc)
2.4.1. Work Permit (Inspection Check List)
 One means of work process quality controlling techniques. It
is sometimes called work certificate.
 Is prepared by adapting previously used check lists or can be
prepared based on construction project specification.
 The checklist is prepared based on the acceptance criteria
given on the specification of each construction activities.
 N:B, Students are required to read more and access work permit or
checklists used by consultants and contractors in Ethiopia.
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Testing & Commissioning

 Testing and commissioning is to be carried out on installations to ensure that they
are safe and meet the design requirements.
 The witnessing of tests on and off site shall be defined by: Design specifications -
Mechanical and Electrical.
 Building commissioning is an integrated, systematic process to ensure,
through documented verification, that all building systems perform interactively
according to the "Design Intent".
 The commissioning process establishes & documents the "Owner's Project
Requirements (OPR)" criteria for system function, performance expectations,
maintainability; verify and document compliance with these criteria throughout
all phases of the project (design, manufacturing, installation, construction,
startup, testing, and operations).
 Commissioning procedures require a collaborative team effort and 'should' begin
during the pre-design or planning phase of the project, continue through the
design and construction phases, initial occupancy phase, training of operations
and maintenance (O&M) staff, and into occupancy (for warranty and future re-
commissioning).
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 The Purpose of Testing and Commissioning
 The objectives of testing and commissioning are to verify that equipment is
functioning properly after installation; that the performance of the installed
equipment/systems meets with the specified design intent through a series of tests
and adjustments, and to capture and record performance data of the whole.
 Testing and inspection during construction
 The purpose of these tests is to ensure that all components and systems are in a
satisfactory and safe condition before start-up. Preliminary adjustment and setting of
equipment at this stage shall also be carried out at the same time to pave the way for
the coming functional performance tests.
 Functional performance tests
 The purpose of functional performance tests is to demonstrate that
the equipment/installation meets the functional and performance requirements
as specified in the general or particular specifications.
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 T&C works: scope
The contractor shall take the following steps before carrying out T&C:
 Obtain design drawings & specifications and be thoroughly acquainted
with the design intent.
 Obtain copies of approved shop drawings & equipment schedules.
 Check the manufacturer’s operating instructions & statutory
requirements.
 Physically inspect the installation & equipment to determine variations
from designs and/or specifications.
 Check individual components, e.g. switches, conductors, disconnecting
devices circuit breaker status, etc. for proper position and settings for
completeness of installation.
 Issue the relevant Certificates of Compliance for all work done.
 The contractor shall submit his proposed T&C procedures together with
the necessary Certificate of Compliance in the form of Annex I test
reports, where applicable.
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• The difference between testing & commissioning
 Commissioning is a SYSTEMATIC process, not a functional testing EVENT.
 Commissioning is not functional testing.
 It is a systematic process.
 Commissioning encompasses everything from OPR/BOD/Design reviews to
functional testing & post-occupancy/off season testing.
 Commissioning Report
 The Commissioning Report documents the commissioning process & test results.
 The report includes confirmation from the commissioning coordinator verifying
that commissioned systems meet the conditions of the OPR, BOD, and Contract
Documents.
 The Role Of Commissioning Supervisor
 Commissioning supervisors ensure the safe installation of the well, that
contractors & vendors keep to their schedules and meet assigned quality &
production targets
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Testing
 Testing is limited to those laboratory or field tests actually
called for in the specifications. Such tests may be performed by:
 The contractor,
 The architect/engineer,
 The owner, or
 Commercial testing laboratories.
 The specifications determine which items are to be
tested, which tests and procedures apply, and the
required levels of performance.
 The specification also determines who should perform the test.
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Manufacturer’s Installation Instructions

 In many cases, the specification requires that the product
manufacturer provide instructions for the method of installation of
products that are installed by subcontractors
 Used only where rigid adherence to the manufacturer’s instructions is
critical,
 Product composition & construction not likely to be understood by
the installer,
 Installation procedures are complex or subject to significant variations
b/n different manufacturers
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Experience Qualification
 A requirement that a firm performing a certain type of work
have an established reputation for the successful completion
of similar work elsewhere for a specified amount of time.
 The use of an experience requirement is limited to those fields
requires a considerable amount of previous experience.
Examples of such fields of work include:
 Metal Curtain Walls
 Foundation Piles
 Dewatering
 Precast Architectural Concrete
 Calking & Sealing
 Spray-on Fire Protection
 Laboratory Equipment
 Mechanical & Electrical Equipment
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 Testing and commissioning is to be carried out on installations to ensure that they
are safe and meet the design requirements.
 The witnessing of tests on and off site shall be defined by: Design specifications -
Mechanical and Electrical.
 Building commissioning is an integrated, systematic process to ensure,
through documented verification, that all building systems perform interactively
according to the "Design Intent".
 The commissioning process establishes & documents the "Owner's Project
Requirements (OPR)" criteria for system function, performance expectations,
maintainability; verify and document compliance with these criteria throughout
all phases of the project (design, manufacturing, installation, construction,
startup, testing, and operations).
 Commissioning procedures require a collaborative team effort and 'should' begin
during the pre-design or planning phase of the project, continue through the
design and construction phases, initial occupancy phase, training of operations
and maintenance (O&M) staff, and into occupancy (for warranty and future re-
commissioning).
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 The Purpose of Testing and Commissioning
 The objectives of testing and commissioning are to verify that equipment is
functioning properly after installation; that the performance of the installed
equipment/systems meets with the specified design intent through a series of tests
and adjustments, and to capture and record performance data of the whole.
 Testing and inspection during construction
 The purpose of these tests is to ensure that all components and systems are in a
satisfactory and safe condition before start-up. Preliminary adjustment and setting of
equipment at this stage shall also be carried out at the same time to pave the way for
the coming functional performance tests.
 Functional performance tests
 The purpose of functional performance tests is to demonstrate that
the equipment/installation meets the functional and performance requirements
as specified in the general or particular specifications.
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 T&C works: scope
The contractor shall take the following steps before carrying out T&C:
 Obtain design drawings & specifications and be thoroughly acquainted
with the design intent.
 Obtain copies of approved shop drawings & equipment schedules.
 Check the manufacturer’s operating instructions & statutory
requirements.
 Physically inspect the installation & equipment to determine variations
from designs and/or specifications.
 Check individual components, e.g. switches, conductors, disconnecting
devices circuit breaker status, etc. for proper position and settings for
completeness of installation.
 Issue the relevant Certificates of Compliance for all work done.
 The contractor shall submit his proposed T&C procedures together with
the necessary Certificate of Compliance in the form of Annex I test
reports, where applicable.
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• The difference between testing & commissioning
 Commissioning is a SYSTEMATIC process, not a functional testing EVENT.
 Commissioning is not functional testing.
 It is a systematic process.
 Commissioning encompasses everything from OPR/BOD/Design reviews to
functional testing & post-occupancy/off season testing.
 Commissioning Report
 The Commissioning Report documents the commissioning process & test results.
 The report includes confirmation from the commissioning coordinator verifying
that commissioned systems meet the conditions of the OPR, BOD, and Contract
Documents.
 The Role Of Commissioning Supervisor
 Commissioning supervisors ensure the safe installation of the well, that
contractors & vendors keep to their schedules and meet assigned quality &
production targets
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Testing
 Testing is limited to those laboratory or field tests actually
called for in the specifications. Such tests may be performed by:
 The contractor,
 The architect/engineer,
 The owner, or
 Commercial testing laboratories.
 The specifications determine which items are to be
tested, which tests and procedures apply, and the
required levels of performance.
 The specification also determines who should perform the test.
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Manufacturer’s Installation Instructions

 In many cases, the specification requires that the product
manufacturer provide instructions for the method of installation of
products that are installed by subcontractors
 Used only where rigid adherence to the manufacturer’s instructions is
critical,
 Product composition & construction not likely to be understood by
the installer,
 Installation procedures are complex or subject to significant variations
b/n different manufacturers
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Warranties; Guarantees
 Two types of warranties are recognized under the law:
 Implied warranties
 Express warranties
 The term implied warranties means that the goods must be capable of
passing in trade under the contract description & are fit for the
purpose intended.
 Express warranties are those that are specifically set forth in the contract
itself; they are in common use for many construction contracts.
 An Express Warranty is a means of achieving good procurement
results by making the contractor responsible for its work and for
failures of its work during some part of its useful life.
 Warranties are generally for packaged items such as water heaters &
compressors.
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2.4.2. Construction Work Method

 Construction method statements is prepared after having clear understanding
of the project specifications, method of measurement, supporting documents,
site visits, estimated bill of quantities, drawings, general and particular
conditions of contract for cost estimation & other purposes.
 Required quality of works as per the specifications, estimated quantity of
works, safety standards, as well as time for completion are the basis in
determining the construction method statements of a project.
 Construction method statements shall clearly indicate the following
crucial construction issues:
 Skill and number of manpower required
 Type and specification of equipment required
 Quantity and quality of materials required
 Proposed working crews
 Estimated crew productivity
 Estimated duration for completion
 Expected defects and remedial measures
 Safety
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2.4.3. Safety Concerns when work progresses

 The safety for work is mainly attained by implementing the specs &
drawings correctly.
 Quality controlling is a good means of checking the implementation
of the specs & drawings as well as assuring the safety of the work.
 Defects in Construction
 Defects in construction may appear due to either of the ff reasons:
 Inadequate strength or stiffness
 Structural instability
 Settling of foundations
 Distressed structural members as evidenced by cracking, movement &
excessive deflection
 Weather and moisture intrusion caused by failure of roofing, exterior wall,
floors and openings
 Premature depreciation such as abnormal wear, decay, corrosion
 Poor Workmanship
 In-adequate Supervision
 Usage of poor quality material
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2.4.3. Safety Concerns when work progresses

 Defects in structure can occur during the construction period or during
times of use.
 The inspector is required to analyze the situation & arrive at a technically
sound explanation as well as possible practical recommendations.
 The inspector is expected to answer the ff key questions for analyzing the
defect:
 What is the phenomenon?
 What is the exact cause?
 How it can be rectified? by:
 Removal or replacement?
 Repair?
 Coating?
 Strengthening?
 Premature replacement?
 Acceptance of defects and monetary adjustments?
 Some equivalent to the originally specified product or procedure?
 Some creative or innovative procedure?
 The inspector should also understand the costs of remedial measures (cost
of Redesign, labor, material, equipment etc).
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Identifying the source of responsibilities

 Identifying the source of responsibilities, helps to investigate who is responsible
for the failure. The possible source of safety problems are:
 Design problem?
 Was the construction project properly designed?
 The architect and the engineers are primarily responsible for the design problems.
 Who is responsible for Temporarily structures?
 Construction problem?
 Was the project built in accordance with contract requirement?
 Was it properly constructed?
 Does the contractor provide right materials as per the specifications.
 Who is responsible?
 Maintenance or usage problem?
 Was the project and all its systems been properly cared for?
 Has the project been abused or damaged by its user?
 has the project been used improperly?
 Unforeseen circumstance [natural disaster, war,…etc.]
 Faulty supervision. Who is responsible?
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Construction Site Safety

 Construction safety may include the ff concerns:
 A Few facts
 Construction Accidents
 Safe Access On-Site
 Working at Height
 Ladder Safety
 Roof Safety
 Excavation Work
 Crane Safety
 Traffic vehicles & Plant
 Goods Hoist
 Electricity
 Working Near Sewage
 PPE
 Safety Success
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A Few Facts:
 The first week on each new site is the most dangerous time.
 Accidents are more frequent at the end of the day.
 Small building jobs are the most risky.
 Construction Accidents
 falls from height
 trapped by something collapsing or overturning
 struck by a moving vehicle
 contact with electricity or electrical discharge
 struck by a flying/falling object during machine lifting of materials
 contact with moving machinery or material being machined
 exposure to a hot or harmful substance
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Safe Access on Site

 Everyone can get to their place of work safely
 Edges from which people could fall are provided with
double guard rails or other suitable edge protection
 Holes are protected with clearly marked & fixed covers
to prevent falls
 Site is tidy (neat)
 Good lighting
 Fenced off from public
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Safe Access On Site

Working at Height
 Height HAZARD on Construction Sites:
 Holes in Floors,
 Gaps on Working Platforms,
 Shafts and Stair wells not adequately Covered,
 Barricaded Fenced Off.
 Using ladders or scaffolding without proper fixing is crazy proper
 Never use incomplete scaffolding.
 Make sure there are hand rails & boards at all edges.
 Things fall on sites, wear your helmet
 Before starting work at heights, check for clearance from any overhead
power lines.
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Lethal Ladders:
Ladders kill a lot of people.
 Make sure the ladder is:
 Right for the job. Wood scaffolding or a cherry picker be better
in good shape
 Secured near the top
 On a firm base
 Always have a firm grip on the ladder & keep a good balance
 Never allow more than one person on a ladder
 Use tool belts or hand lines to carry objects.
 Do not lean out from the ladder in any direction
 If you have a fear of heights –don’t climb a ladder
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The Roof: A Risky Place To Be

 Always inspect a roof before you walk on it
 You must have protection to stop you from falling off the edge
 You must use proper safety harnesses & running when
working on top a roof
Remember: a walk along a fragile roof could be your last
breath. Think over it !!!
 50% of fatal injuries involving roofs are falls thru’’ fragile
materials,
 30% are falls from edges and openings
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Excavation Work.
 If you want to avoid being buried alive apply these rules:
 All excavations deeper than 1.25 meters MUST be shored or
battered.
 Excavations deeper than 2 meters MUST have a guard rail or
barrier
Vehicles working too close to the side the trench or rubble piled
of the trench on the sides may cause collapse.
 Make sure the excavation is inspected daily
 Make sure you know where any underground pipes & cables are,
before you hit them.
 Remember: There is no safe ground that “will not collapse”. Trench sides
can collapse without warning
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Electricity
 Good practice with electricity on site:
 Treat electricity with respect
 Check constantly that cables are damaged or worn
 Keep trailing cables off the ground & away from water
 Never overload or use makeshift plugs and fuses
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Working Near Sewage

 Health Risks:  How to protect yourself:
 Gastroenteritis, Hepatitis , Weil’s disease  Understand the risks
(Leptospirosis) {Rats Urine},  Understand how you may be
 Asthma , Skin/Eye infections & infected
Inflammation of the lungs  Wear protective clothing PPE
 How to become infected:  Avoid sewage if possible
 Hand-to-mouth contact (eating, drinking,  Apply good personal hygiene
smoking, wiping the face with  Cleanse all wounds & cover
contaminated gloves) – most common  Change out of contaminated
 Skin contact (cuts, scratches or wounds clothing
and some organisms enter the body  Clean equipment & boots etc
through the eyes) on site
 Breathing (either as dust or mist)
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PPE on-site
 Most construction sites require at least:

 Hard Hat
 Safety Boots
 Hi-viz jacket
 Safety Glasses
N.B. Wear PPE always for your safety!!!

Basic safety philosophy for success
 A New Safety Culture:
 All accidents are preventable.
 No job is worth getting hurt for.
 Every job will be done safely.
 Safety is everyone’s responsibility.
 Continuous improvement.
 Safety as a “way of life” for 24 hours/7days/week 123
2.6. Measuring, Valuing construction works &

Preparing payment certificates
Methods of payment differs under different types of contract.
 In Re-measurement contract types, the executed works
are measured from the as built structure or drawing to
quantify the actual performed quantity.
 Then the actual quantity is multiplied by the agreed
contractual unit price to value the executed work.
 By adding up all the amount of the actual executed
works activities, a total sum of work executed amount is
determined and payment certificate is prepared.
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2.6. Measuring, Valuing construction works &

Preparing payment certificates
 In the standard conditions of contract, the duties and
responsibilities of contracting parties regarding measuring, valuing
construction works & Preparing payment certificates is explained
properly. To value the executed work & prepare payment
certificate, it may be necessary to prepare detailed takeoff &
BoQ.
 If the contract type is lump sum no detail measurement &
valuation is required. At the agreed phase, payment is effected by
checking if the phase construction is completed.
 In case of turnkey contract type, payment can be effected at
completion of the construction project & delivering of key.
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2.6. Measuring, Valuing Construction Works
 As per PPA (2006) Clause 42: Payment Certificates section says:

 The Contractor shall submit to the Engineer monthly statements
of the estimated value of the work executed less the cumulative
amount certified previously.
 The Engineer shall check the Contractor’s monthly statement and
certify the amount to be paid to the Contractor.
 The value of work executed shall be determined by the Engineer.
 The value of work executed shall comprise the value of:
 The quantities of the items in the Bill of Quantities completed in the case of
Ad measurement Contracts; or
 Completed activities in the Activity Schedule in the case of Lump Sum
Contracts.
 The value of work executed shall include the valuation of
Variations and Compensation Events.
 The Engineer may exclude any item certified in a previous certificate or
reduce the proportion of any item previously certified in any
certificate in the light of later information.
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2.6. Measuring, Valuing Construction Works
 Clause 43: Payments

 Payments shall be adjusted for deductions for advance payments &
retention
 If an amount certified is increased in a later certificate or as a result
of an award by the Adjudicator or an Arbitrator, the Contractor
shall be paid interest up on the delayed payment as set out in this
clause
 Items of the Works for which no rate or Price has been entered in
will not be paid for by the Employer & shall be deemed covered by
other rates and prices in the Contract.
127
Another Clauses Related With Payment

 Clause 44: Compensation event,
 Clause 45: Tax,
 Clause 46: Currencies
 Clause 47: Price Adjustments
 Price Adjustments formula
 Clause 48: Retention
 Clause 49: Liquidated damage
 Clause 50: Bonus
 Clause 51: Advance Payment
 Clause 52: Securities
 Clause 53: Day work
 Clause 54: Cost of repair
Concerning measurement, valuation and payment certificate, the FIDIC (Red book
4th edition) states as Works to be measured on site. Please the details.
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Payment certificate
129

Exit -Exam Notes
Chapter 4
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4. Variation Works order Procedures

 Variation in construction:
Variation in construction means modification of design, changes in quality,

quantity of work including the alteration of standard of materials or goods
to be used in the work & the removal from site any kind of material not in
accordance in the contract.
 A variation (sometimes referred to as a variation instruction, variation order
(VO) or change order), is an alteration to the scope of works in a
construction contract in the form of an addition, substitution or omission
from the original scope of works.
 What Is The Variation Procedure?
 Construction variations and change orders are the fallbacks which
companies and projects rely on to make changes or 'variations' from the
original scope of work - in the form of an addition, substitution or complete
omission.
 A variation is an alteration to the scope of works laid out in a construction
contract.
131
4. Variation Works order Procedures & Evaluation

 Why is variation order needed?
 Due to dynamic and complex structure of the construction industry
it is almost impossible to complete a project without issuing a
variation order.
 VOs may be used as powerful tools to modify the project
according to the needs of the client and to maximize the efficiency
of the project.
 Main Reasons For Variation
 Some examples of common causes of variation are as
follows: poor product design, poor process design, unfit operation,
unsuitable machine, untrained operators, inherent variability in
incoming materials from vendor, lack of adequate supervision
skills, poor lighting, poor temperature & humidity.
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Cause of Variations
 Causes of Variations were grouped under four categories:
1) Employer Related Variations,
2) Consultants Related Variations,
3) Contractor Related Variations &
4) Other Variations
133
Cause of Variations: Employer Related Variations

 Change of Plans Or Scope By Employer: Change of plan or scope of project is one of the
most significant causes of Variations & is usually the result of insufficient planning at the
project planning stage, or also because of lack of involvement of the Employer in the design
phase. This cause the Variations affects the project severely during the later phases.
 Change of Schedule By Employer: A change of schedule or master program during the
project construction phase may result in major resource reallocation. This is because
time has an equivalent money value. A change in schedule means that the Contractor
will either provide additional resources, or keep some resources idle in the construction
site. In both cases additional cost is incurred.
 Employer’s Financial Problems: The Employer of the project may run into difficult
financial situations that force him to make changes in an attempt to reduce cost of the
project. Employer’s financial problems affect project progress and quality. Proper
financial planning & review of project cash flow would be effective in avoid this
problem to from happening.
 Inadequate Project Objectives: Inadequate project objectives are one of the causes of
Variations in construction projects. Due to inadequate project objectives, the designers
would not be able to develop a comprehensive design which leads to many of
Variations during the project construction phase.
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Cause of Variations: Employer Related Variations

 Replacement of materials or procedures: Replacement of materials or procedures
may cause major Variations during the construction phase. The substitution of
procedures includes Variations in application methods. Therefore, an adjustment to
the original contract value is required if there is a change in procedures.
 Impediment in prompt decision making process: Prompt decision making is an
important factor for project success. A delay in decision making may obstruct the
progress of subsequent construction activities and that may eventually delay the
entire project progress.
 Obstinate nature of Employer: A building project is the result of the combined
efforts of the professionals. They have to work at the various interfaces of a
project. If the Employer is obstinate, he may not accommodate other creative and
beneficial ideas. Eventually, this may cause major Variations in the later stages and
affect the project negatively.
 Change in specifications by owner: Changes in specifications are frequent in
construction projects with inadequate project objectives. In a multi-player
environment like any construction project, change in specifications by the Employer
during the construction phase may require major Variations and adjustments in
project planning and procurement activities.
135
Cause of Variations: Consultants Related Variations

 Change in design by Consultants: Change in design for improvement by the
Consultant is a norm in contemporary professional practice. The changes in design are
frequent in projects where construction starts before the design is finalized. Design
changes can affect a project adversely depending on the timing of the occurrence of
the changes.
 Errors and omissions in design: Errors & omissions in design are another causes of
project to delays. Design errors & omissions may lead to loss of productivity & delay
in project schedule. Hence, errors & omissions in design can affect a project adversely
depending on the timing of the occurrence of the errors.
 Conflicts between contract documents: Conflict between contract documents can
result in misinterpretation of the actual requirement of a project. To convey complete
project scope for participants, the contract documents must be clear and straight to
the point. Insufficient details in contract documents may adversely affect the project,
leading to delay in project completion.
 Inadequate scope of work for contractor: In a construction projects, the scope of
work for all the players must be clear & without uncertainty for successful project
completion. Inadequate scope of work for the contractor can cause major Variations
that may negatively affect the project, and leads to changes in construction planning.
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 Technology Change: TC is a potential cause of Variations in a project. Project
planning should be flexible for accommodating new beneficial Variations. This is
because the new technology can be beneficial in the project life cycle, for
instance, reducing maintenance cost of the project. Or new methods of
constructions that reduce construction cost.
 Value Engineering (VE): VE should ideally be carried out during the design phase.
During the construction phase, VE can be a costly exercise, as Variation in any
design element would initiate & leads to Variations to other relevant design
components.
 Lack of Coordination: A lack of coordination between parties may cause major
variations that could eventually impact the project adversely. Unfavorable
Variations, which affect the projects negatively, can usually be managed at an
early stage by paying extra focus in coordination.
 Design Complexity: Complex designs require unique skills & construction
methods. Complexity affects the flow of construction activities, whereas simple &
linear construction works are relatively easy to handle. Hence, complexity may
cause major Variations in construction projects.
137

 Inadequate Working Drawing Details: To convey a complete concept of the
project design, the working drawings must be clear & concise. Insufficient
working drawing details can result in misinterpretation of the actual requirement
of a project. Thorough reviewing of design details would assist in minimizing
Variations.
 Inadequate Shop Drawing Details: Shop drawings are usually developed for
construction work details for site professionals. As mentioned earlier with regard
to working drawing details, likewise, inadequacy of shop drawing details can be
a potential cause of Variations in the construction projects.
 Consultant’s lack of judgment & experience: Professional experience & judgment is an
important factor for a successful completion of a building project. The lack of
professional experience increases the risk of errors in design as well as during construction.
Eventually, this may affect the project quality & delay the project completion.
 Lack of Consultant’s Knowledge of Available Materials & Equipment: Knowledge of
available materials and equipment is an important factor for developing a
comprehensive design. In the construction industry where material standardization is
not common, the consultant’s lack of knowledge of available materials & equipment
can cause numerous major Variations during various project phases.
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 Honest Wrong Beliefs Of Consultant: Honest wrong beliefs may cause construction
professionals to contribute poor value add in projects. Consultants, without having
firsthand knowledge, may make decisions based on their wrong beliefs which
would adversely affect the pace of the project.
 Consultant’s Lack Of Required Data: A lack of data can result in misinterpretation
of the actual requirements of a project. When there is insufficient data, consultants
are prone to develop designs based on their own perceptions, which may not be
what the Employer wants. Eventually, this may cause major Variations and affect
the project negatively.
 Obstinate nature of consultant: In a multi-player environment like construction, the
professionals have to work as team at the various interfaces of a project. If the consultant is
obstinate, he may not accommodate other creative & beneficial ideas. Eventually, this may
cause major Variations in the later stages and affect the project Negatively.
 Ambiguous design details: A clearer design tends to be comprehended more
readily. Ambiguity or Doubtfulness or uncertainty in design is a potential cause of
Variations in a project. This is because ambiguity in design can be misinterpreted by
project participants, leading to rework & delay in the project completion.
Eventually, this may affect the project progress negatively.
139

 Design Discrepancies (Inadequate Design): Inadequate design can be a frequent
cause of Variations in construction projects. Design discrepancies affect the
project functionality and quality. Eventually, this can affect a project adversely
depending on the timing of the occurrence of the Variations.
 Noncompliance of Design With Government Regulations: Noncompliance of
design with government regulations or policies would cost the project difficult to
execute. Noncompliance with government regulations may affect the project safety &
progress negatively, leading to serious accidents & delays in the project completion.
 Noncompliance of Design With Owner’s Requirements: A comprehensive design
is one that accommodates the owner’s requirements. A noncompliance design
with the owner’s requirements is considered an inadequate design. Eventually,
this may cause Variations for accommodating the Employer’s requirements. This
may affect the project adversely during the construction phase.
 Change in Specifications By Consultant: Changes in specifications are frequent in
construction projects with inadequate project objectives. As mentioned earlier
with respect to changes in specifications by the Employer, this is also a potential
cause of Variations in a project, leading to reworks & delays in the project
completion.
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Cause of Variations: Contractor Related Variations

 Lack Of Contractor’s Involvement In Design: Involvement of the Contractor in the design
may assist in developing better designs by accommodating his creative and practical ideas.
Lack of Contractor’s involvement in design may eventually cause Variations. Practical ideas
which are not accommodated during the design phase will eventually affect the project
negatively.
 Unavailability Of Equipment: Unavailability of equipment is a procurement problem that
can affect the project completion (O’Brien, 1998). Occasionally, the lack of equipment may
cause major design Variations or adjustments to project scheduling to accommodate the
replacement.
 Unavailability of Skills (Shortage Of Skilled Manpower): Skilled manpower is one of the
major resources required for complex technological projects. Shortage of skilled manpower
is more likely to occur in complex technological projects. This lack can be a cause for
Variations that may delay the project’s completion date.
 Contractor’s Financial Difficulties: Construction is a labor intensive industry. Whether the
Contractor has been paid or not, the wages of the worker must still be paid. Contractor’s
financial difficulties may cause major Variations during a project, affecting its quality and
progress and in some cases even the safety of the site is affected if there is an argument.
141

 Contractor’s Desired Profitability: Contractor’s desired profitability can be a potential
cause of Variations in construction projects. This is because Variations are considered a
common source of additional works for the contractor. The Contractor may eventually
strive to convince the project Employer to allow certain Variations, leading to additional
financial benefits for him.
 Differing Site Conditions: Differing site condition can be an important cause of delays in
large building projects. The contractor may face different soil conditions than those
indicated in the tender documents. Eventually this may affect his cost estimates and
schedule negatively.
 Defective Workmanship: Defective workmanship may lead to demolition and rework in
construction projects. Defective workmanship results in low quality in construction
projects. Even the Contractor bares the cost of the defective work, but this also may affect
the project negatively, leading to rework and delay in the project completion.
 Unfamiliarity With Local Conditions: Familiarity with local conditions is an important
factor for the successful completion of a construction project. If the Contractor is not
aware of local conditions, it would be extremely difficult for him to carry out the project.
Eventually, project delays may occur that end up with vital Variations in the entire design
entity.
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 Lack of A Specialized Construction Manager: The construction manager carries out the
construction phase in an organized way to eliminate the risks of delays and other
problems. Lack of a specialized construction manager may lead to defective workmanship
and delay in the construction project.
 Fast Track Construction: Fast track construction requires an organized system to
concurrently carry out interdependent project activities. When the public and private
sectors have large funds and want to complete projects in a very short time, complete
construction drawings and specifications may not be available when the contractor starts
work. Eventually, this procurement mode may cause major Variations.
 Poor Procurement Process: Procurement delays have various negative effects on other
processes in the construction cycle (Fisk, 1997). Occasionally, the procurement delay may
cause an entire change or replacement for originally specified materials or equipment for
the project. This may therefore cause a need for project activities to be reworked.
 Lack of Communication: Detrimental Variations, which affect the projects adversely, can
usually be managed at an early stage with strong and incessant communication. A lack of
coordination and communication between parties may cause major Variations that could
eventually impact the project negatively.
143

 Contractor’s Lack of Judgment & Experience: The consultant’s lack of professional experience
increases the risk of errors during construction. This lack may cause major construction
Variations in a project, when both Contractor & consultant could not identify or foresee the
problems in the planning stage due to both parties are lacking of experience. Eventually, this
may affect the project quality and delay the project completion.
 Long Lead Procurement: Procurement delays have various adverse affects on other processes
in the construction cycle. Occasionally, the procurement delay may cause an entire change or
replacement for originally specified materials or equipment for the project. Delay in long lead
procurement is a common cause of delays in building projects.
 Honest Wrong Beliefs Of Contractor: As mentioned earlier with respect to honest wrong
beliefs of the consultant, honest wrong beliefs of the contractor can also be a potential
cause of Variations in construction projects. Contractors, without having firsthand
knowledge, may make decisions based on their wrong beliefs which would adversely
affect the quality and pace of the project.
 Complex Design & Technology: Complex design & technology require detailed
interpretations by the designer to make it comprehensible for the Contractor. A complex
design may be experienced for the first time by the Contractor. Eventually, the complexity
may affect the flow of construction activities, leading to delays in the project completion.
144
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 Lack Of Strategic Planning: Proper strategic planning is an important factor for
successful completion of a building project. The lack of strategic planning is a
common cause of Variations in projects where construction starts before the
design is finalized, for instance, in concurrent design and construction contracts.
 Contractor’s Lack Of Required Data: A lack of required data may affect the
contractor’s strategic planning for successful project completion, leading to
frequent disruptions during the construction process. This is because a lack of
data can result in misinterpretation of the actual requirements of a project.
 Contractor’s Obstinate Nature: As mentioned earlier with regard to the
obstinate nature of consultant, likewise, this can be a potential cause of Variations
in construction projects. If the Contractor is obstinate, he may not accommodate
creative and beneficial ideas suggested by others. Eventually, this may cause major
Variations in the later stages and affect the project negatively.
145
Cause of Variations:
 Others Reasons for Variations
 Weather Conditions:
 Safety Considerations:
 Change In Government Regulations:
 Change In Economic Conditions:
 Socio-cultural Factors:
 Unforeseen Problems:
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Cause of Variations: Others Reasons for Variations

Weather Conditions: Adverse weather conditions can affect outside activities
in construction projects. When weather conditions vary such as the various
monsoon seasons in Malaysia, the contractor needs to adjust the construction
schedule accordingly. Occasionally, this may affect the project progress
negatively, leading to delays in construction.
Safety Considerations: Safety is an important factor for the successful
completion of a building project. Noncompliance with safety requirements
may cause major Variations in design. Lack of safety considerations may
affect the project progress negatively, leading to serious accidents and delays
in the project completion.
Change In Government Regulations: Local authorities may have specific
codes and regulations that need to be accommodated in the design. Change
in government regulations during the project construction phase may cause
major Variations in design and construction. This can affect a project
negatively depending on the timing of the occurrence of the changes.
147
Cause of Variations: Others Reasons for Variations

 Change In Economic Conditions: Economic conditions are one of the influential
factors that may affect a construction project. The economic situation of a
country can affect the whole construction industry & its participants. Eventually,
this may affect the project negatively, depending on the timing of the
occurrence of the Variations.
 Socio-cultural Factors: Professionals with different socio-cultural backgrounds
may encounter problems due to different perceptions, & this may affect the
working environment of the construction project. Lack of coordination is common
between professionals with different socio-cultural backgrounds. Eventually, project delays
may occur that end up with vital changes in the entire project team.
 Unforeseen Problems: Unforeseen conditions are usually faced by professionals
in the construction industry. If these conditions are not solved as soon as
possible, they may cause major Variations in the construction projects.
Eventually, this may affect the project negatively, leading to reworks and delays
in the project completion.
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4. Variation Works order Procedures & Evaluation

4.1. Controlling variations
Change Orders (Variations)
 A change order is a formal document that alters some condition of
the contract documents. The change order may alter the:
 Contract price
 Schedule of payments
 Completion date or
 Plans & specifications
149
Change Orders (Variations):

 The FF are common conditions causing contract change order:
 Differing site conditions
 Errors & omissions in plans & specs
 Changes imposed by regulatory agencies
 Design changes
 Overruns / under-runs in quantities beyond limits
 Factors affecting time of completion
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Elements of A Change Order

 A change order specifies the agreed-upon change to the contract &
should include the ff information:
 Identification of change order
 Description of change
 Reason for change
 Change in contract price
 Change in unit prices (if applicable)
 Change to contract time
 Statement that secondary impacts are included
 Approvals by owner’s and contractor’s representatives
151
Types of Changes (Variations)

 Directed Changes: The owner directs the contractor to
perform work that differs from that specified in the contract or
is an addition to the work specified.
 It may also be deductive in nature; that is, it may reduce the scope of
work called for in the contract.
 In this case, there is no question that a change occurred.
 Disagreements tend to center on questions of financial compensation
and the effect of the change on the construction schedule.
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Types of Changes (Variations)

 Constructive changes: is an informal act authorizing or
directing a modification to the contract caused by an act or
failure to act. i.e.,:
 Certain acts or failure to act by the owner increases the contractor’s cost
and/or time of performance which are considered as grounds for a change
order.
 This is must be claimed in writing by the contractor within the time
specified in the contract documents to be considered.
 The owner should evaluate a change order proposal based on such
a claim.
153
Constructive Changes
 Causes for constructive change:
 Defective plans & specifications
 Engineer’s interpretation
 Higher standard of performance than specified
 Improper inspection & rejection
 Change in the method of performance
 Change in the construction sequence
 Impossibility/impracticability of performance
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4.2. Ordering Variations When Found Necessary/Mandatory

 Variations triggers a substantial change in the sequence or progress of the works.
 Upon receiving this notice, the engineer shall cancel, confirm or vary the instruction.
 Each variation may include:
 Change to the quantities of any item of work included in the contract (however,
such changes do not necessarily constitute a variation).
 Changes to the quality & other characteristics of any item of work.
 Changes to the levels, positions and/or dimensions of any part of the works
 Omission of any work unless it is to be carried out by others
 Any additional work, plant, materials or services necessary for the permanent
works, including any associated Tests on completion, boreholes and other testing
and exploratory work or
 Changes to the sequence or timing of the execution of the works.
N.B: The contractor shall not make any alteration & /or modification of the
permanent works, unless & until the Engineer instructs or approves a variation.
155
Who issues Variation?

 The A/E will issue a Change Order to formally indicate & record the
acceptance of a proposal offered by the Contractor.
 The A/E shall maintain a list of changes
 Once a change in the Contract has been agreed to, the A/E
will issue a Change Order for signature.
 By signing a Change Order, the Contractor agrees to the
cost &/or time of the Contract modification.
 Contractor Disapproval of Change Orders
 The Contractor may not agree with the content of a Change
Order. Therefore, may refuse to sign.
 As a result, the contractor can send any modified Change
Order back to the A/E for negotiation, clarifications as necessary &
reissue.
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4.3. Evaluation of Variations Works

 Each change order must be evaluated individually; however,
there are certain basic principles that apply to the handling of
all types of change order:
 No work should be included beyond the scope of the base
contract, particularly on public works contracts.
 The identity of the individuals authorized to request &
approve change orders should be established early.
 During the preconstruction conference, a meeting should be
held to establish the change order handling procedures.
 All changes in the work must be authorized in writing prior
to the execution of any change.
157
Change Orders (Variations) Evaluations
 The scope of a change order must be clear, and a request proposal

should contain enough information to enable the contractor to make a
realistic estimate.
 The contractor should submit its proposal to execute a change order as
soon as possible after receiving the request, and the owner’s approval
or rejection should follow as soon as possible.
 The proposal should be fair. It should recognize the contractor’s right to
include:
 Direct cost, overhead and profit percentages in change order
estimates.
 The contractor is also entitled to compensation time-delay claims,
costs of disposing of removed material and all other legitimate
costs incurred in the execution of the change
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Change order discussion points

For discussion include: (reading assignment)
 Percentages for overhead and profit to be applied to change orders;
what costs will or will not be included in the change order price.
 Length of time that a change order proposal price is to be considered.
 Determination of the individual representative of the owner who is
authorized to approve change orders.
 Procedures to be followed in the submittal of change order proposals.
 Change order forms to be used (i.e., AIA,).
 Time extensions required, if any—requests made by contractors due to
changes in the plans or specifications.
 (Associated General Contractors )
159
Change order discussion points

 The detail required of contractors when submitting change
order proposals
 Will a complete breakdown of all costs be required?
 Brief description
 Descriptive drawings.
 Overtime necessary due to change orders. Consideration of

decreased productivity.
 When materials or equipment is to be removed due to a
change, which party owns the removed items, and who
removes them from the site of the job?
 Responsibility for record drawings brought about due to the
change orders.
160
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2/7/2023

Construction Law Chair

Construction Site Supervision (COTM 3221)

Semere M.& Solomon G.

Construction Site Supervision

1.1. What is Construction Site Supervision?

1.1. What is Construction Site Supervision?

 coordinates onsite activities that result in

1.1. What is construction site supervision?

1.1 What is construction site supervision?

The supervisor must be able to

1.1.1 What is Supervised in Construction projects?

1.1.1 What is Supervised in Construction projects?

 Temporary Works, Site Layout, Site Establishment,

1.1.1 What is Supervised in Construction projects?

1.1.1 What is Supervised in Construction projects?

1.1.1 What is Supervised in Construction projects?

1.2 Who is construction supervisor?

1.2 Who is construction supervisor?

1.2 Who is Construction Supervisor?

1.3. The Construction Environment

1.3. The Construction Environment

1.3. The Construction Environment

1.3. The Construction Environment

 Contractor abilities: lack of competence of the contractor

1.3. The Construction Environment

 Filed team ability: the skills of the staff assigned by the

1.3. The Construction Environment

 Field conditions: the conditions on field in which the

1.4. The importance of Construction Site Supervision

1.4. The importance of CSS

1.5. Parties in the Construction Contract

Agreement enforceable at law…

 It is important that the construction contract, whatever

Quality Related Functions Of Construction Contracts

Content of Construction Contracts

1.6 Contract Documents For Construction Project

(2) The Letter of Acceptance;

(3) Appendix to the contract

(5) General/standard Conditions of contract

(6) The technical specifications (master format outline)

(7) The drawings/plans

(8) The priced BOQ

The Construction Contract Documents

Standard forms of contract/ Standard Construction Documents

Families of standard forms of contract include but not

Standard Construction Documents

Technical standard documents

FIDIC Conditions of Contract

 Silver Book: for Design –Build Projects (Turnkey Projects)

1.8. The Construction Contract & Supervisory Role

1.8: The Role of the Supervisor FIDIC Clause 37.1

 The Engineer & any person authorized by him, shall at

 The Contractor shall arrange every facility for &

1.8: The Role of the Supervisor Clause 37.3

1.8: The Role of The Supervisor

The Role of the Supervisor

The Role of the Supervisor

 Provided that no instruction shall be required for increase

The Role of the Supervisor

The Role of the Supervisor

The Role of the Supervisor

1.8. CSS’s Duties & Responsibilities Can Be:

irregularities before carrying out the next stage of construction works.