International Journal of Fatigue 153 (2021) 106516

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International Journal of Fatigue

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijfatigue

Fatigue fracture and fatigue life assessment of railway wheel using non-
linear model for fatigue crack growth
Reza Masoudi Nejad a, *, Filippo Berto b
a
School of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu 611731, China
b
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, NTNU – Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: In this paper, the fatigue behavior of railway wheel specimens subjected to cyclic loading have been investigated
Fatigue fracture via experimental tests and numerical analysis. The material behaviour of the wheel specimen has been modelled
Boundary element by means of the Ramberg-Osgood equation. The non-linear Kujawski-Ellyin (KE) model has been adopted for the
Railway wheel
fatigue crack propagation under small-scale yielding (SSY) conditions. The formulation of the rigid-insert crack
Cyclic loading
Crack closure
closure (RICC) model has been applied to a specimen of railway wheel that has the same conditions as a real
instance. The results indicate that the fatigue life of specimens decreases with any increase in load level.

1. Introduction typically results in retardation in FCG, however the retardation depends

Fatigue life is one of the key points for a strong design in any con­
struction project [1–3]. Today, fatigue life assessment is increasingly
important both in mass production and in highly sensitive systems.
Numerical methods provide the best tools for modeling fatigue crack
growth (FCG) as well as performing complex programs [4–7]. Fatigue
life assessment as a design parameter can be compromised with other
parameters such as cost, power and performance. Therefore, different
methods must be implemented for different systems according to their
efficiency. Therefore, in the past decades, reliability engineering has
been recognized as a tool for developing and producing a product with
the desired reliability and optimal design, and several tests have been
developed in this field [8–11]. Sakalo et al. [12] presented an algorithm
for computer modeling of the processes of wear and accumulation of the
rolling contact fatigue (RCF) damage in the railway wheels. Seo et al.
[13] evaluated residual stress of railway wheels’ web plate by heat
treatment due to the manufacturing process and changes of residual
stress by braking using finite element analysis. A structural component
experiences various loading conditions, such as random, static, and
constant loads in their lifespans [14–16]. These loading conditions are
often subjected to overloads or under loads. Several studies were con­
ducted to assess the fatigue property of structural components under
various loading conditions [17–22]. Some studies have presented the
crack propagation rate and fatigue properties of materials as a function
of positive stress intensity, in presence of overloads. A tensile overload
on material properties. For some steels, the FCG rate decreases slowly to
a minimum value, then increases to the stable growth rate [23–26].
Lansler and Kabo [27] investigated the deformation of such subsurface
cracks under rolling contact conditions in the railway wheel. Edel [28]
determined the critical crack sizes and crack growth characteristics for
train car wheels and rails. Peixoto and de Castro [29] presented a study
of the fatigue crack growth in a high-speed train wheel. Christodoulou
et al. [30] investigated the fatigue and damage tolerance behavior of the
material. They also performed fatigue, fracture toughness and fatigue
crack growth tests and supported by stereoscopic and fractographic
investigation on fractured specimens. Edel and Boudnitski [31] analysed
fatigue behaviour with the linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM)
method in reusable solid railway wheels manufactured of the old wheel
steel. Masoudi Nejad [32] estimated the residual stresses in the railway
wheel caused by the stress field from heat treatment process of a railway
wheel using a 3D nonlinear stress analysis model. FE analysis model was
provided applying the elastic-plastic FE analysis for the railway wheel
under variable thermal loads. Masoudi Nejad et al. [33] prepared a
prediction of rolling contact fatigue crack growth in the railway wheel
under the influence of the stress field from mechanical loads and heat
treatment process of a railway wheel using a 3D nonlinear stress analysis
model. Also, they investigated the effect of several parameters, vertical
loads, initial crack length, and friction coefficient between the wheel
and rail, on the fatigue life in railway wheels. Sandstrom [34] presented
a numerical model for predicting the probability of subsurface initiated

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: masoudinejad@uestc.edu.cn (R. Masoudi Nejad), filippo.berto@ntnu.no (F. Berto).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfatigue.2021.106516
Received 22 July 2021; Received in revised form 25 August 2021; Accepted 27 August 2021
Available online 31 August 2021
0142-1123/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
R. Masoudi Nejad and F. Berto International Journal of Fatigue 153 (2021) 106516

rolling contact fatigue failure in railway wheels subjected to operational
loading. A sensitivity analysis revealed a strong influence of the fatigue
strength and the material defect distribution on the probability of fa­
tigue failure. Huang et al. [35] analyzed the residual stress, mechanical
stress, and fatigue in six types of wheel plate shapes. Results showed that
the residual stress was lowest and highest in the S-shaped and double S-
shaped wheel plates, respectively. To optimize the design and operation
the various types of damage occurring in the wheel must be considered.
Thermal cracks, shelling, surface fatigue, and wear are the most com­
mon [36–40]. Crack growth acceleration occurs immediately after
applying a tensile overload in some other materials [41–45]. On the
other hand, acceleration in FCG rate are usually observed by application
of a compressive under-loading [45,46]. Crack closure, crack blunting,
and the compressive residual stresses of the crack tip are among the
parameters that interrupt the effect of overloading on FCC [47–52]. To
assess the retardation effect, introduced by overloading, an effective
stress intensity factor range was suggested by Elber [53]. Regarding the
crack closure and size of the residual plastic zone, Matsuoka [54]
developed a model to illustrate the retardation, caused by single and
multiple overloading. The wheeler’s model [55] and its modified
version were also introduced to impose the retarded FCG affected by
overloading, considering the increased yield zone ahead of the crack tip
induced. A semi-empirical model was suggested by Lu and Li [56] to
appraise the effects of several overloading related parameters, on FCG.
Masoudi Nejad et al. [57] investigated an experimental study on fatigue
fracture performance of rail steel used in railway applications. They
carried out a series test that includes fatigue, fracture toughness, and
fatigue crack growth and checked by fractography studies on fractured
specimens.
Despite experimental research existent in the field of fatigue fracture
behavior of the railway wheel steel, information about the performance
of fatigue due to the crack initiation and fracture behavior does not exist.
In this paper, different experimental tests for fatigue fracture and fatigue
life assessment of a railway wheel steel using non-linear model are
carried out using the CT specimens. The numerical simulations are
performed using the Ramberg-Osgood equation for material behaviour
of the railway wheel specimen and distributions of stress intensity fac­
tors as well as load ratios under various cyclic loading conditions are
determined. The non-linear Kujawski-Ellyin model has been adopted for
the FCG under SSY conditions. Also, the formulation of the RICC model
has been applied to a standard specimen of the railway wheel that has
tween rail/wheel is essential, which this stress distribution could be
obtain using numerical method. Stress–strain curves are also approxi­
mated by the well-known Ramberg-Osgood relation. The Ramberg-
Osgood equation is expressed in Eq. (1) [7]:
σ ( σ )n
(1)
yields
ε = εe + εp ̅̅→ ε = + K
E E
,
( )n
In this equation term of Eσ represents the linear region and K Eσ is
the plastic region in which K and n depend on material and E is elasticity
modulus.
According to the RICC model, the closure phenomenon is the inter­
action between the specimen and the residual material in the propaga­
tion of crack tip, which results from crack penetration in the specimen.
The standard effective stress intensity range is defined as follows [15]:
ΔKeff = Kmax − Kop or ΔKeff = Kmax − Kcl , (2)
where ΔKeff , the effective stress intensity factor is defined as the dif­
ference between the maximum stress intensity factor of mode-I (Kmax )
and stress level where the crack first opens (Kop ) and Kcl is the closure
stress intensity factor.
The gradual closure can also continue with the compressive area of
the loading cycle, so that the crack mouth is not completely closed at
zero load. The following geometric relationship can be written during
the gradual closure of the crack surfaces using the similar triangles rule
[22]:
Γ ϕ + a − at
= , (3)
ν a+ϕ
where Γ is the middle material thickness, ν is the crack mouth opening
displacement (CMOD), and ϕ is the distance between the axis of rotation
in crack tip and surface. a is the true crack length and at is the transient
crack length.
Masoudi Nejad and Liu [14] presented a new applied method for
estimating the fatigue life of the railway rail specimens using the rigid-
insert crack closure (RICC) model under mixed-mode cyclic loading
conditions. Shariati et al. [22] provided a new method for analyzing and
evaluating the fatigue crack closure load and estimated the life of en­
gineering components using rigid insert crack closure model (RICC),
non-destructive replica technique. After applying the boundary condi­
tion (P = 0; ν = νr ) and determining λ, the load-CODII is obtained [22]:

{ [ ( )] ( )
2EB ν − νr 25 3νcl ϕ + 3aν + 2acνϕ 4 νcl + acνϕ + aν
P= (1 − cϕ) 2
− νcl ϕ2
c ln − ln , (4)
3 3 + 5cϕ + 2c2 ϕ2 a(3 + 2cϕ)2 3νcl ϕ + 3aνr + 2acνr ϕ a(1 + cϕ)2 νcl + acνr ϕ + aνr

the same conditions as a real instance. where B is the thickness of the specimen, νr is residual CODII value in
( )/
zero load, c = 1 + ϕa W, and W is the specimen width.
2. Proposed model for fatigue life assessment
P is obtained by any value ν. So, the following values are substituted
Many types of research are performed in the field of evaluating fa­ in Eq. (4) [22]:
tigue fracture behavior. Analytical methods are used to determine the
Pcl
fatigue life of railway components. Most analytical methods are verified P = Pcl ; νcl = , (5)
S
by experimental and numerical methods. To have a more accurate
determination of the fatigue strength of railway components, having where S is specimen stiffness and Pcl is closure force. After substituting,
knowledge about the stress distribution around the contact area be­ the Eq. (6) is obtained [22]:

{ ( ) [ ( )] ( )
2EB (1 − cϕ)2 Pcl Pcl ϕ2 c 25 Pcl (3ϕ + 3a + 2acϕ) 4 Pcl (a + acϕ + ϕ)
Pcl = − νr − ln − ln , (6)
3 3 + 5cϕ + 2c2 ϕ2 S S a(3 + 2cϕ)2 3Pcl ϕ + 3aSνr + 2acSνr ϕ a(1 + cϕ)2 Pcl ϕ + acSνr ϕ + aSνr

2
R. Masoudi Nejad and F. Berto International Journal of Fatigue 153 (2021) 106516

where ϕ is obtained according to [40] as follow, ( )1/2

ΔKeff = ΔK 2 − ΔKth2 , (16)
ϕ = 0.1(W − a) (7)
After substituting, the Eq. (17) is obtained [58]:
It is possible to consider the closure behavior according to normal­
⎧ ⎫2/β
ized crack length (a/W). We have, ⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪
[ (a) ( a )2 ( a )3 ] ⎪
⎨ ⎪
⎬
da ΔKeff
ΔPeff = Pmax − Pcl = Pmax − r + s +t +u , (8) = 2δ*
( ) . (17)
dN ⎪ 12
⎪
/
W W W ⎪
⎪ ′ ′ ′ * ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩ [4(1 + n ) σ f − σ m π E ε f δ ] ⎪
⎭
where r, s, t, u are the constants that are obtained from the experimental
data of Pcl according to Wa .
3. Materials and methods
The stress intensity factor range and effective stress intensity factor
range, are obtained from the following equations, respectively [41]:
3.1. Material properties
ΔP ( a )
ΔK = √̅̅̅̅̅ f , (9)
B W W The fatigue crack growth behavior and modeling of a variety of
specimens have been investigated by many researchers. Experimental
ΔPeff ( a ) results of the analysis and modeling of the unstable fatigue fracture of
ΔKeff = √̅̅̅̅̅ f (10)
B W W the railway wheel under a variety of cycling loading conditions by the
The function f(a/W) for a sample is proposed by ASTM as follow concepts of fracture mechanics play an important role. Because the re­
[57]: sults of these models must be consistent with the experimental results.
For this purpose, specimens are prepared from the railway wheel since
[ ][ ( ) ( )2 ( )3 ( )4 ]
2 + Wa 0.866 + 4.64 Wa − 13.32 Wa + 14.72 Wa − 5.6 Wa the researches on the unstable fracture includes studies that use this
f (a/W) = . material. The properties used for the railway wheel are also presented in
[ ]3/2
1 − Wa Table 1. Also, the material data for the railway wheel are given in
Table 2.
(11)
In this paper, the fatigue crack growth simulations are carried out 3.2. Fatigue test specimen
using the Kujawski-Ellyin (KE) model considering a non-linear behav­
iour for the material under the hypothesis of small-scale yielding (SSY). In this paper, the CT specimen has been selected for experimental
The material adopted in the present simulations is the railway wheel study due to its ability to apply cyclic loading conditions. Two different
specimen, which is modelled accordingly to Ramberg-Osgood Eq. (1) orientations for the specimens taken from the wheel were chosen. The
and obtained from the true stress–strain curve. Therefore, the fatigue extracted specimen for the fatigue crack growth of the railway wheel is
crack growth law for non-linear materials can be obtained as follows shown in Fig. 1. Also, the CT specimen for experimental test under cyclic
[26]: loading is shown in Fig. 2. The thickness of the so-called CT specimens is
⎧ ( ) ⎫1/β 8 mm in this study. Different specimens are used for testing, which is
da *
⎨ ΔK 2 − ΔKth2 ⎬ repeated three times for each type of specimen to reduce error and in­
= 2δ ( ) , (12)
dN ⎩4(1 + n′ ) σ′ − σ πEε′ δ* ⎭ crease safety. In order to reduce the surface residual stresses in the
m
specimens through manufacturing operations, all specimens were pol­
f f

ished by sand paper.

where ΔKth is threshold stress intensity factor range, n is the cyclic
′

hardening exponent, δ* is the fatigue ‘process-zone’ size (FPZ), β =

3.3. Fatigue life estimation
− (b + c), and c and b are material properties. εf and σ f are the fatigue
′ ′

ductility and strength coefficients, respectively. The local mean stress, In order to study the fatigue fracture behavior in experimental tests,
which can be obtained as follows [58]: the CT specimens were tested. The specimens were machined from an 8
[ ]
(1 + Rs ) mm-thick sheet of the railway wheel in Two different orientations. The
σm = *σ max , (13) notch is oriented in the radial direction and a direction parallel to the
2
tangent of the contact area with rail. In linear elastic fracture mechanics
where the stress ratio, Rs , is not generally coincident with the stress (LEFM), fatigue life is usually estimated for a cracked specimen by using
ratio, R, which is linked to the remote tensile load. Also, the maximum an exponential function of SIFs. In this study, the non-linear Kujawski-
cyclic stress can be obtained as follows: Ellyin (KE) model was used to estimate the fatigue crack propagation
′
under small-scale yielding (SSY) conditions. The loading device was
{ }
made of steel alloy. The fatigue crackgrowth tests were carried out for
n
′
2
Kmax (1+n )

(14)
′
σ max = σ y , different loading conditions on the Zwick/Roell HB 100 machine. In
(1 + n′ )πσ′y δ*
order to study the crack growth rate, a sinusoidal waveform was used
and three different load ratios Rratio = 0.1, Rratio = 0.3, and Rratio = 0.5
where σ y is the cyclic yield strength.
′

with maximum load of 12 kN were tested. A frequency of 10 Hz is

Li et al. [59] presented a new da/dN–ΔK relationship which predicts
the stage-II FCG behavior independently from the basic low cycle fatigue
Table 1
properties. In this paper, we used Eq. (15) presented by Li et al. [59] to
Mechanical properties of materials used in experiments.
calculate the fatigue ‘process-zone’ size (FPZ):
material Young Elongation Poisson Yield Ultimate
* ΔK 2 modulus (%) ratio strength tensile
δ = ( th
′
)
′
. (15) (GPa) (MPa) strength
4(1 + n′ ) σf − σ m πEεf (MPa)

The following value is substituted in Eq. (12) [58]: Railway 203 15 0.31 493 831
wheel

3
R. Masoudi Nejad and F. Berto International Journal of Fatigue 153 (2021) 106516

Table 2 selected for this test. A 1.3 mm fatigue precrack was generated for all
Material data of railway wheel specimen. specimens under cycling loading before fatigue fracture test according to
Material n
′
σf (MPa)
′ ′
εf c b δ* (mm) ASTM E647 [60]. The precrack measuring was performed using portable
digital microscopes. Fig. 3 shows the experimental test setup at the pure
Railway wheel 0.142 1681 0.68 − 0.718 − 0.112 0.93 mode-I loading condition for the initial fatigue precracking of the
specimen.

4. Numerical analysis

In the last decade, the target of fracture mechanics is integrating

experimental results with data from numerical methods. Fracture me­
chanics by which fatigue crack growth can be controlled has two very
important factors in the experimental results and fatigue lifetime pre­
diction. In order to simulate fatigue crack growth under the influence of
cyclic loading, the boundary element method was used. In Fig. 4, the
mesh pattern for the boundary element model of the specimen is shown.
A total of 7623 elements and 9241 nodes were generated for creating the
entire mesh pattern. In order to improve the accuracy of the analysis,
finer elements were used in the crack tip zone. For all loading condi­
tions, an arbitrary load of 12 kN was applied. Also, the properties of the
material shown in Table 1. The SIFs along the three-dimensional crack
front can be found by using the boundary element method. In the nu­
merical analysis of a discretized body including a crack, the SIFs can be
found at the nodes along the crack front using this method. Initial crack
is considered as semi-elliptical. Straight through crack with a length of
1.3 mm was modeled in the specimen. The specimen was discretized
along its thickness with the element size of 0.5 mm. Circular mesh
pattern was utilized in a section of this region providing contour integral
calculation. Boundary element results for different number of elements
for the specimen were shown in Table 3. The analyses were carried out
under the pure mode-I loading at F = 12 kN and values of the SIF of
mode-I were derived at the crack front center and edges. The calculation
time for mesh 5 increases significantly, so the final mesh of mesh 4 was
chosen for all of the analyses. The steps of fatigue crack growth simu­
lation using boundary element method are shown in Fig. 5.
Fig. 1. Location for specimen extraction from the railway wheel for fatigue
crack growth tests.

Fig. 2. The CT specimen for experimental test under cyclic loading (dimensions in mm).

4
R. Masoudi Nejad and F. Berto International Journal of Fatigue 153 (2021) 106516

Fig. 3. Experimental test setup under cycling loading conditions.

Fig. 4. Geometry and location of the initial crack.

stress field is determined with the stress intensity factors (SIFs). The use
Table 3 of stress intensity factors (SIFs) for describing the stress field is limited to
Boundary element results for different number of elements for the railway wheel
linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM). The stress intensity factors
specimen.
(SIFs) ratios have direct effects on the characteristics of the formation of
Mesh Total number of KI at crack front KI at crack front crack surfaces and the critical loads which are necessary for unstable
√̅̅̅̅ √̅̅̅̅
specimen elements center, MPa. m edge, MPa. m
fracture. Therefore, the accurate assessment of a cracked structure with
1 3456 24.11 21.79 regard to its safety and mechanical life under cyclic loading condition is
2 4679 24.26 21.56 significantly important. Fig. 6 shows a comparison of Load-CODll
3 5908 24.37 21.43
experimental results and the behavior predicted by Eq. (6) for the rail­
4 7623 24.45 21.36
5 9467 24.49 21.32
way wheel specimen. As can be seen in Fig. 6, the behavior of the Load-
CODll curve is acceptable for both experimental tests and analytical
solution. The experimental and theoretical results for the load and the
5. Results and discussion closure stress intensity factor in terms of normalized crack length are
shown in Fig. 7. According to Fig. 7, a good consistency is observed
Fatigue fracture performance of the railway wheel is a function of between the analytical solutions and the experimental test results for the
many factors, including service conditions, loading, material properties, load and the closure stress intensity factor.
environmental factors, and manufacturing processes. The interaction of In this paper the subsurface fatigue crack growth under rolling
three different fracture mechanisms known as tension, shear and tearing contact fatigue (RCF) of the railway wheel is modelled. By moving away
modes can be observed in many structures containing defects such as from the wheel surface and increasing the depth of crack placement
cracks. The cyclic loading condition produces a complex stress state at from the surface, the effect of contact stresses is reduced and the fatigue
the region around the crack tip. The singularity at the crack tip in this crack growth rate is reduced. Also, according to the fatigue life diagrams

5
R. Masoudi Nejad and F. Berto
Fig. 5. The steps of fatigue crack growth simulation using boundary element method.
Fig. 6. Comparison of the Load-CODII results in terms of obtained from
experimental tests and analytical behavior for the railway wheel specimen.
for different modes of wheel profile geometry and its contact with the
rail, it can be concluded that controlling the wheel-rail contact geometry
to reduce contact stresses is the best way to control roller contact fatigue
defects. The fatigue crack growth rate in terms of equivalent stress in­
tensity factor for each load ratio angle for the railway wheel specimen
under cyclic loading conditions are shown in Fig. 8. As can be seen, the
range of effective stress intensity factor is smaller than the stress in­
tensity factor range. Especially with increasing the fatigue crack length,
their differences increase. Considering the effect of the fatigue crack
closure, the specimen has a longer life. The effect of the load ratio on the
fatigue crack growth rates is also more pronounced for the railway
wheel specimen under cyclic loading conditions. Fig. 9 compares fatigue
life in terms of crack length for the experimental tests, numerical anal­
ysis, and analytical solution (Eq. (17) based on Eq. (10)). The phe­
nomenon of rolling contact fatigue crack has become one of the most
important issues in railway and a problem of intensive research in many
scientific centers. This process is not slow and uncontrolled. Thus, it
causes sudden break in rolling member. According to Fig. 9, the values
6
International Journal of Fatigue 153 (2021) 106516
Fig. 7. Comparison of Pcl and Kcl results in terms of obtained from experi­
mental tests and analytical behavior for the railway wheel steel in various
cracks length.
of stress intensity factor (SIF) increase by decreasing the load ratio for
two different orientations for the railway wheel specimens under the
cyclic loading conditions. As can be seen in Fig. 9, the minimum fatigue
life is related to the railway wheel specimen with radial direction notch
under the load ratio of 0.1. Comparing the results of fatigue life for this
specimen, it was found that the difference between the results of nu­
merical analysis and experimental test is 7% and the difference between
the results of analytical solution and experimental tests is 15%. Also, the
final fatigue life for the railway wheel specimen with tangential direc­
tion notch under the load ratio of 0.5 is longer than the other specimens.
Comparing the results of fatigue life for this specimen, it was found that
the difference between the results of numerical analysis and experi­
mental test is 9% and the difference between the results of analytical
solution and experimental tests is 16%. As can be seen in Fig. 9, a good
consistency is observed between the analytical solutions, numerical
analysis, and the experimental test results for the fatigue life of the
railway wheel specimen under cyclic loading conditions in each load
ratio.
R. Masoudi Nejad and F. Berto
Fig. 8. Crack growth rate in terms of stress intensity factor range for the rail­
way wheel specimen; a) R = 0.1, b) R = 0.3, and c) R = 0.5.
6. Conclusions
In this study, a new method is provided for analyzing and evaluating
the fatigue crack growth and estimating the fatigue life of the railway
wheel specimen, which is the only required parameter to determine the
closure load. Also, the non-linear Kujawski-Ellyin (KE) model has been
adopted for the fatigue crack propagation under small-scale yielding
7
International Journal of Fatigue 153 (2021) 106516
Fig. 9. Comparison of the fatigue life results in terms of obtained from analytic
solution, numerical analysis and experimental tests for the railway wheel
specimen; a) R = 0.1, b) R = 0.3, and c) R = 0.5.
(SSY) conditions. Based on the theoretical relationships, numerical
analysis, and experimental tests, the new applied method is defined that
this model is able to simulate the behavior of the closure phenomenon. A
three-dimensional boundary element model was also presented for the
fatigue crack growth in the railway wheel specimen. Then the results
obtained from experimental tests and numerical analysis were compared
with the results of the new applied method under cyclic loading con­
ditions. The most important results of this study can be summarized as
R. Masoudi Nejad and F. Berto International Journal of Fatigue 153 (2021) 106516

follows: [6] Mortazavian, Ershad, Wang Zhiyong, Teng Hualiang Thermal-kinetic-mechanical

modeling of laser powder deposition process for rail repair. In: ASME International
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1. The non-linear Kujawski-Ellyin (KE) model using RICC model (Eq. Mechanical Engineers; 2019. p. V02AT02A052.
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life of the railway wheel specimens investigated in this paper. Since numerical investigation of fatigue crack growth behavior and optimizing fatigue
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Declaration of Competing Interest life prediction in railway wheels and rails underinresidual
available stresses and wear. Ph. D.
the static
Thesis, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Schoolanalysis
structural of Mechanical Engineering; 2017.
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The authors declare that they have no known competing financial analysis of rails under the influencetoolbox ofstresses
of residual the ANSYS
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interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence Scientia Iranica 2018;26(3):1427–37. workbench supported the
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Angelo Rosario, Bertoof theFilippo. Crack closure in
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