DIMENSIONS AND MEASUREMENT

PHYSICAL QUANTITY

A quantity which can be measured and by which various physical happenings can be
explained and expressed in the form of laws is called a physical quantity.

Physical quantity (𝑄𝑄) = Magnitude x Unit = 𝑛𝑛 × 𝑢𝑢 where 𝑛𝑛 represents the numerical value
and 𝑢𝑢 represents the unit.

It is clear that as the unit 𝑢𝑢 changes, the magnitude (𝑛𝑛) will also change but product 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
will remain same.

i.e. 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = constant

or 𝑛𝑛1 𝑢𝑢1 = 𝑛𝑛2 𝑢𝑢2 = constant

Types of Physical Quantity

Ratio (numerical value only): When a physical quantity is a ratio of two similar quantities,
it has no unit. Relative density = Density of object/Density of water at 4°C.

Scalar (magnitude only): These quantities do not have any direction, e.g., length, time
work, energy, etc.

The magnitude of a physical quantity can be negative. In that case, negative sign indicates
that the numerical value of the quantity under consideration is negative.

Vector quantities which have both (magnitude and direction): Displacement, velocity,
acceleration, force etc.

NOTE: Vector physical quantities can be added or subtracted according to the vector laws
of addition.

Fundamental and Derived Quantities

Fundamental quantities: There are only few quantities which are independent of all other
quantities and do not require the help of an other physical quantity for their definition.
These quantities are also called fundamental.

Derived quantities: All other physical quantities can be derived by suitable multiplication
or division of different powers of fundamental quantities.
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Fundamental quantities in SI system and their units

S.No. Physical quantity Name of unit Symbol of unit

1. Mass Kilogram Kg
2. Length Meter m
3. Temperature Kelvin K

Fundamental and Derived Unites

Unit of mass, length, and time in mechanics is called a fundamental, absolute, or base unit.
Other units which can be expressed in terms of fundamental units are called derived units.
For example, light year or km is a fundamental units as it is a unit of length while s–1, m2, or
kg m–1.

System of units

A complete set of units, both fundamental and derived, for all kinds of physical quantities
is called system of units.

MKS CGS System FPS SI units

System System
Length m cm ft It is an extended form of MKS
(meter) (centimeter) (foot) system. It includes four more
Mass Kg g lb fundamental units (in
(kilogram) (gram) (pound) addition to three basic units)
which represent fundamental
Time s s s
quantities in electricity,
(second) (second) (second)
magnetism, heat, and light.

Dimensions of a Physical Quantity

When a derived quantity is expressed in terms of fundamental quantities, it is written as a

product of different powers of the fundamental quantities. The powers to which
fundamental quantities must be raised in order to express the given physical quantity are
called its dimensions.
The physical quantity force:
Force = Mass × Acceleration
= Mass × Length × (Time)–2

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Thus, the dimensions of force are 1 in mass, 1 in length and –2 in time. Here the physical
quantity that is expressed in terms of the base quantities is enclosed in square brackets to
indicate that the equation is among dimensions can be written as [force] = [MLT–2]

APPLICATION OF DIMENSTIONAL ANALYSIS

To find the unit of a physical quantity in a given system of units:

The measure of a physical quantity is nu = constant.

If a physical quantity X has dimensional formula [𝑀𝑀𝑎𝑎 𝐿𝐿𝑏𝑏 𝑇𝑇 𝑐𝑐 ] and if the derived units of that
physical quantity in two systems are [𝑀𝑀1𝑎𝑎 𝐿𝐿𝑏𝑏1 𝑇𝑇1𝑐𝑐 ] and [𝑀𝑀2𝑎𝑎 𝐿𝐿𝑏𝑏2 𝑇𝑇2𝑐𝑐 ] and 𝑛𝑛1 and 𝑛𝑛2 be the
numerical values in the two systems, respectively, then

𝑛𝑛1 [𝑢𝑢1 ] = 𝑛𝑛2 [𝑢𝑢2 ]

⇒ 𝑛𝑛1 [𝑀𝑀1𝑎𝑎 𝐿𝐿𝑏𝑏1 𝑇𝑇1𝑐𝑐 ] = 𝑛𝑛2 [𝑀𝑀2𝑎𝑎 𝐿𝐿𝑏𝑏2 𝑇𝑇2𝑐𝑐 ]

𝑀𝑀1 𝑎𝑎 𝐿𝐿1 𝑏𝑏 𝑇𝑇1 𝑐𝑐

⇒ 𝑛𝑛2 = 𝑛𝑛1 � � � � � �
𝑀𝑀2 𝐿𝐿2 𝑇𝑇2

Where M1, L1 and T1 are the fundamental units of mass, length, and time in the first
(known) system and M2, L2, and T2 are the fundamental unit of mass, length, and time in
the second (unknown) system, respectively. Thus, knowing the values of fundamental units
in two systems and the numerical value in one system, the numerical value in the other
system may be evaluated.

Illustration 1.

Sol. The Newton is the SI unit of force and has dimensional formula [𝑀𝑀1 𝐿𝐿1 𝑇𝑇 −2 ], i.e., 𝑎𝑎 =
1, 𝑏𝑏 = 𝑎𝑎, 𝑐𝑐 =– 2.

So 1 N = 1 Kg m s–2

SI system CGS system

M1 = 1 kg M2 = 1 g
L1 = 1 m L2 = 1 cm
T1 = 1 s T2 = 1 s
𝑀𝑀1 𝑎𝑎 𝐿𝐿1 𝑏𝑏 𝑇𝑇1 𝑐𝑐
By using 𝑛𝑛2 = 𝑛𝑛1 � � � � � �
𝑀𝑀2 𝐿𝐿2 𝑇𝑇2

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 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 1 𝑚𝑚 1 𝑠𝑠 −2
= 1� � � � ��
𝑔𝑔 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑠𝑠
1 1
103 𝑔𝑔 102 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑠𝑠 −2
= 1� � � � �� = 105
𝑔𝑔 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑠𝑠
∴ 1 N = 105 Dyne
As a research tool to derive new relations: If one knows the dependency of a physical
quantity on other quantities and if the dependency is of the product type, then using the
method of dimensional analysis, a relation between the quantities can be derived. Let us
understand this point through following example.

Time period of a simple pendulum: Let the time period of a simple pendulum be a
function of the mass of the bob (𝑚𝑚), effective length (𝑙𝑙), and acceleration due to gravity
(g), then assuming the function to be the product of power function of 𝑚𝑚, 𝑙𝑙, and g, i.e., 𝑇𝑇 =
𝐾𝐾𝑚𝑚 𝑥𝑥 𝑙𝑙 𝑦𝑦 𝑔𝑔 𝑧𝑧 , where k = dimensionless constant.

If the above relation is dimensionally correct, then by substituting the dimensions of

quantities.

[𝑇𝑇] = [𝑀𝑀]𝑥𝑥 [𝐿𝐿]𝑦𝑦 [𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 −2 ]z

Or [𝑀𝑀0 𝐿𝐿0 𝑇𝑇 1 ] = [𝑀𝑀 𝑥𝑥 𝐿𝐿𝑦𝑦+𝑧𝑧 𝑇𝑇 −2𝑧𝑧 ]

Equating the exponents of similar quantities, we get 𝑥𝑥 = 0, y = ½, and z = –1/2.
l
So, the required physical relation becomes 𝑇𝑇 = K � .
g

l
The value of dimensionless constant is found (2π) through experiments, so 𝑇𝑇 = 2π � .
g

Limitations of Dimensional Analysis

Although dimensional analysis is very useful, it cannot lead us too far due to the following
reasons:

1. It dimensions are given, physical quantity may not be unique as many physical
quantities have same dimensions. For example, if the dimensional formula of a
physical quantity is [𝑀𝑀𝐿𝐿2 𝑇𝑇 −2 ], it may be work or energy or torque.
2. Numerical constant having no dimensions [K] such as (1/2), 1, 2π, etc., cannot be
deduced by the methods of dimensions.

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3. The method of dimensions cannot be used to derive relations other than the product
of power functions. For example,
𝑠𝑠 = 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 + (1/2) 𝑎𝑎𝑡𝑡 2 or 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑎𝑎 sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
cannot be derived by using this theory (try if you can). However, the dimensional
correctness of these can be checked.
4. The method of dimensions cannot be applied to derive formula if in mechanics a
physical quantity depends on more than three physical quantities as then there will be
less number (=3) of equations than the unknowns (>3).
However, still we can check the correctness of the given equation dimensionally. For
1
example, 𝑇𝑇 = 2𝜋𝜋� cannot be derived by theory of dimensions but its dimensional
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

correctness can be checked.

5. Even a physical quantity depends on three physical quantities, out of which two have
same dimensions, the formula cannot be derived by the theory of dimensions, e.g.,
𝑑𝑑
formula for the frequency of tuning fork 𝑓𝑓 = � 2 � 𝑣𝑣 cannot be derived by the theory of
𝐿𝐿
dimensions but can be checked.

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

Significant figure in the measured value of a physical quantity tell the number of digits in
which we have confidence. Larger the number of significant figures obtained in a
measurement, greater is the accuracy of the measurement. The reverse is also true.

1. All non-zero digits are significant.

Example: 42.3 has three significant figures.
243.4 has four significant figures.
24.123 has five significant figures.
2. A zero becomes a significant figure if it appears between two non-zero digits.
Example: 5.03 has three significant figures.
5.604 has four significant figures.
4.004 has four significant figures.
3. Leading zeros or the zeros placed to the left of the number are never significant.
Example: 0.543 has three significant figures.
0.045 has two significant figures.
0.006 has one significant figures.
4. Trailing zeros or the zeros placed to the right of the number are significant.

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 Example: 4.330 has four significant figures.
433.00 has five significant figures.
343.000 has six significant figures.
5. In exponential notation, the numerical portion gives the number of significant figures.
Example: 1.32 x 10–2 has three significant figures.
1.32 x 104 has four significant figures.

Rounding Off

While rounding off measurements we use the following rules by convention:

If the digit to be dropped is less than 5, then the preceding digit is left unchanged.

Example: 𝑥𝑥 =7.82 is rounded off to 7.8, again 𝑥𝑥 = 3.94 is rounded off to 3.9.

If the digit to be dropped is more than 5, then the preceding digit is raised by 1.

Example: 𝑥𝑥 =6.87 is rounded off to 6.9, again 𝑥𝑥 = 12.78 is rounded off to 12.8.

If digit to be dropped is 5 or 5 followed by zeros, then the preceding digit is left unchanged,
if it is even.

Example: 𝑥𝑥 =3.250 becomes 3.2 on rounded off, again 𝑥𝑥 = 12.650 becomes 12.6 on
rounded off.

If the digit to be dropped is 5 or 5 followed by zeros, then the preceding digit is raised by 1,
if it is odd.

Example: 𝑥𝑥 =3.750 is rounded off to 3.8, again 𝑥𝑥 = 16.150 is rounded off to 16.2.

Significant Figures in Calculation

1. The result of an addition or subtraction in the number having different precisions

should be rounded off the same number of decimal places as are present in the
number having the least number of decimal places. The rule is illustrated by the
following examples:
a. 33.3 (has only one decimal place)
3.11
+ 0.313
36.723 (answer should be rounded off one decimal place)
Answer = 36.7

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 b. 3.1421
0.241
+ 0.09 (has two decimal places)
3.4731 (answer should be rounded off 2 decimal place)
Answer = 3.47
c. 62.831 (has 3 decimal places)
– 24.5492
38.2818 (answer should be rounded off 3 decimal places)
Answer = 38.282
2. The answer to a multiplication or division is rounded off to the same number of
significant figures as is possessed by the least precise term used in the calculation. The
rule is illustrated by the following example:
a. 142.06
x 0.23 (two significant figures)
32.6738 (answer should have two significant figures)
Answer = 33
b. 51.028
x 1.31 (three significant figures)
66.84668
Answer = 66.8
0.90
c. = 0.2112676
4.26
Answer = 0.21

Order of Magnitude

In scientific notation, the numbers are expressed as: Number = 𝑀𝑀 × 10𝑥𝑥 , Where 𝑀𝑀 is a
number that lies between 1 and 10 and 𝑥𝑥 is an integer. The order of magnitude of quantity
is the power of 10 required to represent the quantity.

ERRORS OF MEASUREMENT

This difference in the true value of quantity is called error of measurement.

Absolute error: Absolute error in the measurement of a physical quantity is the magnitude
of the difference between the true value and the measured value of the quantity.

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 Let a physical quantity be measured n times. Let the measured value be
𝑎𝑎1 +𝑎𝑎2 +⋯+𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛
𝑎𝑎1 , 𝑎𝑎2 , 𝑎𝑎3 , … , 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 . The arithmetic mean of these values is 𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚 =
𝑛𝑛
Usually, 𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚 is taken as the true value of the quantity, if the same is unknown otherwise.
By definition, absolute errors in the measured value of the quantity are
∆𝑎𝑎1 = 𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚 − 𝑎𝑎1
∆𝑎𝑎2 = 𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚 − 𝑎𝑎2
…
∆𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 = 𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚 − 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛
The absolute errors may be positive in certain cases and negative in certain other cases.
Mean absolute error: It is the arithmetic mean of the magnitudes of absolute errors in all
����. Thus,
the measurements of the quantity. It is represented by ∆𝑎𝑎
|∆𝑎𝑎1 |+|∆𝑎𝑎2 |+⋯+|∆𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 |
���� =
∆𝑎𝑎
𝑛𝑛
����
Hence, the final result of measurement may be written as 𝑎𝑎 = 𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚 ± ∆𝑎𝑎
��� and
This implies that any measurement of the quantity is likely to lie between 𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚 + ∆𝑎𝑎
���.
𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚 − ∆𝑎𝑎
Relative error or fractional error: The relative error or fractional error of measurement is
defined as the ratio of mean absolute error to the mean value of the quantity measured.
Thus, relative error or fractional error
Mean absolute error ����
∆𝑎𝑎
= =
Man value 𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚
Percentage error: When the relative/fractional error is expressed in percentage, we call it
percentage error.
����
∆𝑎𝑎
Thus, percentage error = × 100%
𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚
Propagation of Error
Error in sum of the quantities Suppose 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏.
Let ∆𝑎𝑎 = absolute error in measurement of 𝑎𝑎
∆𝑏𝑏 = absolute error in measurement of 𝑏𝑏
∆𝑥𝑥 = absolute error in calculation of 𝑥𝑥, i.e., sum of 𝑎𝑎 and 𝑏𝑏.
The maximum absolute error in 𝑥𝑥 is ∆𝑥𝑥 = ±(∆𝑎𝑎 + ∆𝑏𝑏).
(∆𝑎𝑎+∆𝑏𝑏)
Percentage error in the value of 𝑥𝑥 = × 100%
𝑎𝑎+𝑏𝑏

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Error in difference of the quantities Suppose 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎 − 𝑏𝑏.
Let ∆𝑎𝑎 = absolute error in measurement of 𝑎𝑎
∆𝑏𝑏 = absolute error in measurement of 𝑏𝑏
∆𝑥𝑥 = absolute error in calculation of 𝑥𝑥, i.e., difference of 𝑎𝑎 and 𝑏𝑏.
The maximum absolute error in 𝑥𝑥 is ∆𝑥𝑥 = ±(∆𝑎𝑎 + ∆𝑏𝑏).
(∆𝑎𝑎+∆𝑏𝑏)
Percentage error in the value of 𝑥𝑥 = × 100%
𝑎𝑎−𝑏𝑏
Error in product of quantities Suppose 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎 × 𝑏𝑏.
Let ∆𝑎𝑎 = absolute error in measurement of 𝑎𝑎
∆𝑏𝑏 = absolute error in measurement of 𝑏𝑏
∆𝑥𝑥 = absolute error in calculation of 𝑥𝑥, i.e., product of 𝑎𝑎 and 𝑏𝑏.
∆𝑥𝑥 ∆𝑎𝑎 ∆𝑏𝑏
The maximum fractional error in 𝑥𝑥 is = ±� + �.
𝑥𝑥 𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏
Percentage error in the value of 𝑥𝑥 =(Percentage error in value of a) + (Percentage error in
value of b).
𝑎𝑎
Error in division of quantities Suppose 𝑥𝑥 = .
𝑏𝑏
Let ∆𝑎𝑎 = absolute error in measurement of 𝑎𝑎
∆𝑏𝑏 = absolute error in measurement of 𝑏𝑏
∆𝑥𝑥 = absolute error in calculation of 𝑥𝑥, i.e., division of 𝑎𝑎 and 𝑏𝑏.
∆𝑥𝑥 ∆𝑎𝑎 ∆𝑏𝑏
The maximum fractional error in 𝑥𝑥 is = ±� + �.
𝑥𝑥 𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏
Percentage error in the value of 𝑥𝑥 =(Percentage error in value of a) + (Percentage error in
value of b).
𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛
Error in quantity raised to some power Suppose 𝑥𝑥 = .
𝑏𝑏𝑚𝑚
Let ∆𝑎𝑎 = absolute error in measurement of 𝑎𝑎
∆𝑏𝑏 = absolute error in measurement of 𝑏𝑏
∆𝑥𝑥 = absolute error in calculation of 𝑥𝑥, i.e., division of 𝑎𝑎 and 𝑏𝑏.
∆𝑥𝑥 ∆𝑎𝑎 ∆𝑏𝑏
The maximum fractional error in 𝑥𝑥 is = ± �𝑛𝑛 + 𝑚𝑚 �.
𝑥𝑥 𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏
Percentage error in the value of 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑛𝑛 (Percentage error in value of 𝑎𝑎) + 𝑚𝑚(Percentage
error in value of 𝑏𝑏)
• The quantity which have maximum power must be measured carefully because it’s
contribution to error is maximum.
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 Concept Application Exercises

1. If 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏𝑡𝑡 2 , where 𝑥𝑥 is the distance travelled by the body in kilometer while 𝑡𝑡 is the
time in seconds, then find the units of 𝑏𝑏.
2. A force F is given by 𝐹𝐹 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏𝑡𝑡 2 , where 𝑡𝑡 is time. What are the dimensions of 𝑎𝑎 and
𝑏𝑏?
𝑣𝑣
3. The position of a particle at time t is given by the relation 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡) = � 0 � (1 − 𝑐𝑐 −𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 ), 𝑣𝑣0
𝛼𝛼
where is a constant and 𝛼𝛼 > 0. Find the dimensions of 𝑣𝑣0 and 𝛼𝛼.
𝑋𝑋
4. Find the dimensions of physical quantity X in the equation Force = .
Density
𝑛𝑛2 −𝑛𝑛1
5. The number of particles is given by 𝑛𝑛 = −𝐷𝐷 crossing a unit area perpendicular to
𝑥𝑥2 −𝑥𝑥1
X-axis in unit time, where 𝑛𝑛1 and 𝑛𝑛2 are the number of particles per unit volume for the
value of 𝑥𝑥 meant to 𝑥𝑥2 and 𝑥𝑥1 . Find the dimensions of D called diffusion constant.
𝑥𝑥
6. The equation of a wave is given by 𝑌𝑌 = 𝐴𝐴 sin 𝜔𝜔 � − 𝑘𝑘�, where 𝜔𝜔 is the angular velocity
𝑣𝑣
and 𝑣𝑣 is the linear velocity. Find the dimension of 𝑘𝑘.
𝐴𝐴√𝑥𝑥
7. The potential energy of a particle varies with distance 𝑥𝑥 from a fixed origin as = ,
𝑥𝑥 2 +𝐵𝐵
where A and B are dimensional constants, then find the dimensional formula for AB.
8. You may not know integration, but using dimensional analysis you can check on some
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥
results. In the integral ∫ = 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 sin−1 �𝑎𝑎 − 1�, find the value of 𝑛𝑛.
(2𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎−𝑥𝑥 2 )1/2
9. Convert 1 MW power in a new system having basic units of mass, length, and time as 10
Kg, 1 dm, and 1 min, respectively.
10. If the present units of length, time, and mass (m, s, kg) are changed to 100 m, 100 s, and
1
kg, then how will the new unit of force change?
10
11. Suppose we employ a system in which the unit of mass equals 100 kg, the unit of length
equals 1 km and the unit of time 100 s and call the unit of energy eluoj (joule written in
reverse order), then what is the relation between eluoj and joule?
12. If 1 g cm s–1 = 𝑥𝑥 then what is the value of 𝑥𝑥?
1
13. With the usual notations, check if the following equation 𝑆𝑆𝑡𝑡 = 𝑢𝑢 + 𝑎𝑎(2𝑡𝑡 − 1) is
2
dimensionally correct or not.
14. If the time period (T) of vibration of a liquid drop depends on surface tension (S), radius
(r) of the drop, and density (𝜌𝜌) of the liquid, then find the expression of T.

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15. If P represents radiation pressure, C represents the speed of light, and Q represents
radiations energy striking a unit area per second, the non-zero integers x, y, and z such
that 𝑃𝑃 𝑥𝑥 𝑄𝑄𝑦𝑦 𝐶𝐶 𝑧𝑧 is dimensionless, find the value of x, y, and z.
16. If velocity (V), force (F), and energy (E) are taken as fundamental units, then find the
dimensional formula for mass.
17. The length, breadth, and thickness of a block are measured as 125.5 cm, 5.0 cm, and
0.32 cm, respectively. Which one of the measurement is most accurate?
18. The length of a rectangular sheet is 1.5 cm and the breadth is 1.203 cm. Find the area of
the face of a rectangular sheet to the correct number of significant figures
19. Each side of a cube is measured to be 5.402 cm. Find the total surface area and the
volume of the cube in appropriate significant figures.
20. Taking into account the significant figures, what is the value of 9.99 m + 0.0099 m?
21. Find the value of the multiplication 3.124 x 4.576 correct to three significant figures.
22. If the value of resistance is 10.845 Ω and the value of current is 3.23 A, the potential
difference is 35.02935 V. Find its value in significant number.
23. Which of the following length measurements is most precise and why?
a. 2.0 cm b. 2.00 cm c. 2.000 cm
24. In a number without decimal, what is the significance of zeros on the right of non-zero
digits?
25. A research worker takes 100 observations in an experiment. If the repeats the same
experiment by taking 500 observations, how is the probable error affected?
26. Which quantity in a given formula should be measured most accurately? Why?
27. A body travels uniformly a distance of (13.8 ± 0.2) m in a time (4.0 ± 0.3)s. Find the
velocity of the body within error limit and the percentage error.
28. The error in the measurement of the radius of a sphere is 1%. Find the error in the
measurement of volume.
29. Given R1 = 5.0 ± 0.2Ω, and R2 = 10.0 ± 0.1Ω. What is the total resistance in parallel with
possible % error.
30. The value of resistance is 10.845 Ω and the current is 3.23 A. On multiplying them, we
get the potential difference = 35.02935 V. What is the value of potential difference in
terms of significant figures?
31. The length of one rod is 2.53 cm and that of the other is 1.27 cm. The least count of the
measuring instrument is 0.1 cm. If the two rods are put together end to end, find the
combined length.

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CLASSES BY SANJEEV SIR 8826872146, 8700145045
32. The pressure on a square plate is measured by measuring the force on the plate and the
length of the sides of the plate by using the formula P = F/t2. If the maximum errors in
the measurement of force and length are 4% and 2%, respectively, then what is the
maximum error in the measurement of pressure?
33. The density of a cube is measured by measuring its mass and the length of its sides. If
the maximum errors in the measurement of mass and length are 3% and 2%,
respectively, then find the maximum error in the measurement of the density of cube.
34. The pressure on a square plate is measured by measuring the force on the plate and the
length of the sides of the plate. If the maximum error in the measurement of forced and
length are, respectively, 4% and 2%, Find the maximum error in the measurement of
pressure.
35. The resistance 𝑅𝑅 = 𝑉𝑉/𝑖𝑖, where V = 100 ± 5 V and 𝑖𝑖 = 10 ± 0.2 A. What is the total
error in R?
36. The length of a cylinder is measured with a meter rod having least count 0.1 cm. Its
diameter is measured with Vernier calipers having least count 0.01 cm. Given that
length is 5.0 cm. and radius is 2 cm. Find the percentage error in the calculated value of
the volume.
37. In an experiment, the following observations were recorded:
L = 2.820 m, M = 3.00 Kg, 𝑙𝑙 = 0.87 cm, diameter, D = 0.041 cm. Taking g = 9.81 m s–2 and
4𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
using the formula, Y = , find the maximum permissible error in Y.
𝜋𝜋𝐷𝐷2 𝑙𝑙
38. According to Joule’s law of heating, heat produced 𝐻𝐻 = 𝐼𝐼 2 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅, where 𝐼𝐼 is current, R is
resistance, and t is time. If the errors in the measurement of I, R, and t are 3%, 4% and
6%, respectively, find error in the measurement of H.
𝐴𝐴3 𝐵𝐵1/2
39. A physical quantity P is given by P = . Which quantity among A, B , C, and D
𝐶𝐶 −4 𝐷𝐷3/2
brings in the maximum percentage error in P?

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CLASSES BY SANJEEV SIR 8826872146, 8700145045
 Illustration.

2. Convert 1 joule to ergs.

3. Convert gravitational constant (G) from CGS to MKS system.
4. In CGS system the magnitude of the force is 100 dynes. In another system where the
fundamental physical quantities are kilogram, meter, and minute, find the magnitude of
force.
𝐹𝐹 𝐿𝐿
5. To determine the young’s modulus of a wire, the formula is Y = . , where L = length, A
𝐴𝐴 ∆𝑙𝑙
= area of cross- section of the wire, ∆𝐿𝐿 = change in the length of the wire when
stretched with a force F. Find the conversion factor to change it from CGS to MKS
system.
6. A calorie is unit of heat or energy and it equals about 4.2 j, where 1 j = 1 kg m2 s-2,
Suppose we employ a system of units in which the unit of mass equals 𝛼𝛼 kg , the unit of
length equals 𝛽𝛽m, the unit of time is 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾. Show that a calorie has a magnitude 4.2 𝛼𝛼-1 𝛽𝛽-1
𝛾𝛾2 in terms of the new units.
7. Convert 54 Km h–1 into m s–1.
8. To check the dimensional correctness of the relation 𝑣𝑣 = 𝑢𝑢 + 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎.

Ans. Here 𝑢𝑢 represents the initial velocity, 𝑣𝑣 the final velocity, 𝑎𝑎 the uniform acceleration
and t the time.

The dimensional formula of 𝑢𝑢 is [𝑀𝑀0 𝐿𝐿𝑇𝑇 −1 ].

The dimensional formula of 𝑣𝑣 is [𝑀𝑀0 𝐿𝐿𝑇𝑇 −1 ].
The dimensional formula of 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 is [𝑀𝑀0 𝐿𝐿𝑇𝑇 −2 ][𝑇𝑇] = [𝑀𝑀0 𝐿𝐿𝑇𝑇 −1 ].
Here the dimensions of every term in the given physical relation are the same, hence
the given physical relation is dimensionally.
9. Check the accuracy of relation V2 – u2 = 2as, where 𝑣𝑣 and 𝑢𝑢 are final and initial
velocities, 𝑎𝑎 is the acceleration, and 𝑠𝑠 is the distance.
1
10. Check whether the relation S = 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 + at2 is dimensionally correct or not, where symbols
2
have their usual meaning.
11. Find out the unit and dimensions off the constants a and b in the van der Waal’s
𝑎𝑎
equation �𝑃𝑃 + � (V – b) = RT, where 𝑝𝑝 is pressure, v is volume, R is gas constant, and
𝑉𝑉 2
T is temperature.
12. A famous relation in physics relates the moving mass 𝑚𝑚 to the rest mas 𝑚𝑚0 of a particle
in terms of its speed 𝑣𝑣 and the speed off light 𝑐𝑐. (This relation first arose as a

13
CLASSES BY SANJEEV SIR 8826872146, 8700145045
 consequence off the special theory of relativity due to Albert Einstein). A boy recalls the
relation almost correctly but forgets where to put the constant c He writes m =
𝑚𝑚0
. Guess where to put the missing c.
(1−𝑣𝑣 2 )1/2
13. For a particle to move in a circular orbit uniformly, centripetal force is required which
infact depends upon mass (m), velocity (v), and radius (r) of the circle. Express
centripetal force in terms of these quantities.
14. Experiments reveal that the velocity v of water waves may depend on their wavelength
𝜆𝜆, density of water 𝜌𝜌 and acceleration due to gravity g. Establish a possible relation
between v and 𝜆𝜆, 𝑔𝑔, 𝜌𝜌.
15. If the velocity of the light (c), gravitational constant (G), and Planck’s constant (h) are
chosen as fundamental nits, then find the dimensions of mass ion new system.
16. If velocity (V), force (F) and time (T) are chosen as fundamental quantities, express (a)
mass and (b) energy in terms of V, F, and T.
17. Each side of a cube is measured to be 7.203 m. Find the volume of the cube up to
appropriate significant figures.
18. The mass of a box is 2.3 kg and 12.39 g are added to it. Find the total mass of the box to
the correct number of significant figure.
19. Repeated observations in an experiment gave the values 1.29, 1.33, 1.34, 1.35, 1.32,
1.36, 1.30, and 1.33. Calculate the mean value, absolute error, relative error, and
percentage error.
20. A physical parameter 𝑎𝑎 can be determined by measuring the parameters 𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐, 𝑑𝑑, and 𝑒𝑒
using the relation 𝑎𝑎 = 𝑏𝑏 𝛼𝛼 𝑐𝑐 𝛽𝛽 /𝑑𝑑 𝛾𝛾 𝑒𝑒 𝛿𝛿 . If the maximum errors in the measurement of
𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐, 𝑑𝑑, and 𝑒𝑒 are 𝑏𝑏1 %, 𝑐𝑐1 %, 𝑑𝑑1 % and 𝑒𝑒1 %, then find the maximum error in the value of a
determined by the experiment.
21. The relative density of material of a body is found by weighing it first in air and then in
water. If the weight in air is (5.00 ± 0.05) and the weight in water (4.00 ± 0.05) N. Find
the relative density along with the maximum permissible percentage error.
22. The period of oscillation of a simple pendulum in the experiment is recorded as 2.63 s,
2.56 s, 2.42 s, 2.71 s, and 2.80 s. Find the average absolute error.
23. If there is a positive error of 50% in the measurement of velocity of a body, find the
error in the measurement of kinetic energy.
24. The initial and final temperatures of water a recorded by an observer are (40.6 ± 0.2)°C
and (78.9 ± 0.3)°C. Calculate the rise in temperature with proper error limits.
25. The length and breadth of a rectangle are cm(5.7 ± 0.1)cm and (3.4 ± 0.2) cm,
respectively Calculate the area of rectangle with error limits.
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CLASSES BY SANJEEV SIR 8826872146, 8700145045
 𝑎𝑎2 𝑏𝑏3
26. Physical quantity 𝑥𝑥 is calculated from the relation 𝑥𝑥 = . If the percentage error in
𝑐𝑐√𝑑𝑑
a, b, c, and d are 2%, 1%, 3% and 4%, respectively, what is the percentage error in 𝑥𝑥?
27. The length and breadth of a field are measured as: 𝑙𝑙 = (120 ± 2) m and b = (100± 5) m,
respectivbely. What is the area of the field?
28. In an experiment of simple pendulum, the time period measured was 50 s for 25
vibrations when the length of the simple pendulum was taken 100 cm. If the least count
of stop watch is 0.1 s and that of meter scale is 0.1 cm. Calculate the maximum possible
error in the measurement of value of g. If the actual value of g at the place of
experiment is 9.7720 m s–2, calculate the percentage error.
29. The distance covered by a body in time (5.0± 0.6) s is (40.0 ± 0.4) m. Calculate the
speed of the body. Also determine the percentage error in the speed,
30. If all measurements in an experiment are taken p to the same number of significant
figures, then mention two possible reasons for maximum error.
31. In resonance tube experiment, the velocity of sound is given by 𝑣𝑣 = 2𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑜 (𝑙𝑙2 − 𝑙𝑙1 ). We
found 𝑙𝑙2 = 75.0 cm. If there is no error in frequency. What will be the maximum
permissible error in the speed of sound? (Take 𝑓𝑓0 = 325 Hz)
32. IF the measured value of resistance R = 1.05 Ω. Wire diameter d = 0.60 mm, and length
𝑅𝑅(𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 2 /4)
𝑙𝑙= 75.3 cm, then find the maximum permissible error in resistivity, 𝜌𝜌 = .
𝑙𝑙
33. In Ohm’s law experiment, the potential drop across a resistance was measured as 𝑉𝑉 =
5.0V and the current was measured as 𝑖𝑖 = 2.00 A. Find the maximum permissible error
in resistance.
34. In Searle’s experimenter to find Young’s modulus, the diameter of wire is measured as D
= 0.05 cm, the length of wire is L = 125 cm, and when a weight, 𝑚𝑚 = 20 kg is the put,
extension in wire was found to be 0.100 cm. Find the maximum permissible error in
Young’s modulus (y).
35. To find the value of g using simple pendulum, T = 2.00 s and 𝑙𝑙= 1.00m were measured.
Estimate maximum permissible error in g. Also find the value of g.
36. Consider the following data: 10MSDs = 1 cm, 10 VSDs = 9 MSDs, zero of Vernier scale is
to the right of the zero marking of the main scale with 6 VSDs coinciding with MSDs and
the actual reading for length measurement is 4.3 cm with 2 VSDs coinciding with main
scale graduations. Estimate the length.
37. The side of a cube is measured by Vernier calipers (10 divisions of the vernier scale
coincide with 9 divisions of the main scale, where I division of main scale is 1 mm). The
main scale reads 10 mm and first division of vernier scale coincides with the main scale.
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CLASSES BY SANJEEV SIR 8826872146, 8700145045
 The mass of the cube is 2.736 g. Find the density of the cube in appropriate significant
figures.
38. 10 rotations of the cap of a screw gauge is equivalent to 5 mm. The cap has 100
divisions. Find the least count. A reading taken for the diameter of sire with the screw
gauge shows four complete rotations and 35 divisions on the circular scale. Find the
diameter of the wire.
39. The following observations were taken for determining the surface tension of water by
capillary tube method: diameter of capillary. D = 1.25 x 10–2 m and rise of water in
𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟ℎ
capillary, h = 1.45 x 10–2 m. Taking g = 9.80 m s–2 and using the relation T = ( ) × 10 N
2
m–1, what is the possible error in measurement of surface tension T?
a. 2.4% b. 15% c. 1.6% d. 0.15%

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CLASSES BY SANJEEV SIR 8826872146, 8700145045
 ASSIGNMENT

𝛼𝛼 𝛽𝛽
1. = 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 +
𝑡𝑡 2 𝑥𝑥 2
Find the dimension formula for [𝛼𝛼 ] and [𝛽𝛽 ] (here t = time, F = force, v = velocity, 𝑥𝑥 =
distance).
2. In two systems of relations among velocity, acceleration, and force are, respectively,
𝛼𝛼2 𝐹𝐹1
𝑣𝑣2 = 𝑣𝑣1 , 𝛼𝛼2 = 𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼1 , and 𝐹𝐹2 = . If 𝛼𝛼 and 𝛽𝛽 are then make relations among
𝛽𝛽 𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼
mass, length, and time in two systems.
3. With due regard to significant figures, add the following:
a. 953 and 0.324
b. 953 and 0.652
c. 953.0 and 0.324
d. 953.0 and 0.374
4. With due regard to significant figures, subtract
a. 0.35 from 7
b. 0.65 from 7
c. 0.35 from 7.0
d. 0.65 from 7.0
5. a. Calculate the area enclosed by a circle of radius 0.56 m to the correct number of
significant figures.
b. Calculate the area enclosed by a circle of diameter 1.12 m to the correct number of
significant figures.
6. A diamond weight 3.71 g. It is put into a box weighing 1.4 Kg. Find the total weight of
the box and diamond to the correct number of significant figures.
7. a. Add 3.8 x 10–6 to 4.2 x 10–5 with due regards to significant figures.
b. Subtract 3.2 x 10–6 from 4.7 x 10–4 with due regard to significant figures.
c. Subtract 1.5 x 103 from 4.8 x 104 with due regard to significant figures.
8. The length, breadth, and thickness of a metal sheet are 4.234 m, 1.005 m, and 2.01 cm,
respectively. Give the area and volume of the sheet to the correct number of significant
figures.
9. The diameter of a sphere is 3.34 m. Calculate its volume with due regard to significant
figures.
10. Solve with due regard to significant figures;
5.42×0.6753
0.085

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CLASSES BY SANJEEV SIR 8826872146, 8700145045
11. In an experiment, the refractive index of glass was observed to be 1.45, 1.56, 1.54, 1.44,
1.54 and 1.53. Calculate
a. Mean value of refractive index
b. Mean absolute error
c. Fractional error
d. Percentage error
e. Express the result in terms of absolute error and percentage error.
12. a. Two plates have lengths measured as (1.9 ± 0.3) m and (3.5 ± 0.2) m. Calculate their
combined length with error limits.
b. The initial and final temperatures of a liquid are measured to be 67.7 ± 0.2°C and
76.3 ± 0.3°C. Calculate the rise in temperature with error limits.
13. The sides of a rectangle are (10.5 ± 0.2) cm and (5.2 ± 0.1) cm. Calculate its perimeter
with error limits.
14. The length and breadth of a rectangle are (5.7 ± 0.1) cm and (3.4 ± 0.2) cm. Calculate
the area of the rectangle with error limits.
15. A body travels uniformly a distance of (13.8 ± 0.2) m in a time (4.0 ± 0.3) s. Calculate its
velocity with error limits. What is the percentage error in velocity?
16. The radius of a sphere is measured to be (2.1 ± 0.5) cm. Calculate its surface area with
error limits.
17. Calculate the percentage error in specific resistance, 𝜌𝜌 = 𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 2 𝑅𝑅/𝑙𝑙, where 𝑟𝑟 = radius of
wire = 0.26± 0.02 cm, 𝑙𝑙 = length of wire = 156.0 ± 0.1 cm, and R = resistance of wire =
64 ± 2 Ω.
𝐿𝐿
18. The time period of a pendulum is given by 𝑇𝑇 = 2𝜋𝜋� . The length of pendulum is 20 cm
𝑔𝑔
and is measured up to 1 mm accuracy. The time period is about 0.6 s. The time of 100
oscillations is measured with a watch 1/10 s resolution. What is the accuracy in the
determination of g?
19. Two resistances R1 = 100 ± 3 Ω and R2 = 200 ± 4 Ω are connected in series. Find the
equivalent resistance of the series combination.
20. The initial and final temperatures of liquid in a container are observed to be 76.3 ±
0.4°C and 67.7 ± 0.3°C. Determine the fall in the temperature of the liquid.
21. A capacity of capacitance C = 2.0 ± 0.1μF is charged to a voltage V = 20 ± 0.2 V. What
will be the charge Q on the capacitor? Use Q = CV.
22. The resistance 𝑅𝑅 = 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉, Where V = (100 ± 5)V and I = (10 ± 0.2). Find the percentage
error in R.

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CLASSES BY SANJEEV SIR 8826872146, 8700145045
23. The value of acceleration due to gravity is 980 cm s–2. What will be its value if the unit of
length is kilometer and that of time is minute?
24. A body of mass 𝑚𝑚 hung at one end on the spring executes simple harmonic motion. The
force constant of a spring is k while its period of vibration is T. Prove by dimensional
method that the equation T = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋/𝑘𝑘 is incorrect. Derive the correct equation,
assuming that they are related by a power law.
25. The radius of the earth is 6.37 x 106 m and its mass is 5.975 x 1024 kg. Find the earth’s
average density to appropriate significant figures.
26. A man runs 100.5 m in 10.3 sec. Find his average speed up to appropriate significant
figures.
𝐿𝐿
27. The period of oscillation of a simple pendulum is T = 2𝜋𝜋� . L is about 10 cm and is
𝑔𝑔

known to 1 mm accuracy. The period of oscillation is about 0.5 s. The time of 100
oscillations is measured with a wrist watch of 1 s resolution. What is the accuracy in the
determination of g?
28. The error in the measurement of the radius of a sphere is 0.5%. What is the permissible
percentage error in the measurement of its (a) surface area and (b) volume?
29. It has been observed that velocity of ripple waves produced in water depends upon
their wavelength (𝜆𝜆), density of water (𝜌𝜌), and surface tension (T). Prove that 𝑣𝑣 2 ∝
𝑇𝑇/𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆.
30. In an experiment on the determination of Young’s Modulus of a wire by Searle’s
method, following data is available:
Normal length of the wire (L) = 110 cm
Diameter of the wire (d) = 0.01 cm
Elongation in the wire (𝑙𝑙) = 0.125 cm
This elongation is for a tension of 50 N. The least counts for corresponding quantities
are 0.01 cm, 0.00005 cm, and 0.001 cm, respectively. Calculate the maximum error in
calculating the value of Young’s modulus (Y).
31. In an experiment for determining the value of acceleration due to gravity (g) using a
simple pendulum, the following observations were recorded:
Length of the string (𝑙𝑙) = 98.0 cm
Diameter of the bob (d) = 2.56 cm
Time for 10 oscillations (T) = 20.0 s
Calculate the value of g with maximum permissible absolute error and the percentage
relative error.

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CLASSES BY SANJEEV SIR 8826872146, 8700145045