Chapter 4

Induction Motor

1
 Induction Motor
Induction motor or machines are also called as asynchronous machine because they
always run at speed other than synchronous speed (the speed of the rotating magnetic
field in the stator). Induction motors are mainly of two types. It can be single phase or
three phase induction motors. Single phase induction motor is usually built in small size
(up to 3 H.P). The three-phase induction motors are the most commonly used AC motors
in the industry because of their simple and rugged construction, low cost, good operating
characteristics, high efficiency, reasonably good power factor, absence of commutator,
good power regulation, reliability and low maintenance. Almost more than 90% of the
mechanical energy used in the industry is provided by three phase induction motors.
Three phase induction motors are mainly used in the industry for power conversion-
electrical to mechanical power conversion in bulk or large quantity. But for small power
conversion single phase induction motors are used. The induction motors perform a
variety of services in the home, office, business, factories, etc. In all the domestic
appliances such as refrigerators, fans, washing machines, hair dryers, mixer grinder, etc.,
single phase induction motor are used. 2
 Constructional details of three phase
induction motor
A three phase induction motor mainly consists of two parts- stator and rotor. The
construction of the induction motor is explained below in detail.
1) Stator
The stator is the stationary part of the induction motor. It has three main parts, namely
stator frame, stator core and stator winding.

a) Stator frame
It is the outermost part of the motor whose main function is to support the stator core
and to provide the mechanical strength and protection to all the inner parts of the
machine. For small machines, the outer frame is casted, but for the large machine, it is
fabricated. The frame should be strong and rigid as the air gap length in an induction
motor is very small. Otherwise, the rotor will not remain concentric with the stator,
which will give rise to an unbalanced magnetic pull. 3
b) Stator Core
Its main function is to carry the alternating flux which produces hysteresis and eddy
current losses. In order to reduce these losses, the stator core is built of high-grade silicon
steel stampings The stampings are fixed to the stator frame and the stampings are
insulated from the other with a thin varnish layer. The thickness of the stamping usually
varies from 0.35 to 0.65 mm. Slots are punched on the inner side of the stampings.

c) Stator winding
The slots on the periphery of the stator core of the three-phase induction motor carry
three phase windings which are supplied by three phase ac supply. The six terminals of
the windings (two of each phase) are connected in the terminal box of the machine. The
three phases of the winding are connected either in star or delta depending upon type of
starting method used. The stator of the motor is wound for a definite number of poles,
depending on the speed of the motor. If the number of poles is greater, the speed of the
motor will be less and if the number of poles is less than the speed will be high.
4
 120f
As the relationship between the speed and the pole of the motor is given as: NS =
P

Fig: Stator of three phase induction motor Fig: Three phase four pole stator winding Fig: Punching slots on
stator core

5
1) Rotor
The rotor is the rotating part of three phase induction motor. The rotor is also built of
thin laminations of the same material as the stator. The laminated cylindrical core is
mounted directly on the shaft. These laminations are slotted on the outer side to
receive the conductors. There are two types of rotor- squirrel cage rotor and phase
wound rotor.
a) Squirrel Cage Rotor
It consists of a laminated cylindrical core with slots nearly parallel to the shaft axis or
skewed. The circular slots at the outer periphery are semi-closed. Each slot contains
uninsulated bar conductor of aluminium or copper. At each end of the rotor, the
conductors the short-circuited by a heavy ring of the same material and is called end
ring. The rotor conductors and end rings form a closed circuit resembling like a cage
commonly used for keeping squirrels and hence, it is named as squirrel cage motor.

6
The skewing of the rotor conductors offers the following advantages:
i) It reduces humming and provide smooth and noise free operation.
ii) It results in a uniform torque curve for different positions of the rotor.
iii)The locking tendency of the rotor is reduced. As the teeth of the rotor and the
stator attract each other and lock due to magnetic action.

Fig: Squirrel cage rotor

7
a) Phase wound rotor
The Phase wound rotor is also called as slip ring rotor. It consists of a laminated
cylindrical core. The outer periphery of the rotor has a semi-closed slot which carries a 3
phase insulated windings. The number of poles of rotor are kept same to the number of
poles of the stator. The rotor is always wound three phase even if the stator is wound two
phase.
The rotor windings are connected in star. The open ends of the star circuit are brought
outside the rotor and connected to the three insulated slip rings which are mounted on
the shaft with brushes resting on them. These three brushes are connected to an external
star connected rheostat. This arrangement is done to introduce an external resistance in
rotor circuit. The resistor enables the variation of each rotor phase resistance to serve the
following purposes:
i) It increases the starting torque and decreases the starting current from the supply.
ii) It is used to control the speed of the motor.
8
When motor is running at its rated speed, slip rings are automatically short circuited
by means of a metal collar and brushes are lifted above the slip rings to minimize the
frictional losses. The rotor is skewed in this case too.

Fig: Phase wound rotor

9
Fig: Squirrel cage and phase wound rotor

10
 Production of rotating magnetic field
When the three phase stator windings are energized from a three phase balanced ac
supply, the three phase currents flow simultaneously through the stator windings and
will magnetize the stator core. If we study the nature of magnetic field produced by
these three phase currents, we will get a rotating magnetic field of constant magnitude
and is equal to 1.5 Φm where, Φm is the maximum value of flux due to any of three
phases. This field is such that its poles do no remain in a fixed position on the stator
but go on shifting their positions around the stator. For this reason, it is called a
rotating field. Let us study the nature of magnetic field produced in stator in detail:
When the three phase currents flow simultaneously through the windings and are
displaced from each other by 120° electrical. Each alternating phase current produces
its own flux which is sinusoidal. So all three fluxes are sinusoidal and are separated
from each other by 120°. If the phase sequence of the windings is R-Y-B, then
mathematical equations for the instantaneous values of the three fluxes ΦR, ΦY, ΦB
can be written as 11
ΦR = Φm sin ω t
ΦY = Φm sin ωt − 120
ΦB = Φm sin ωt + 120

Fig: Phasor diagram of fluxes with their assumed positive

directions

The net or resultant magnetic flux at any time at

the central space of the machine will be equal to
the vector sum of these fluxes.
Case 1: When Ɵ = ωt = 0˚
Fig: Waveform of three fluxes
ΦR = Φm sin 0 = 0
ΦY = Φm sin 0 − 120 = −0.866 Φm
ΦB = Φm sin 0 + 120 = +0.866 Φm

12
Therefore, at this instant, current flowing through the coil R-R’ is zero, current flowing
through the coil Y-Y’ is 0.866 Φm but the direction is negative and current flowing
through the coil B-B’ is 0.866 Φm but the direction is positive. The direction of the net
magnetic flux is determined by right hand screw rule and the magnitude of the net
magnetic flux can be calculated as

ΦT = ΦY2 + ΦB2 + 2ΦY ΦB cosƟ

Putting values on above formula, we get ΦT = 1.5 Φm

Case 2: When Ɵ = ωt = 60˚

ΦR = Φm sin 60 = +0.866Φm
ΦY = Φm sin 60 − 120 = −0.866 Φm
ΦB = Φm sin 60 + 120 = 0

13
Therefore, at this instant, current flowing through the coil B-B’ is zero, current flowing
through the coil Y-Y’ is 0.866 Φm but the direction is negative and current flowing
through the coil R-R’ is 0.866 Φm but the direction is positive. The direction of the net
magnetic flux is determined by right hand screw rule and the magnitude of the net
magnetic flux can be calculated as

ΦT = ΦY2 + ΦR2 + 2ΦY ΦR cosƟ

Putting values on above formula, we get ΦT = 1.5 Φm

Case 3: When Ɵ = ωt = 120˚

ΦR = Φm sin 120 = −0.866Φm
ΦY = Φm sin 120 − 120 = 0
ΦB = Φm sin 120 + 120 = 0.866 Φm
Therefore, at this instant, current flowing through the coil Y-Y’ is zero, current flowing
through the coil R-R’ is 0.866 Φm but the direction is negative and current flowing
through the coil B-B’ is 0.866 Φm but the direction is positive. 14
The direction of the net magnetic flux is determined by right hand screw rule and the
magnitude of the net magnetic flux can be calculated as
ΦT = ΦR2 + ΦB2 + 2ΦR ΦB cosƟ
Putting values on above formula, we get ΦT = 1.5 Φm
Similarly, at all other instant such as 180˚, 240 ˚, 300˚ and 360˚, the magnitude of net
magnetic field is again 1.5 Φm. Therefore, from the above analysis, it is clear that the
stator winding produces a rotating magnetic field with a constant magnitude at all
positions. The rotational speed of the rotating magnetic field is called synchronous
speed and it depends upon the frequency and number poles of the machine. It can be
expressed mathematically as:
120f
Snchronous speed, Ns =
P
where, f = frequency of the spply and P = number of poles

15
Fig: Net magnetic flux at different time instant Ɵ = ωt = 0˚, 60˚ and 120˚

16
 Working/Operating principle of three phase
induction motor
For sake of simplicity, let us consider the single conductor on the stationary rotor (i.e.
rotor at rest at starting). Let this conductor be subjected to the rotating magnetic field
produced when three phase supply is connected to the three phase winding of the stator.
Consider that the rotating magnetic field rotates in the clockwise direction. According to
Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic induction, an emf will be induced in the conductor.
Since, the rotor circuit is short circuited or made complete either through end ring or an
external resistance, the induced voltage causes the current to flow in the rotor conductor.
Since the magnetic field is rotating clockwise and the conductor is stationary, we can
assume that the conductor is in motion in the anticlockwise direction with respect to the
magnetic field. By right hand rule, the direction of the induced rotor current is outwards
(shown by dot). The induced current produces its own magnetic field or flux in the rotor.
17
When a current carrying conductor is put in a magnetic field resulting from the
interaction of rotor and stator fluxes, a force is developed which acts on the rotor
conductor. The direction of this force can be found out by Fleming’s left hand rule.
Since, the rotor conductor is in a slot in the circumference of the rotor, the force acts
tangentially on the rotor and hence induces a torque. Similar torques are produced on
all the rotor conductors. Now, the rotor is free to move so, it starts rotating in the same
direction of the rotating magnetic field. The rotor starts moving without any additional
excitation system and because of this reason the motor is called the self-starting
motor. The operation of the motor depends on the voltage induced on the rotor
conductor, and hence it is called the induction motor.
The direction of rotation can be determined by Lenz’s law. The direction of force will
be in such a way that it opposes the cause by which the emf was induced in the rotor
conductor. The main cause of rotor emf is the relative speed between the rotating
magnetic field and the rotor. Hence, to reduce this relative speed, the rotor will rotate
in the same direction as that of stator magnetic field. The rotor will try to catch up the
speed of the rotating magnetic field but it never success to do so and always runs at
speed less than synchronous speed. 18
If the rotor succeeds in catching up the stator field, there would be no relative speed
between the two, hence no rotor emf, no rotor current and so no torque to maintain
rotation. However, this won't stop the motor, the rotor will slow down due to loss of
torque, the torque will again be exerted due to relative speed. That is why the rotor
rotates at speed which is always less the synchronous speed in induction motor.

19
 Slip
The difference between the synchronous speed and the actual speed of the rotor is
known as the slip speed. It is a factor indicating the fraction by which the speed of
the rotor is slightly less than the synchronous speed. It is usually expressed as a
fraction or percentage of synchronous speed and is given by
NS − N
% Slip, S = × 100
NS
The slip of the induction motor changes with respect to the load on the motor.
When load on the motor increases, speed of motor decreases, then the slip of the
motor will increase.

20
 Frequency of rotor current
At standstill (i.e. when the rotor is stationary), the speed is zero but the relative speed
is maximum and the maximum emf will induce in the rotor (just like secondary
winding in a transformer) and the frequency of the induced rotor current is the same
as the supply frequency (f). But when the rotor starts revolving, then
the rate at which the rotor conductors cut by the rotating flux depends upon the
relative speed or slip speed. If ‘fR’ is the frequency of the rotor current, then
120fR
NS − N = …………. 1
P
120f
Also, NS = ……………….. 2
P
Dividing (1) by (2), we get
NS − N fR
=
NS f
∴ fR = sf
21
 Speed of rotor field
As we have seen that the rotating field set up by stator currents rotates at synchronous
speed NS rpm relative to stator surface. Similarly, the rotor current having frequency fR
when flows through each phase rotor winding, it gives rise to rotor field which rotates
at a speed of sNS rpm relative to the rotor surface. But the rotor itself is running at a
speed of N rpm with respect to stator surface. So the speed of rotor magnetic field with
respect to stator surface is given as N + sNS = NS(1-s) + sNS = NS.
It means that no matter what the value of slip, rotor and stator currents each produce a
sinusoidally distributed magnetic field of constant magnitude and constant space speed
of NS. This concludes that both the rotor and stator fields rotate synchronously which
means that they are stationary with respect to each other. These two synchronously
rotating magnetic fields superimpose on each other to give rise to actually existing
rotating field, which corresponds to the magnetizing current of the stator winding.

22
 Rotor emf
At standstill (i.e. when the rotor is stationary), the speed is zero but the relative speed is
maximum and the maximum emf will induce in the rotor. Thus, the induction motor at
standstill condition is equivalent to a three phase transformer with secondary short-
circuited. So, the emf induced per phase in the rotor at the instant of starting is given by
E2 N2
=
E1 N1
N2
∴ E2 = E1
N1
Where, N1 and N2 are the number of turns per phase in stator and rotor winding
respectively.
When the rotor starts running, the relative speed of the rotor with respect to the stator
flux drops in direct proportion with slip s and the magnitude of the emf induced in the
rotor will decrease as compared to the emf induced at standstill and hence, it is given by
sE2.
23
Fig: Equivalent circuit (per phase) of induction motor Fig: Equivalent circuit (per phase) of induction motor
at standstill condition at running condition

24
 Rotor current, power factor and rotor torque
Let us consider resistance and inductance per phase of rotor be R2 and L2
respectively.
At standstill condition:
Induced emf per phase in rotor winding at standstill condition = E2
Rotor winding reactance per phase, X2 = 2πfL2 where, f is supply frequency

Rotor winding impedance per phase, Z2 = R22 + X22

E2
Rotor current per phase, I2 =
R22 + X22
R2
Power factor of rotor current , Φ2 =
R22 + X22

25
At running condition:
Induced emf per phase in rotor winding = sE2
Rotor winding reactance per phase, XR = 2πfR L2 = 2πsfL2 = sX2

Rotor winding impedance per phase, Z2 = R22 + s2 X22

sE2
Rotor current per phase, I2 =
R22 + s 2 X22
R2
Power factor of rotor current , Φ2 =
R22 + s2 X22
The torque developed by the rotor of an induction motor is proportional to the
product of stator flux per pole and active component of rotor current i.e.
T α ΦI2 cosΦ2
Like, in the transformer flux remains constant and is independent on I1 and I2 .

26
 It depends only on E1. But we know that E2 α E1 . So, rotoremf per phase at
standstill, E2 α Φ. Hence, torque developed, T = KE2 I2 cosΦ2 .
Substituting values of I2 and cosΦ2 , we get
sE2 R2 𝐾𝑠𝑅2 𝐸22
TR = KE2 × × = 2 2 2
2 2 2
R 2 + s X2 R 2 + s X2 R 2 + s X2
2 2 2

From above equation, it can be concluded that the running torque is proportional to
the square of supply voltage because the rotor induced emf is proportional to supply
voltage.
At the instant of starting, slip is maximum (i.e. s = 1), so the starting torque is given
𝐾𝑅2 𝐸22
by: TS =
R22 +X22
If the supply voltage is constant, then the flux Φ and hence E2 both are constant.
Hence, the starting torque developed by the motor is given by
K1 R 2
∴ TS = 2 2 where, K1 is another constant
R 2 + X2
27
 Condition for maximum running torque
We have, Torque under running condition is given by
KsR 2 E22
TR = 2
R 2 + s2 X22
From the above torque equation, it is clear that the torque developed by the motor
depends upon the slip s provided E2 and R2 are constant. As slip changes with the
speed, torque will also change with the speed. If the speed decreases, the value of slip
will increase then the motor will develop more torque. But there is a limit so that after
particular value of speed, the motor will not be able to produce more torque. The
speed at which the torque is maximum can be determined as follows:
1 R22 + s2 X22 R22 s2 X22 R2 sX22
Let Y = = 2 = + = +
TR KsR 2 E2 KsR 2 E2 KsR 2 E2 KsE2 KR 2 E22
2 2 2

dy −R 2 X22
Then = 2 2+
ds Ks E2 KR 2 E22 28
 dY
TR will be maximum when Y will be minimum. For this, =0
ds
−R 2 X22
or, 2 2+ 2 =0
Ks E2 KR 2 E2
R2 X22
or, 2 =
Ks E2 KR 2 E22
2
2
R 2
or, S2 = 2
X2
R2
∴s=
X2
R2
Hence , maximum torque will be developed at a speed corresponding to s = .
X2
If the motor is overloaded so that the speed goes below this value, the motor
will not be able to develop more torque to overcome this increased load.
29
 Hence, the maximum torque under running condition is given by
KsR 2 E22 KR22 E22
TRmax = 2 2 2 = 2
R 2 + s X2 R
X2 (R22 + 22 × X22 )
X2
KE22
∴ TRmax =
2X2
This relation shows that the maximum torque is independent of rotor resistance.

30
 Torque-Slip and Torque-Speed characteristics
KsR 2 E22
Torque developed by an induction motor rotor is given by TR = 2
R 2 + s2 X22
From the above equation, it can be revealed that
i. When the speed is synchronous i.e. N=NS, slip is zero then the torque is zero so
that torque-slip characteristics curve starts from point A.
ii. When the speed is very close to synchronous speed, the slip is very small. So, the
value of s2X22 is very small compared to R22 and is negligible in comparison with
rotor resistance. Therefore, the equation of torque for this range of operation can
KsR2 E22 sE22
be simplified as: TR = or, TR α
R22 R2
∴ TR α s (if R 2 and E2 both are constant)
Therefore, torque increases proportionately with increase in slip (or with
decrease in speed) which is represented by a straight line AB on the
characteristics curve.
31
iii. As the slip increases (or speed decreases with increase in load), torque goes on
𝑅2
increasing and reaches its maximum value corresponding to slip 𝑠 = . This
𝑋2
maximum torque is known as breakdown or pull-out torque and the slip
corresponding to this torque is called breakdown slip.
iv. With the further increase in slip (or decrease in speed due to overload) beyond the
point of maximum torque, the torque begins to decrease. The result is that the motor
slows down and eventually stops. The motor operates for the value of slip between
zero and breakdown slip. With the higher value of slip s, R22 is very small compared
to s2X22 and is negligible in comparison with rotor reactance. Therefore, the equation
of torque for this range of operation can be simplified as:
KsR 2 E22 R 2 E22
TR = 2 2 or, TR α
𝑠 X2 sX22
1
∴ TR α (if R 2 , X2 and E2 both are constant)
s
32
Therefore, torque decreases which is represented by rectangular hyperbola CD in the
characteristics curve. When the motor stops at slip, s=1 or speed, N=0, the torque
KR2 E22
developed by the motor is given by : TS =
R22 +X22

This torque is known as starting

torque which is not enough to drive
the load on the motor. This part is
represented by OD in the
characteristics curve.

Fig: Torque-slip and Torque-speed characteristics

33
 Effect of rotor resistance upon torque-slip or
torque-speed characteristics
From torque-speed or torque-slip characteristics, we have at constant supply voltage
R2
At starting, TR α
s
s
At normal running condition, TR α
R2
Therefore, if we insert some resistance in series with rotor resistance (generally in case
of slip-ring induction motor), the starting torque will increase but running torque will
decrease.
For given value of torque, slip is proportional to rotor resistance, so addition of external
resistance in the rotor circuit does not lower the torque curve but slightly stretches it so
that same torque value occurs at lower speeds or higher slip as shown in T-s
characteristics curve.
34
 Full load torque and maximum torque
Let, the full load slip of the motor, full load torque and maximum torque be sf, TRf
and TRmax respectively.
Ksf R2 E22 KE22
We have, TRf = and, TRmax =
R22 +s2f X22 2X2
Ksf R2 E2
2 2sf R2
TRf R2 +sf X2
2 2
2 2sf R2 X2 X2
So, = KE2
= = R2
TRmax 2 R22 +s2f X22 2 +s2
2X2 2
X2 f

TRf 2sf sb R2
∴ = 2 2 where, sb = X is the value of slip at maximum torque
TRmax sb + sf 2
TS 2sb
Similarly, =
TRmax s2b +1

35
 Losses and efficiency
An induction motor takes electrical power input through the stator windings and the
shaft of the motor gives mechanical power output. The output power is always less
than the power input due to the power losses taking place in different stages of an
induction motor. The power stages in an induction motor is shown below.
Out of the total VA input to the stator, some power loss as copper loss will take place
due to heating of stator winding resistance and some power loss as iron loss will take
place due to heating of stator core because of eddy current loss and hysteresis loss
which depends on the supply frequency and the flux density in the core and the iron
loss is practically constant. Some of the reactive power(VAR) will also be lost to
supply the reactive power requirement of the machine to maintain required air-gap
flux. The remaining active power will be transferred to the rotor by means of
electromagnetic induction like in a transformer. Some power loss as a copper loss
will take place in rotor due to heating of rotor winding resistance. The iron loss of the
36
rotor, however, is negligible because frequency of emf induced in the rotor circuit
is very small with compared to supply frequency. Now, rest of the power will be
converted into the mechanical power in terms of mechanical rotation of the rotor
and give rise to gross torque. Out of this gross torque developed, some is lost due
to windage and friction losses in the rotor and the rest appears as the useful or shaft
torque which is provided by the net power available in the shaft of the motor.
Let,
Tg be the torque developed by the rotor at a speed of N rpm
Then, the mechanical power developed by the rotor or rotor gross output,
Pm=2πN × T g
If there were no copper losses in the rotor circuit, then all the power input to the
rotor will be converted into mechanical power and in such a situation the rotor
will rotate at synchronous speed, NS.
The power input to the rotor, P2 =2πNS × Tg
Thus, rotor copper loss, Pcr =P2 - Pm = 2πNS × Tg - 2πN × T g = 2π Tg (NS-N)
37
Now,
rotor copper loss 2π Tg NS − N NS − N
= =s
rotor power input 2πNS × Tg =
NS
Therefore, rotor copper loss is equal to slip times rotor input power (or power across
air-gap). Also, rotor gross output is the difference of rotor input and rotor copper loss
and is given by
Pm = 1 − s P2
Pm N
= 1−s =
NS
P2
rotor gross output N
Hence, rotor efficiency, ηrotor = =
rotor input NS
power developed by the shaft
And, overallefficiency, ηo =
stator input power

38
Power stages in induction motor

39
40