Rail Vehicle Design

Vehicle Structures and Dynamics

 Vehicle Structures

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Vehicle Structures - General
¾ Typical vehicle structure construction

x y
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Vehicle Structures - General

¾ Material:
- Carbon steel
- Stainless steel
- Aluminium alloy
- Composite material
¾ Method of construction: Welding, riveting
¾ Design optimization with cost, weight and
manufacturing technology

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 Vehicle Structures – Key Requirements
¾ Carbody Material
z Aluminium Alloy or Stainless Steel

¾ Design Life
z minimum operational life under the specified loading
conditions, typically 35 – 40 years
¾ Train Weight
z not exceeding maximum permitted tare train weight,
e.g. 310 tonnes for a 8 car train consist
z not exceeding maximum axle loading requirements,
e.g. 17 tonnes per axle
z weight management from design to manufacture
z weight tests in testing and commissioning

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 Vehicle Structures – Key Requirements

¾ Strength requirements
z Proof loads
z Fatigue loads
z Collision and energy absorption
z Reference design codes: UIC 566, GM/RT2100, EN 12663

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 Vehicle Structures – Key Requirements
¾ Strength requirements
z Defined load cases for
¾ Carbody structure ¾ Bogie structure
¾ Axle mounted equipment
¾ Bogie mounted equipment
¾ Body mounted equipment

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 Vehicle Structures – Key Requirements
¾ Strength Requirements – Proof Loads
z The body structure shall withstand the specified
loading conditions without permanent deformation
or any form of damage or deterioration.
z Proof Load Cases
‹ Carbody End Loads
- Compressive load at coupler
- Tensile load at coupler
- Compressive load at window sill
- Compressive load at cant rail
‹ Traction and Braking Loads
‹ Passenger Load
‹ Lifting and Jacking Loads
‹ Twist Load
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 Vehicle Structures – Key Requirements

¾ Strength Requirements – Fatigue Loads

z The body structure shall withstand the defined
fatigue loads using the specified fatigue assessment
methods.
z Fatigue Load Cases
‹ Vertical

‹ Lateral

‹ Longitudinal

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 Vehicle Structures – Key Requirements
¾ Strength Requirements – Collision and Energy Absorption
z To prevent damage to the train structures and couplers
in the event of collision
z Energy absorbed by the couplers and anti-climbers by
means of plastic deformation
z To withstand defined train collision scenarios without
causing damage to the car structure, examples are :-
‹ An 8-car train in tare condition collides with a similar
train with parking brakes applied at speeds up to 22.5
km/h
‹ An 8-car train in tare condition collides with a fixed
concrete buffer stop at speeds up to 11 km/h

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Vehicle Structures – Key Requirements

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Vehicle Structures – Key Requirements

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 Vehicle Structures – Design Process
Finite Element Model
¾ The model is used for structural analysis to verify the
overall strength of vehicle body.

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 Vehicle Structures – Design Process
Finite Element Model
¾ Model Simplification:
z As the carbody structure is symmetric, only one half
of carbody is modeled.
¾ Load Application
¾ Boundary Conditions (i.e. Application of constraints)

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 Vehicle Structures – Design Process
Finite Element Model
¾ Element Type
z All the parts of side structure, underframe, end frame,
roof structure and driving cab are built as shell
element.
¾ Element Size
z For example, a FE Model consists of around 130,000
shell elements and 110,000 nodes for half model.
¾ The FE analysis is carried out using specialized software
package operating under a particular workstation.

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 Vehicle Structures – Design Process
Finite Element Analysis – Typical Result

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 Vehicle Structures – Design Process
Finite Element Analysis – Typical Result (Zoom View)

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 Vehicle Structures – Design Process
¾ Proof load factor 1.15 usually incorporated where no
structural load test to be carried out for verification
¾ The proof load cases shall be assessed with maximum
allowable material yield strength
Maximum calculated stress < Allowable stress
e.g. The stress distribution under the load case
“longitudinal load of 600kN at window sill height”
indicates a maximum stress of 60.9 kg/mm2 which does
not exceed the allowable stress of used material
(70kg/mm2)

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 Vehicle Structures – Design Process
¾ Assessment of fatigue by BS 7608 for steel structures
and BS 8118 for aluminium alloy structures with mean
minus two standard deviations

¾ The fatigue load cases shall be assessed by cumulative

damage approach with combination of all different
fatigue load cases

¾ The total damage determined with damage

accumulation hypothesis such as Miner’s rule to be less
than unity

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 Vehicle Dynamics

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Vehicle Dynamics
1. Bogie and Suspension
2. Gauging
3. Stability
4. Ride Comfort
5. Wheel Off-loading
6. Bogie Rotational Resistance
7. Overturning

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Vehicle Dynamics – 1. Bogie and Suspension

¾ Typical modern bolsterless bogie construction

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Vehicle Dynamics – 1. Bogie and Suspension
Functions:
¾ Support vehicle carbody firmly
¾ Maintain vehicle sway within specific gauge outline
¾ Run stably on straight and curved track
¾ Ensure good ride comfort by absorbing vibration
generated by track irregularities
¾ Minimize derailment potential at curve transitions
¾ Minimize track force when train runs on curves at high
speed
¾ Minimize generation of track corrugation and wheel
flange/ rail side wear

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Vehicle Dynamics – 1. Bogie and Suspension
Suspension parameters shall be optimized to achieve
conflicting functional requirements
Primary suspension vertical stiffness
High :-
z decrease vehicle sway, but
z increase derailment potential
z poor ride comfort

Primary suspension yaw stiffness

High :-
z increase wheelset stability, but
z increase track force and wheel/ rail wear

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 Vehicle Dynamics – 2. Gauging
Definition
¾ Structure Gauge
A line around the track within which the no structure or
trackside equipment should be placed.

¾ Kinematic Envelope
The envelope of body profile plus sway movement is
called the kinematic envelope.
The sway movement can be caused by the general track
irregularities, rail dips, switch and crossing, variations of
gauge, rail top, cross level, and wear of wheels and rails,
etc.

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Vehicle Dynamics – 2. Gauging

Structure Gauge

Kinematic Envelope

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 Vehicle Dynamics – 2. Gauging
¾ Structure gauge assessment is needed to ensure the
railway vehicle can run safely along the track without
coming unacceptably close to lineside structures or
equipment, or to vehicles running on adjacent tracks.

¾ The amount of space required for the safe passage of a

railway vehicle is significantly greater than its static
body profile due to :-
z Track input excites the vehicle as it moves on its
suspension
z On curved track its geometry position leads to curve
overthrows
z Track movement over the maintenance cycles,
vehicle component deterioration, wheel and rail
wear, etc.
z External forces, e.g. wind loading in open sections

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 Vehicle Dynamics – 2. Gauging

Conditions for Kinematic Envelope (KE)

¾ Train speeds
¾ Wheel wear and suspension creep
¾ Combined effect of vehicle curving and lateral
accelerations due to track irregularities
¾ Max installed cant, e.g. 150mm
¾ Air suspension – inflated or deflated
¾ Car loadings
¾ Maximum car build tolerances
¾ Force due to side wind, e.g. wind speed of 130km/h
¾ Suspension parameters at the worst case
¾ Track parameters plus tolerances

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Vehicle Dynamics – 2. Gauging

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 Vehicle Dynamics – 2. Gauging
Abbreviations
α = Track cant
β = Bogie roll angle relative to track perpendicular
γ = Body roll angle relative to bogie
δp = Primary suspension lateral deflection
δs = Secondary suspension lateral deflection
hg = Height of centre of gravity above rail level
hs = Height of secondary suspension above rail level
hp = Height of primary suspension above rail level
K prim lat = Lateral stiffness of primary suspension per vehicle
K prim roll = Roll stiffness of primary suspension per vehicle
K sec lat = Lateral stiffness of secondary suspension per vehicle
K sec roll = Roll stiffness of secondary suspension per vehicle
M = Mass of body
g = Acceleration due to gravity
G = Lateral offset of body centre of gravity from vehicle centre line
Q = Moment introduced by components within the secondary suspension

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 Vehicle Dynamics – 3. Stability
Wheel/ Rail Contact

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Vehicle Dynamics – 3. Stability

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 Vehicle Dynamics – 3. Stability
Rolling Radius Difference (RRD)

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Vehicle Dynamics – 3. Stability

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Vehicle Dynamics – 3. Stability

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Vehicle Dynamics – 3. Stability

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Vehicle Dynamics – 3. Stability

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 Vehicle Dynamics – 3. Stability
¾ The vehicle shall be designed to be dynamically stable
under all operating conditions including:
z All speed range
z New and worn wheel profile with different conicity
range
¾ The vehicle will become unstable at some sufficiently high
speed or at high conicity and eventually leads to a
continuous oscillation
¾ Improvement by wheel/ rail profile optimization or by
suspension modification

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Vehicle Dynamics – 3. Stability

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 Vehicle Dynamics – 4. Ride Comfort
¾ The EMU ride performance levels, weighted with the vehicle
ride acceleration weighing characteristics, shall typically not
exceed the following values :
z Vertical journey average – 0.010g
z Lateral journey average – 0.013g
z Longitudinal journey average – 0.004g
z Vertical 99th percentile – 0.020g
z Lateral 99th percentile – 0.026g
¾ The journey average shall be the arithmetric mean of the
weighted r.m.s. accelerations evaluated at 10 second intervals
over the full length of running lines. Accelerations shall only be
measured when the car is travelling at a minimum speed, e.g.
25 km/h.
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Vehicle Dynamics – 4. Ride Comfort

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 Vehicle Dynamics – 5. Wheel Off-loading
¾ Flange climbing derailment is the process that a wheel
climbs up the gauge corner of the rail until the flange
tip is rolling on the rail head.
¾ Two basic factors :-
1. Y – lateral force on the wheel pushing it into flange
contact with the rail
2. Q – the vertical load to move the wheel down the
gauge face of the rail

¾ The ratio between Y and Q is a measure of the

derailment probability of the wheel. The wheel flange
angle and the wheel-rail coefficient of friction shall also
be taken into account.

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Vehicle Dynamics – 5. Wheel Off-loading

Q cos θ – Y sin θ
Q
θ

Y
Y cos θ + Q sin θ

Nadal’s formula :
Limiting Y = tan θ – μ
Q μ tan θ + 1

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Vehicle Dynamics – 5. Wheel Off-loading

Wheel Off-loading Factor :

Limiting dQ = Y/Q – μ
Q Y/Q + μ

For a typical wheel profile with 68o flange

angle and 0.32 friction,

• Y/Q limit = 1.20

• dQ/Q limit = 0.60

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Vehicle Dynamics – 5. Wheel Off-loading

Figure B1 Y/Q limit from Nadal's formula

2.50

2.00

1.50
Y/Q limit

1.00

0.50
73
68

0.00 63
Flange angle, degrees
0.12 58
0.22
0.32
0.42 53
Friction coefficient 0.52

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Vehicle Dynamics – 5. Wheel Off-loading

Figure B2 Delta Q/Q limit from Nadal's formula

1.00

0.75
Delta Q/Q limit

0.50

0.25

0.00
73
68

-0.25 63
Flange angle, degrees
0.12 58
0.22
0.32
0.42 53
Friction coefficient 0.52

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Wheel Off-loading Calculation

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 Wheel Off-loading Calculation
Abbreviations
2kp = Primary suspension vertical stiffness per wheelset
2ks = Secondary suspension vertical stiffness per bogie
kθ = Anti roll stiffness per bogie
τ* = Body torsional stiffness
τ+ = Bogie torsional stiffness
2b = Wheel spacing
2bp = Primary suspension spacing
2bs = Secondary suspension spacing
a = Bogie wheelbase
c = Bogie centre distance
t* = Twist over body
t+ = Twist over bogie
C* = Total stiffness over body
C+ = Total stiffness over bogie
dQ* = Wheel off-loading over body
dQ+ = Wheel off-loading over bogie

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 Wheel Off-loading Calculation
1. Two angles t* and t+ are calculated from the measured track twists
Twist* Twist+
t* = ------------ t+ = -----------
2b 2b

2. The stiffness C* and C+ can be worked out from the vehicle parameters
1
C* = ------------------------------------------------------
[ 1/τ* + 2/ (2ksbs2 + kθ) + 2/ (4kpbp2) ]
1
C+ = ------------------------------
[ 1/τ+ + 2/ (2kpbp2 ) ]

3. Two values of wheel off-loading dQ* and dQ+ are calculated by

C* t* C+t+
dQ* = ---------- dQ+ = ---------
2 x 2b 2b

4. Then add these two values to give the total wheel off-loading
dQ = dQ* + dQ+

5. The value of dQ/Q can be calculated.

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Vehicle Dynamics – 6. Bogie Rotational Resistance
Bogie Rotational Resistance (X-factor)
¾ The (X-factor) is a measure of the resistance to the rotation
of the bogie under the vehicle.
¾ The expression for X-factor is :
X = T / (W * 2a)
where, T = Torque to rotate the bogie
W= average axle load on the bogie being rotated
a = bogie semi-wheel base
• To avoid excessive torques at minimum radius curve, X-
factor shall not exceed 0.1.

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Vehicle Dynamics – 7. Overturning

¾ Vehicle overturning calculation shall be performed

to ensure that the vehicle can be operated safely
under the worst conditions of track cant and wind
loading.

¾ To prevent overturning, the minimum wheel loads

shall always be greater than zero, i.e. no complete
wheel off-loading.

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 End of Lecture

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