ANAPHY 121 MODULE 1 – 4 (PRELIMS)

HUMAN ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY

INTRODUCTION 19TH CENTURY

HENRY GREY
○ X- ray
1. BRIEF HISTORY OF ANAPHY ■ GRAY`S ANATOMY BOOK
2. BRANCHES OF ANATOMY
3. CENTRAL THEMES OF PHYSIOLOGY 20TH CENTURY

Ultrasound
HISTORY OF ANAPHY
MRI
GREEK PERIOD (B.C)
CT Scan
HIPPOCRATES
○ Father of Medicine
Echo Machines
■ Describe the signs, symptoms, and treatments of
diseases
■ Written 70 books on diseases 21TH CENTURY
Researches are ongoing…
HEROPHILUS ■ Cancer
○ Father of Anatomy ■ AIDS
■ Started dissections of the human body ■ Syndromes
■ Identified cerebellum and cerebrum ■ Other incurable diseases
■ Identified arteries, veins and nerves
■ Explained that fats are absorbed by lacteals
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
ROMAN PERIOD (A.D) - Branches of Science dealing with body`s parts and functions
AVICENNA
○ Prince of Physicians ANATOMY
■ Performed experiments in physiology ○ (anatémnō "cut up" from aná "up," and témnō "cut")
■ ANATOMICIS ADMINISTRATION IDUS ○ concerned with the study of the structure of organisms
and their parts
15TH CENTURY
LEONARDO DA VINCI PHYSIOLOGY
■ Started the cross-sectional anatomy ○ (phúsis) 'nature, origin', and - (-logía) 'study of')
■ 1652-1519 ○ of functions and mechanisms in a living system

16TH CENTURY
MUNDINUS DE LUZZI
○ Restorer of Anatomy
■ Restored all the important discoveries
■ Did the dissections of the human body and made
diagrams
■ ANATOMIA

ANDREAS VESALIUS
○ Father of the Modern Anatomy
■ Founded the Modern Anatomy
■ Drew diagrams of the body organs

17TH CENTURY
WILLIAM HARVEY
■ Discovered the Circulatory System
■ Done the first video recorded human dissection to
show to the public

18TH CENTURY
WILLIAM HUNTER
■ Anatomist and Obstetrician
■ Introduced the of Formalin
■ HUNTERIAN MUSEUM in London

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CENTRAL THEMES OF PHYSIOLOGY THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

CELL THEORY
○ All structure and functions results from the activities of
the cell
■ All living organisms are made of cells
■ Cells are the basic unit of life
■ Cells arise from pre-existing cells
■ Hereditary formation is passed from cell
■ All cells have basic chemical composition
■ Energy flows occurs within the cells
HOMEOSTASIS
○ The purpose of most normal physiology is to maintain
stable conditions within the body.
The organs of the integumentary system include the skin
and its accessory structures including hair, nails, and
glands, as well as blood vessels, muscles, and nerves.
SKIN
The skin has 3 major layers:
○ The outer is called the epidermis
○ The inner is called the dermis
○ The subcutaneous (subQ) layer (also called the
hypodermis) is located underneath the dermis.

EPIDERMIS

○ most superficial layer of the skin that covers almost

the entire body surface
○ protects the deeper and thicker layer of the skin
EVOLUTION ○ is only 10 mm thick but is made of 40-50 rows of cells
○ The human body is a product of evolution. ○ an avascular region of the skin epidermal cells
receives all of their nutrients via diffusion of fluids from
HIERARCHY OF STRUCTURE the dermis.
○ Each level is composed of a smaller number of
simpler subunits than the level above it.
MAJOR TYPES OF CELLS
• KERATINOCYTES produce keratin - a tough fibrous
protein that provides protection.
• MELANOCYTES produce the pigment melanin
• INTRAEPIDERMAL MACROPHAGES are involved in
the immune responses.
• TACTILE EPITHELIAL CELLS function in the
sensation of touch.

EPIDERMAL LAYERS
UNITY OF FORM AND FUNCTION ● The epidermis is composed of four layers in thin skin,
○ Form and function complement each other; and five layers in thick skin.
physiology cannot be divorced from anatomy. ● They are (from deep to superficial):
■ Stratum Basale
■ Stratum Spinosum
■ Stratum Granulosum
■ Stratum Lucidum
■ Stratum Corneum

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TYPES OF SKIN SENSORY RECEPTORS

• THIN (HAIRY) skin covers all body regions except the
palms, palmar surfaces of digits, and soles. ● The skin contains different types of sensory receptors
• THICK (HAIRLESS) skin covers the palms, palmar found in different layers:
surfaces of digits, and soles. ■ Superficially- Type I cutaneous
mechanoreceptors, free nerve endings,
Skin Pigments corpuscles of touch and hair root plexuses
■ Melanin is produced by melanocytes in the ■ Deep- Lamellated corpuscles
stratum basale

ACCESSORY STRUCTURES OF THE SKIN

DERMIS

HAIR

○ present on most surfaces except the palms, anterior

surfaces of fingers, and the soles of the feet
○ the deep layer of the skin found under the epidermis ○ composed of dead, keratinized epidermal cells
○ genetics determines thickness and distribution
○ made of dense irregular connective tissue along with
nervous tissue, blood, and blood vessels
● The parts of a hair include:
○ gives the skin its strength and elasticity.
○ The dermis is composed of connective tissue ■ The shaft (above the skin surface)
containing collagen and elastic fibers. ■ The follicle (below the level of the skin)
■ A root that penetrates into
■ the dermis includes:
REGIONS OF THE DERMIS
■ An epithelial root sheath
■ A dermal root sheath
• Papillary region lies just below the epidermis
• Reticular region consists of dense irregular
connective tissue

HYPODERMIS / SUBCUTANEOUS LAYER

○ deep to the dermis is a layer of loose connective

tissues.
○ serves as a flexible connection between the skin and
the underlying muscles and bones as well as fat
storage area.
○ contains collagen and elastin fibers loosely arranges
to allow the skin to stretch and move independently.
○ fatty adipose tissue in the hypodermis stores energy
and helps to insulate the body by trapping body heat
produced by the muscles.
SKIN GLANDS
● The skin contains 4 types of glands.
■ Sebaceous (oil) glands are connected to hair
follicles.
■ Eccrine sweat glands are the most numerous.
■ Apocrine sweat glands are located mainly in hairy
skin.
■ Ceruminous glands are modified sweat glands
located in the ear canal.

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GLANDS OF THE SKIN ● Nail Plate

■ the actual fingernail, made of keratin
● Sudoriferous glands – exocrine glands known as ■ the hard surface of the nail
sweat glands. ■ Its pale pink color comes from blood vessels
● Eccrine sweat glands – produce a secretion of water underneath the nail
and sodium chloride.
■ Eccrine sweat is delivered via a duct to the ● Cuticle
surface of the skin and is used to lower the ■ lies between the skin and the nail plate, providing
body’s temperature. a waterproof barrier
● Apocrine glands are found in the axillary and pubic ■ constantly produces new cells
regions of the body. ■ can grow onto the nail surface, split into
■ The duct of those glands extends into the hair hangnails, and can even slow down nail growth
follicles.
■ The digestion of apocrine sweat by bacteria ● Nail Tip
produces body odor. ■ the most vulnerable part of the nail and can be
easily damaged.
SEBACEOUS GLANDS
○ Sebaceous glands are exocrine glands found in the FUNCTIONS OF THE SKIN
dermis of the skin and produce an oily secretion
known as sebum. ● Protection
○ Sebum acts to waterproof and increase the elasticity ■ protects against UV radiation of the sun
of the skin and also lubricates and protects the ■ first line of defense against bacteria and viruses
cuticles of the hair. ■ against physical and chemical exposure
● Regulation
NAILS ■ regulates body temperature
● Sensation
○ Made of keratinized epidermal cells
● Synthesis
● Nail structures includes:
■ synthesizes and stores vitamin D
■ Free edge
● Excretion
■ Transparent nail body (plate) with a whitish lunula
■ removes the waste products from the body
at its base
● Absorption
■ Nail root embedded in a fold of skin

● Nail Root
■ also known as the germinal matrix, is a tissue
lying beneath the skin behind the fingernail,
extending several millimeters into the finger
■ contains nerves and blood vessels and is
supplied with nutrients by the blood vessels
■ the most sensitive part of the entire nail structure

● Nail Bed
■ the soft tissue beneath the nail
■ plays an important role in the health, color, and
texture of the nail
■ contains blood vessels, nerves and melanocytes,
or melanin-producing cells

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SKIN CONDITIONS THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

ALBINISM Body's central framework

○ also called achromia, achromasia, or achromatosis FUNCTIONS

○ a congenital disorder characterized by the complete
or partial absence of pigment in the skin, hair and ● Support
eyes due to absence or defect of tyrosinase, an ■ form the framework that supports the body and
enzyme involved in the production of melanin cradles soft organs
● Protection
BURNS ■ provide a protective case for the brain, spinal
cord, and vital organs
○ burn is tissue damage caused by excessive heat, ● Movement
electricity, radioactivity, or corrosive chemicals that ■ provide levers for muscles
denature (break down) the proteins in the skin cells. ● Mineral Storage
○ burns are graded according to their severity. ■ reservoir for minerals, especially calcium and
phosphorus
● First- degree burn ● Blood Cell Formation
■ only the epidermis (sunburn) ■ hematopoiesis occurs within the marrow
■ minimal skin damage cavities of bones
■ “superficial burns” because they affect the ● Energy Storage
outermost layer of skin. ■ fat in yellow marrow

● Second- degree burn

TYPES OF SKELETAL SYSTEM
■ destroys the epidermis and part of the dermis
(blister)
■ the damage extends beyond the top layer of skin. • Hydrostatic Skeletons
■ this type of extensive damage causes the skin to • Exoskeletons
• Endoskeletons – The Human Skeleton
blister and become extremely red and sore.
■ some blisters pop open, giving the burn a wet
appearance. THE HUMAN SKELETAL SYSTEM

● Third- degree burn ○ the entire framework of bones and their cartilages,
■ full-thickness burn (destroys the epidermis, along with ligaments and tendons
dermis, and subcutaneous layer).

SKIN CANCER

○ excessive exposure to ultraviolet light (from the sun or

tanning salons) is the most common cause of skin
cancer.
● Three major types:
■ Basal cell carcinoma
■ squamous cell carcinoma
■ malignant melanoma.

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CHANGES IN THE HUMAN SKELETON CLASSIFICATION OF BONE ON THE BASIS OF SHAPE

○ In embryos, the skeleton is primarily hyaline cartilage. LONG BONES

○ During development, much of this cartilage is
replaced by bone. ○ Generally, longer than wide.
● Cartilage remains in isolated areas: ○ Have a shaft with heads at both ends.
■ Bridge of the nose ○ Contain mostly compact bone
■ Parts of ribs
■ Joints SHORT BONES

HUMAN SKELETAL SYSTEM ○ Generally, cube-shape

○ Contain more spongy bone than compact
● It is divided into two divisions:
■ Axial FLAT BONES
■ Appendicular
○ Thin and flattened like pancakes.
○ Usually curved
○ have two thin layers of compact bone sandwiching a
layer of spongy bone

IRREGULAR BONES

○ Do not fit into other bone classification categories

○ Irregular shape

BONE STRUCTURE - EXTERNAL

○ Cartilage protection for joints

EPIPHYSIS

○ Expanded ends of long bones

○ Exterior is compact bone, and the interior
is spongy bone
○ Joint surface is covered with articular
(hyaline) cartilage
○ location of red bone marrow

DIAPHYSIS

○ Tubular shaft that forms the axis of long

bones
CLASSIFICATION OF BONE ON THE BASIS OF SHAPE ○ Composed of compact bone that
surrounds the medullary cavity
○ Yellow bone marrow (fat) is contained in
the medullary cavity

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BLOOD AND NERVE SUPPLY OF BONE BONES OF THE CRANIUM

● Periosteal Artery
■ Supply
periosteum

● Nutrient Artery
■ Enter through
nutrient foramen
■ Supplies
compact bone of
diaphysis & red
marrow

● Metaphyseal &
Epiphyseal Arteries
■ Supply red marrow & bone tissue of epiphyses

BLOOD AND NERVE SUPPLY OF BONE

○ Human adult skeleton- 206 named bones

○ Grouped into two (2) principal divisions:

● Axial Skeleton
■ Consists of the bones that lie around the
longitudinal axis of the human body
■ Skull bones, auditory ossicles (ear bones), SUTURES OF THE CRANIUM
hyoid bone, ribs, sternum (breastbone), and
bones of the vertebral column

● Appendicular Skeleton
■ Consists of the bones of the upper and lower
limbs (extremities), plus the bones forming the
girdles that connect the limbs to the axial
skeleton

THE SKULL

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FETAL SKULL VERTEBRAL REGIONS

○ The fetal skull has fibrous cartilage area between the CERVICAL VERTEBRAE
cranial bones.
■ called fontanels, which allow the fetal skull to ● Atlas – 1st; supports head,
be compressed during birth and allow the ● Axis – 2nd; dens pivots to turn head
infant’s brain to grow. ● absence of a spinous process
■ The fontanels usually closes by age 20-22 ● smallest vertebrae
months.
THORACIC VERTEBRAE

● Long and slender spinous processes

● Rib facets

LUMBAR VERTEBRAE

● large and sturdy bodies

● large, blunt, thick, short spinous processes
● largest vertebrae
ADULT VERTEBRAL COLUMN
SACRAL VERTEBRAE
○ Formed from 33 bones in the
adult ● five fused vertebrae
● posterior wall of pelvic cavity
● Divided into five major regions
■ Cervical Vertebrae COCCYX
■ Thoracic Vertebrae
■ Lumbar Vertebrae ● Tailbone
■ Sacrum ● Develop as 3-5 separate vertebrae, but fuse into 1
■ Coccyx structure between the ages of 20-30.

STERNUM
○ Breastbone is typical flat bone and the result of fusion
of three bones.
■ Manubrium – superior section
INTERVERTEBRAL DISKS ■ Body – bulk of sternum
■ Xiphoid process – inferior end of sternum
○ The single vertebrae are separated by pads of elastic ○ Attached to the 1st seven pairs of ribs.
cartilage.
■ Cushion vertebrae and absorb shocks.
RIBS
■ Have a high-water content (about 90%) and
are compressible
○ The 12 pairs of ribs form the wall of the thoracic cage.
○ All ribs attach to vertebral column posteriorly
■ True ribs - superior seven pairs of ribs attach
directly to sternum by costal cartilage (1-7)
■ False ribs – inferior five pairs of ribs (8-12)

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