A

Major Project Report On

DYNAMIC VOLTAGE RESTORER USING SRF CONTROLLER
TO MITIGATE SAG/SWELL IN INDUSTRIAL DRIVE
APPLICATIONS

Submitted in partial fulfillment of

The requirements for the award of the degree in

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
In
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
By
BANOTH MADHU 19C81A0205

Under the esteemed guidance of

Y BHASKAR RAO M.Tech

Assistant Professor

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

SREEKAVITHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(Approved by AICTE & Affiliated to JNTU Hyderabad),
KAREPALLI-507 122, KHAMMAM (Dist), T.S.
2022-2023

i
 SREEKAVITHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(Approved by AICTE & Affiliated to JNTU Hyderabad),
KAREPALLI-507122, KHAMMAM (Dist), T.S.

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that this project report is the bonafide work of

BANOTH MADHU (19C81A0205) of the students who carried out
the project report entitled “DYNAMIC VOLTAGE RESTORER
USING SRF CONTROLLER TO MITIGATE SAG/SWELL IN
INDUSTRIALDRIVE APPLICATIONS” under the supervision by
Y.BHASKER RAO M.Tech.

SUPERVISOR, Head of the Department

Y.BHASKAR RAO M.Tech L.KISHORE M.Tech , Ph.D
Assistant Professor Associate professor

Submitted for viva voice Examination held on

External Examiner:

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The Satisfaction that accomplishes the successful completion of any task would
be incomplete without the mention of the people who make it possible and
whose constant guidance and encouragement crown all the efforts with success.

We render my thanks to Mr.P.USHAKIRAN KUMAR M.Tech chairman,

Sreekavitha engineering college, for his encouragement.

It is our privilege and pleasure to express my profound sense of respect, gratitude

and indebtedness to my guide Mr.Y.BHASKER RAO M.Tech Assistant professor,
Department of EEE, SreeKavitha Engineering College, Karepalli, for her constant
guidance, inspiration, and constant encouragement throughout this project work.

It is our privilege and pleasure to express my profound sense of respect, gratitude

and indebtedness to Mr. L.KISHORE M.Tech , Ph.D, Head of Department of EEE,
SKEC, Karepalli,

We express our sincere gratitude to Dr.L.KISHORE M.Tech, Ph.D, Principal of

SreeKavitha Engineering College, Karepalli for providing excellent academic
environment in the college.

We offer our sincere thanks to our faculty members and lab in-charges that
have helped me lot.

We extend our thanks to all the people, who have helped me a lot
directly or indirectly in the completion of this project.

BANOTH MADHU 19C81A0205

iii
 DECLARATION

I BANOTH MADHU (19C81A0205), hereby submit that the Project

Report entitled “VOLTAGE SAG MITIGATION BY D-STATCOM USING
VOLTAGE REGULATIONTECHNIQUE ” under the valuable guidance of

Mr.Y. BHASKAR RAO M.Tech Assistant professor, Department of Electrical and

Electronics Engineering and this is a record of bonafide work carried out by me and
the results embodied in this Technical seminar Report have not been submitted to any
other University or Institute for the award of any other degree or diploma.

Signature Of Students:

BANOTH MADHU (19C81A0205) :

iv
 CONTENTS
CHAPTERS DESCRIPTION PAGE NO
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1
CHAPTER 2 POWER QUALITY 3

2.1 INTRODUCTION 3

2.2 VOLTAGE SAG 5

2.3 VOLTAGE SWELL 6

2.4 REACTIVE POWER 7

2.5 NEED OF REACTIVE POWER 8

COMPENSATION

2.6 HARMONICS 10

2.7 SOURCES OF HARMONICS 11

CHAPTER 3 REVIEW ON FLEXIBLE AC TRANSMISSION 13

3.1 DYNAMIC VOLATGE RESTORER AND ITS 16

OPERATION SYSTEM
CHAPTER 4 INDUCTION MOTOR AND SPEED 19
CONTROL METHODS
4.1 INDUCTION MOTOR GENERAL PRINCIPLE 21

CHAPTER 5 CONTROL STRATEGY 37

5.1 CONTROL OF DVR 37

CHAPTER 6 MATLAB & SIMULINK 42

6.1 MATLAB 42

6.2 SIMULINK 43

CHAPTER 7 SIMULATION RESULTS 54

CHAPTER 8 CONCLUSION 57
 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO FIGURE NAME PAGE NO

Fig 2.1(a) Voltage Sag 5

Fig 2.1(b) Voltage Sag 6

Fig 2.2 Voltage and Current Waveform 8

Fig 2.3 Power triangle 8

Fig 2.4 Distorted current wave form and its components 11

Fig 2.5 Example of a load drawing a non-sinusoidal current 12

from the supply

Fig 2.6 Comparison of current waveform i line(t) with 12

the waveform i1(t) + i_h5(t)

Fig: 3.3 Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR) Schematic Diagram 17

Fig 4.1 showing various parts of induction motor 22

Fig 4.2 showing production of magnetic field 22

Fig 4.3 Figure of Lamination of core 23

Fig 4.4 Figure of windings in stator 24

Fig 4.7 A squirrel-cage AC motor 26

Fig 4.8 phase currents in stator windings 28

Fig4.9 for time T=0 29

Fig 4.10 for time T=1 30

Fig 4.11 for time T=2 31

Fig:4.12 360 Degree Rotation 31

Fig4.13 for rotation of rotor 32

Fig. 5 Simulation model without DVR 54

Fig. 6 Source voltage 54

Fig. 7 Load voltage 55

Fig. 8 Simulation model with DVR 55

Fig. 9 Control Circuit 55

Fig. 10 Source voltage with sag 56

Fig. 11 Load voltage without sag 56

Fig. 12 Stator current 56

Fig. 13 Speed 56
 Abstract

Industrial electricity users steadily expressed concern about energy efficiency in recent
years. Modern enterprises use sensitive electronic power devices, control systems and nonlinear
charges to improve energy efficiency and productivity as part of automated processes. Due to the
greater use in industrial systems of advanced and sensitive electronic equipment, voltage
disruptions have become the most important concern for power quality. A new device that
defends sensitive industrial loads against voltage slopes / swells and other stress disruptions is
the Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR). DVR configurations and control schemes are determined
by the specification and characteristics of the load to be protected. Due to the inherent inertia and
the ability of induction engines to withstand shorter-term, shallower swells and their phase-
angle-hop resistance, induction motor cargo industries need a completely new approach to
designing and operating a suitable DVR. This paper proposes a DVR with a quick response,
simple and effective controller to satisfy the voltage repair requirements for induction drive
applications.

Keywords—Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR), induction motor modeling, synchronous

reference frame (SRF).
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

In distribution systems, power quality and reliability have become a cause for concern and
interest in contemporary industrial and commercial applications in recent years. The world today needs
a higher degree of power supply efficiency and reliability in distribution networks than ever before
with the advent of advanced manufacturing systems, industrial drives and precision electronic
equipment. The term "problems of power quality" refers to a wide range of problems. Some examples
include voltage slide, spill, and distortion of harmonics, transient impulses, and interruptions. Problems
ranging from malfunction or faults to shutdowns and loss of manufacturing capability are caused by
these disturbances. Voltage sags can occur as frequently as any other issue with power quality. These
sags are the key questions regarding the power efficiency of the power supply system [1]. The IEEE
1159 standard defines a voltage drop to 10% - 90% of the nominal voltage at the power frequency for a
period of 12 cycles to one minute [2] as a decrease in RMS voltage level.
In IEC, voltage sag is defined as a terminology dip. Voltage dip is characterized as a sudden
decrease in tension at one point of the electricity system by the International Electro-Technical
Commission (IEC), followed by a short duration of tension recovery ranging from a half-cycle to a few
seconds [3]. According to IEEE 1159-1995, the amplitude of the voltage slope is the size of the voltage
remaining during the incident. The magnitude of the sag (dip) threshold, which is defined as 0.9 p.u as
defined by IEC 1000-4-30, is specified to detect the start and the close of the dip. The scale of the
slope is typically 0.1 to 0.9 p.u [4]-[5]. Voltage slopes are often linked to failures in system but can
also come from heavy load powering or from starting up large motors which can draw 6 to 10 times
their maximum load current. Three types of length are instantaneous, temporary and temporary,
referring to operating cycles of the utility system [6]-[7]. IEEE 1159 describes the voltage swell as
raising the amount of RMS voltage by 110% -180% nominal for 12 or 1 minute period times [8]. It
comes under the category of variations in short voltage, one of the broad categories of problems in
terms of power quality. Even interchangeably with the phrase “swell,” the expression “momentous
overvoltage”. The size of a power swell is determined by the remainder of its voltage, which according
to IEEE 1159-1995 often exceeds 1.0 p.u.

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 The swell threshold, as described in IEC 1000-4-30, is the voltage magnitude for the detection
of the start and finish of a swell. Typically, the size of the swell varies between 1.1 and 1.8 p.u in [9].
Swelling, such as sags, is associated, though less common, with device failure conditions. Due to
temporary increases in voltage in healthy phases during a single-line-to-ground (SLG) failure, swelling
can occur. Swell is defined by their size (rms value) and length and can cause a large load to be
switched off or a big condenser bench to be operated. Pressure of a swell voltage is determined by
defect location, impedance of the device and grounding.

A wide range of DVR solutions and problems have been published [10], including balancing
voltages in a three-phase system and addressing energy-optimized DVR power. Different control
methods for various types of voltage sags have been analyzed in [12]-[15], with an industrial DVR
example [11]-[17] addresses a comparison of different DVR topologies and control methods. The
paper [19] discusses the concept of DVR assisted condenser that protects supply voltages from sag,
swell, distortion, or imbalance.

The paper [20] specifies the output of a high-frequency DVR transformer. A reduced voltage
source converter is used in this article to demonstrate the control and efficiency of a DVR (VSC) [20].
The Synchronous SRF principle is used to power the DVR.The following is how the paper is
organized: dynamic voltage restorer, control and operation are presented in Section II and Section III
respectively. In Section IV, a detailed mathematical modeling of 3- ◻ squirrel-cage induction motor is
presented.

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 CHAPTER 2
Power Quality
Introduction
The contemporary container crane industry, like many other industry segments, is often
enamored by the bells and whistles, colorful diagnostic displays, high speed performance, and levels of
automation that can be achieved. Although these features and their indirectly related computer based
enhancements are key issues to an efficient terminal operation, we must not forget the foundation upon
which we are building. Power quality is the mortar which bonds the foundation blocks. Power quality
also affects terminal operating economics, crane reliability, our environment, and initial investment in
power distribution systems to support new crane installations. To quote the utility company newsletter
which accompanied the last monthly issue of my home utility billing: ‘Using electricity wisely is a
good environmental and business practice which saves you money, reduces emissions from generating
plants, and conserves our natural resources.’ As we are all aware, container crane performance
requirements continue to increase at an astounding rate. Next generation container cranes, already in
the bidding process, will require average power demands of 1500 to 2000 kW – almost double the total
average demand three years ago. The rapid increase in power demand levels, an increase in container
crane population, SCR converter crane drive retrofits and the large AC and DC drives needed to power
and control these cranes will increase awareness of the power quality issue in the very near future.
When applied to the container crane industry, the power issues which degrade power quality include:
• Power Factor
• Harmonic Distortion
• Voltage Transients
• Voltage Sags or Dips
• Voltage Swells
The AC and DC variable speed drives utilized on board container cranes are significant contributors to
total harmonic current and voltage distortion. Whereas SCR phase control creates the desirable average
power factor, DC SCR drives operate at less than this. In addition, line notching occurs when SCR’s
commutate, creating transient peak recovery voltages that can be 3 to 4 times the nominal line voltage
depending upon the system impedance and the size of the drives. The frequency and severity of these
power system disturbances varies with the speed of the drive.

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 Harmonic current injection by AC and DC drives will be highest when the drives are operating
at slow speeds. Power factor will be lowest when DC drives are operating at slow speeds or during
initial acceleration and deceleration periods, increasing to its maximum value when the SCR’s are
phased on to produce rated or base speed. Above base speed, the power factor essentially remains
constant. Unfortunately, container cranes can spend considerable time at low speeds as the operator
attempts to spot and land containers. Poor power factor places a greater kVA demand burden on the
utility or engine-alternator power source. Low power factor loads can also affect the voltage stability
which can ultimately result in detrimental effects on the life of sensitive electronic equipment or even
intermittent malfunction. Voltage transients created by DC drive SCR line notching, AC drive voltage
chopping, and high frequency harmonic voltages and currents are all significant sources of noise and
disturbance to sensitive electronic equipment

It has been our experience that end users often do not associate power quality problems with
Container cranes, either because they are totally unaware of such issues or there was no economic
Consequence if power quality was not addressed. Before the advent of solid-state power supplies,
Power factor was reasonable, and harmonic current injection was minimal. Not until the crane
Population multiplied, power demands per crane increased, and static power conversion became the
way of life, did power quality issues begin to emerge. Even as harmonic distortion and power Factor
issues surfaced, no one was really prepared. Even today, crane builders and electrical drive System
vendors avoid the issue during competitive bidding for new cranes. Rather than focus on Awareness
and understanding of the potential issues, the power quality issue is intentionally or Unintentionally
ignored. Power quality problem solutions are available. Although the solutions are not free, in most
cases, they do represent a good return on investment. However, if power quality is not specified, it
most likely will not be delivered.

Power quality can be improved through:

• Power factor correction,
• Harmonic filtering,
• Special line notch filtering,
• Transient voltage surge suppression,
• Proper earthing systems.

4
In most cases, the person specifying and/or buying a container crane may not be fully aware of the
potential power quality issues. If this article accomplishes nothing else, we would hope to
provide that awareness.

Voltage Sag:
Voltage sags and momentary power interruptions are probably the most important PQ
problem affecting industrial and large commercial customers. These events are usually associated with
a fault at some location in the supplying power system. Interruptions occur when the fault is on the
circuit supplying the customer. But voltage sags occur even if the faults happen to be far away from
the customer's site. Voltage sags lasting only 4-5 cycles can cause a wide range of sensitive customer
equipment to drop out. To industrial customers, voltage sag and a momentary interruption are
equivalent if both shut their process down. A typical example of voltage sag is shown in fig 1. The
susceptibility of utilization equipment to voltage sag is dependent upon duration and magnitude of
voltage sags and can be define

Fig 2.1(a): Voltage Sag

Characteristics of Voltage Sags:
Voltage sags which can cause impacts are caused by faults on the power system.
Motor starting also results in voltage sags but the magnitudes are usually not severe enough to cause
equipment miss-operation.

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 Fig 2.1(b): Voltage Sag

A single line to ground fault condition results in a much less severe voltage sag than 3-phase
fault Condition due to a delta--star transformer connection at the plant. Transmission related voltage
sags are normally much more consistent than those related to distribution. Because of large amounts of
energy associated with transmission faults, they are cleared as soon as possible.

Voltage swell:

A swell is the reverse form of a Sag, having an increase in AC Voltage for a duration of 0.5
cycles to 1 minute's time. For swells, high-impedance neutral connections, sudden large load
reductions, and a single-phase fault on a three phase system are common sources. Swells can cause
data errors, light flickering, electrical contact degradation, and semiconductor damage in electronics
causing hard server failures. Our power conditioners and UPS Solutions are common solutions for
swells.

It is important to note that, much like sags, swells may not be apparent until results are seen. Having
your power quality devices monitoring and logging your incoming power will help measure these
events.

Over-voltage

Over-voltages can be the result of long-term problems that create swells. Think of an
overvoltage as an extended swell.

6
 Over-voltages are also common in areas where supply transformer tap settings are set
incorrectly and loads have been reduced. Over-voltage conditions can create high current draw and
cause unnecessary tripping of downstream circuit breakers, as well as overheating and putting stress on
equipment. Since an overvoltage is a constant swell, the same UPS and Power Conditioners will work
for these. Please note however that if the incoming power is constantly in an overvoltage condition,
the utility power to your facility may need correction as well. The same symptoms apply to the over-
voltages and swells however since the overvoltage is more constant you should expect some excess
heat. This excess heat, especially in data center environments, must be monitored.If you are
experiencing any of these power quality problems we have solutions ranging from Power Conditioners
/ Voltage Regulators to traditional UPS Systems and Flywheel UPS Solutions. Do not hesitate to call
on us.

SWELL CAUSES
As discussed previously, swells are less common than voltage sags, but also usually associated
with system fault conditions. A swell can occur due to a single line-toground fault on the system,
which can also result in a temporary voltage rise on the unfaulted phases. This is especially true in
ungrounded or floating ground delta systems, where the sudden change in ground reference result in a
voltage rise on the ungrounded phases. On an ungrounded system, the line-to ground voltages on the
ungrounded phases will be 1.73 pu during a fault condition. Close to the substation on a grounded
system, there will be no voltage rise on unfaulted phases because the substation transformer is usually
connected delta-wye, providing a low impedance path for the fault current. Swells can also be
generated by sudden load decreases. The abrupt interruption of
current can generate a large voltage, per the formula: v = L di/dt, where L is the inductance of the line,
and di/dt is the change in current flow. Switching on a large capacitor bank can also cause a swell,
though it more often causes an oscillatory transient.

Reactive power
Reactive power is a quantity that has become fundamental to the understanding and analysis of
AC electric power systems. It is rarely mentioned in physics text books and is often clouded in mystery
because of its "imaginary" status in the mathematics that electrical engineers use to describe certain
phenomenon in AC circuits.

7
 The fundamental definition of reactive power can be explained by first looking at the
relationship between a sinusoidal voltage and current waveforms of the same frequency (Figure 2.2).
Reactive power has its origin in the phase shift between these two waveforms. When a device
consumes real power such that the voltage and current waveforms are in phase with each other, the
device consumes zero reactive power. When the current defined "into" a device lags the voltage, it
consumes reactive power (this is the case in Figure 2.1). The amount of reactive power consumed by
the device depends on the phase shift between the voltage and current [2].

Fig 2.2: Voltage and Current Waveform Fig 2.3: Power triangle

This definition of reactive power leads to the definition of complex power S as S=VI*=P+jQ (2.2)
where V and I are the complex "Root Mean Square" phasor representations of the voltage and current,
and * denotes conjugation. From this relationship, it is clear that reactive power (Q) will have a serious
impact on both the voltages in a network and the currents.

The need for reactive power compensation:

 voltage regulation
 to increase stability of the system
 to improve system power factor
 to increase utilization of machines and equipments connected to the system
 to reduce losses of the system to prevent voltage sag and voltage collapse

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 So, one primary dilemma with reactive power is that a sufficient quantity of it is needed to provide
the loads and losses in the network, but having too much reactive power flowing around in the network
causes excess heating and undesirable voltage drops. The normal answer to this dilemma is to provide
reactive power sources exactly at the location where the reactive power is consumed. And, since
strictly speaking it does not take any "fuel" to provide reactive power, it should be possible to
distribute reactive power sources (such as capacitors) all around the network to avoid the problem of
heating the conductors and causing voltage drops. Unfortunately, this is not practical in the extreme
since there are literally millions of lines and loads connected to the grid and so this would require
millions of reactive power sources - all controlled to provide exactly the right amount of reactive
power at the right time - every second of every day. The best we can do in most cases is work with
some type of aggregation of load (say at the feeder leaving a substation) and at terminals of major lines
and transformers. This also brings up the issue of the difference between power factor control (trying
to exactly provide the right amount of reactive power needed to equal that which is consumed) and
voltage control (trying to keep voltage levels at exactly the right level no matter how much reactive
power it takes). Reactive power is both the problem and the solution to network voltage control. The
reactance of lines creates a voltage drop which must be compensated for whether the actual line flow is
transferring real or reactive power (or both). The reactance also consumes reactive power which must
be provided from some source. Serving reactive power to loads is especially difficult because the
reactive power must flow from the source to the load - thereby increasing reactive losses - which in
turn requires more reactive power from the source. The response of reactive power sources varies from
milliseconds to seconds. The use of synchronous machines is the most common source for reactive
power (and also voltage control).
The excitation system which provides the dc to the field winding of the machine adjusts the
reactive power output (or input) to maintain the desired voltage set point. But, generators also have
capability curves which bound the combination of real and reactive power output. The phenomena
which bound the output vary from heating of the stator to heating of the rotor, stability, and other
physical constraints. In some regions, this curve is simply the bound on the square root of the sum of
the squares of P and Q (called "apparent power").
For better performance of the power system capacities by introducing compensation devices like
Flexible AC Transmission system [FACTS] device becomes very important. With the introduction of
FACTS device, we can do real time control of the reactive power. By using FACTS device with
controller, we can deal with variable reactive power demands.
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 Device like Fixed Capacitor Thyristor Controlled Reactor (FC-TCR) can control variable reactive
power with the use of controller. The controlling of reactive power depends on the rating of the
Capacitor, rating of Reactor and rating of the Switches. By controlling firing angle and pulse width of
the gate pulses we can control the reactive power

HARMONICS:
Any distorted non-sinusoidal periodic function can be analyzed by the Fourier theorem to be
represented as a sum of terms made up of
 sinusoidal term at the fundamental frequency,
 sinusoidal terms (harmonics) having frequencies that are multiples of the fundamental
frequency and
 A direct current component when applicable.

The nth-order harmonic (commonly referred to as the nth harmonic) in a signal is the sinusoidal
component with a frequency that is n times the fundamental frequency.
The equation for the harmonic expansion of a periodic function is given as
𝑌(𝑡) = 𝑌𝑜 + ∑∞𝑛=1 𝑌𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝑛(𝑛𝜔𝑡 − ɸ𝑛) (2.1)
Where
Yo = DC component,
Ymax,n = maximum value (amplitude) of the nth harmonic
𝜔 = angular frequency=2𝜋 times the fundamental frequency, and
Φn = initial displacement of the harmonic component at t=0.
That is, a distorted periodic signal has the fundamental component at the fundamental frequency, say
50 Hz, plus second harmonic component at 100 Hz plus third harmonic component at 150 Hz plus, and
so on. For instance, the current wave shown in Figure 14.1 is affected by harmonic distortion. It is the
sum of fundamental component and superimposed harmonics.
Both electricity distribution networks and consumer equipment are affected by harmonic distortion of
the voltage waveform. Harmonic distortion levels have increased rapidly in electric power systems in
recent years due primarily to the increasingly widespread application of nonlinear semiconductor
devices, which produce the majority of harmonic distortion.

10
Fig 2.4: Distorted current wave form and its components

SOURCES OF HARMONICS
Historically, harmonics were mainly caused by magnetization nonlinearity, and recently, devices
causing harmonics are present in all industrial, commercial and residential installations as nonlinear
loads. The load is said to be nonlinear when the current it draws does not have the same waveform as
the supply voltage [5]. Mostly, this load is represented by the devices comprising power electronics
circuits such as
 industrial equipment (welding machines, arc furnaces, induction furnaces, rectifiers),
 variable-speed drives for asynchronous and DC motors,
 Office equipment (PCs, photocopy machines, fax machines, etc.),
 Household appliances (TVs, microwave ovens, fluorescent lighting etc.),
 uninterruptible power supplies (UPSs) and
 Saturation of equipment (essentially transformers) that may cause nonlinear currents.

11
Fig 2.5 Example of a load drawing a non-sinusoidal current from the supply

Fig 2.6 Comparison of current waveform i line(t) with the waveform i1(t) + i_h5(t)

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 CHAPTER 3
REVIEW ON FLEXIBLE AC TRANSMISSION SYSTEM
FACTS:
Flexible AC Transmission Systems, called FACTS, got in the recent years a well known term
for higher controllability in power systems by means of power electronic devices. Several FACTS-
devices have been introduced for various applications worldwide. A number of new types of devices
are in the stage of being introduced in practice. In most of the applications the controllability is used to
avoid cost intensive or landscape requiring extensions of power systems, for instance like upgrades or
additions of substations and power lines. FACTS-devices provide a better adaptation to varying
operational conditions and improve the usage of existing installations. The basic applications of
FACTS-devices are:

• Power flow control,

• Increase of transmission capability,
• Voltage control,
• Reactive power compensation,
• Stability improvement,
• Power quality improvement,
• Power conditioning,
• Flicker mitigation,
• Interconnection of renewable and distributed generation and storages.

Figure 1.1 shows the basic idea of FACTS for transmission systems. The usage of lines for active
power transmission should be ideally up to the thermal limits. Voltage and stability limits shall be
shifted with the means of the several different FACTS devices. It can be seen that with growing line
length, the opportunity for FACTS devices gets more and more important.

The influence of FACTS-devices is achieved through switched or controlled shunt compensation,

series compensation or phase shift control. The devices work electrically as fast as current, voltage or
impedance controllers. The power electronic component allows very short reaction times down to far
below one second.
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The development of FACTS-devices has started with the growing capabilities of power electronic
components. Devices for high power levels have been made available in converters for high and even
highest voltage levels. The overall starting points are network elements influencing the reactive power
or the impedance of a part of the power system. Figure 1.2 shows a number of basic devices separated
into the conventional ones and the FACTS-devices.

For the FACTS side the taxonomy in terms of 'dynamic' and 'static' needs some explanation. The term
'dynamic' is used to express the fast controllability of FACTS-devices provided by the power
electronics. This is one of the main differentiation factors from the conventional devices. The term
'static' means that the devices have no moving parts like mechanical switches to perform the dynamic
controllability. Therefore most of the FACTS-devices can equally be static and dynamic.

14
The left column in Figure 1.2 contains the conventional devices build out of fixed or mechanically
switch able components like resistance, inductance or capacitance together with transformers. The
FACTS-devices contain these elements as well but use additional power electronic valves or converters
to switch the elements in smaller steps or with switching patterns within a cycle of the alternating
current. The left column of FACTS-devices uses Thyristor valves or converters. These valves or
converters are well known since several years. They have low losses because of their low switching
frequency of once a cycle in the converters or the usage of the Thyristors to simply bridge impedances
in the valves.

The right column of FACTS-devices contains more advanced technology of voltage source converters
based today mainly on Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBT) or Insulated Gate Commutated
Thyristors (IGCT). Voltage Source Converters provide a free controllable voltage in magnitude and
phase due to a pulse width modulation of the IGBTs or IGCTs. High modulation frequencies allow to
get low harmonics in the output signal and even to compensate disturbances coming from the network.
The disadvantage is that with an increasing switching frequency, the losses are increasing as well.

15
3.1 DYNAMIC VOLATGE RESTORER AND ITS OPERATION

The dynamic voltage restorer (DVR) is a device that can be used in distribution networks to
inject 3-phase voltage in series and synchronism with the distribution feeder voltages, to correct short
voltage reductions (the so-called, voltage sags). DVR is a specialized electrical system that reduces
voltage fluctuations on the supply side. The DVR, also known as a Static Series Compensator, keeps
the load voltage at the desired magnitude and phase by compensating for voltage slips/winds and
voltage disconnections at the point of common connection. The major components in the DVR are as
follows:

i. Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)

ii. Injection Transformers
iii. Passive Filters
iv. Energy storage
v. Capacitor
vi. By-Pass Switch

DVR (Dynamic Voltage Restorer) is a static var device that has seen applications in a variety
of transmission and distribution systems. It is a series compensation device, which protects sensitive
electric load from power quality problems such as voltage sags, swells, unbalance and distortion
through power electronic controllers that use voltage source converters (VSC).

The first DVR was installed in North America in 1996 - a 12.47 kV system located in Anderson, South
Carolina. Since then, DVRs have been applied to protect critical loads in utilities, semiconductor and
food processing. Today, the dynamic voltage restorer is one of the most effective PQ devices in
solving voltage sag problems. However, cost and installation restrictions have limited its
implementation to where there is obvious requirement for a stable voltage supply.
The basic principle of the dynamic voltage restorer is to inject a voltage of required magnitude and
frequency, so that it can restore the load side voltage to the desired amplitude and waveform even
when the source voltage is unbalanced or distorted. Generally, it employs a gate turn off thyristor
(GTO) solid state power electronic switches in a pulse width modulated (PWM) inverter structure. The
DVR can generate or absorb independently controllable real and reactive power at the load side. In

16
other words, the DVR is made of a solid state DC to AC switching power converter that injects a set of
three phase AC output voltages in series and synchronism with the distribution and transmission line
voltages.

The source of the injected voltage is the commutation process for reactive power demand and an
energy source for the real power demand. The energy source may vary according to the design and
manufacturer of the DVR. Some examples of energy sources applied are DC capacitors, batteries and
that drawn from the line through a rectifier.

Fig: 3.3. Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR) Schematic Diagram

Operation

In normal conditions, the dynamic voltage restorer operates in stand-by mode. However, during
disturbances, nominal system voltage will be compared to the voltage variation. This is to get the
differential voltage that should be injected by the DVR in order to maintain supply voltage to the load
within limits.

The amplitude and phase angle of the injected voltages are variable, thereby allowing control of the
real and reactive power exchange between the dynamic voltage restorer and the distribution system.
The DC input terminal of a DVR is connected to an energy storage device of appropriate capacity. As
mentioned, the reactive power exchange between the DVR and the distribution system is internally
generated by the DVR without AC passive reactive components. The real power exchanged at the
DVR output AC terminals is provided by the DVR input DC terminal by an external energy source or
energy storage system.

17
Also, there is a resemblance in the technical approach to DVRs to that of providing low voltage ride-
through (LVRT) capability in wind turbine generators. The dynamic response characteristics,
particularly for line supplied DVRs are similar to LVRT-mitigated turbines. Moreover, since the
device is connected in series, there are conduction losses, which can be minimized by using Integrated
Gate-Commutated Thyristor (IGCT) technology in the inverters.

Applications

Practically, the capability of injection voltage by DVR system is 50% of nominal voltage. This allows
DVRs to successfully provide protection against sags to 50% for durations of up to 0.1
seconds. Furthermore, most voltage sags rarely reach less than 50%.

The dynamic voltage restorer is also used to mitigate the damaging effects of voltage swells, voltage
unbalance and other waveform distortions.

18
 CHAPTER 4
INDUCTION MOTOR AND SPEED CONTROL METHODS

Historical Review

The history of electrical motors goes back as far as 1820, when Hans Christian Oersted
discovered the magnetic effect of an electric current. One year later, Michael Faraday discovered the
electromagnetic rotation and built the first primitive D.C. motor. Faraday went on to discover
electromagnetic induction in 1831, but it was not until 1883 that Tesla invented the A.C asynchronous
motor. In 1882, Nikola Tesla identified the rotating magnetic field principle, and pioneered the use of a
rotary field of force to operate machines. He exploited the principle to design a unique two-phase
induction motor in 1883. In 1885, Galileo Ferraris independently researched the concept. In 1888,
Ferraris published his research in a paper to the Royal Academy of Sciences in Turin. Introduction of
Tesla's motor from 1888 onwards initiated what is known as the Second Industrial Revolution, making
possible the efficient generation and long distance distribution of electrical energy using the alternating
current transmission system, also of Tesla's invention (1888).

Before the invention of the rotating magnetic field, motors operated by continually passing a
conductor through a stationary magnetic field (as in homopolar motors). Tesla had suggested that the
commentators’ from a machine could be removed and the device could operate on a rotary field of
force. Professor Poeschel, his teacher, stated that would be akin to building a perpetual motion
machine. This classic alternating current electro-magnetic motor was an induction motor. In the
induction motor, the field and armature were ideally of equal field strengths and the field and armature
cores were of equal sizes. The total energy supplied to operate the device equaled the sum of the
energy expended in the armature and field coils.

The power developed in operation of the device equaled the product of the energy expended in
the armature and field coils. The main advantage is that induction motors do not require an electrical
connection between stationary and rotating parts of the motor.

19
 Therefore, they do not need any mechanical commutates (brushes), leading to the fact that they
are maintenance free motors. Induction motors also have low weight and inertia, high efficiency and a
high overload capability. Therefore, they are cheaper and more robust, and less prone to any failure at
high speeds. Furthermore, the motor can work in explosive environments because no sparks are
produced.

INTRODUCTION OF INDUCTION MOTOR

An induction motor (IM) is a type of asynchronous AC motor where power is supplied to the
rotating device by means of electromagnetic induction. Other commonly used name is squirrel cage
motor due to the fact that the rotor bars with short circuit rings resemble a squirrel cage (hamster
wheel).An electric motor converts electrical power to mechanical power in its rotor.

There are several ways to supply power to the rotor. In a DC motor this power is supplied to the
armature directly from a DC source, while in an induction motor this power is induced in the rotating
device. An induction motor is sometimes called a rotating transformer because the stator (stationary
part) is essentially the primary side of the transformer and the rotor (rotating part) is the secondary
side. Induction motors are widely used, especially polyphase induction motors, which are frequently
used in industrial drives.

The Induction motor is a three phase AC motor and is the most widely used machine. Its
characteristic features are-
 Simple and rugged construction
 Low cost and minimum maintenance
 High reliability and sufficiently high efficiency
 Needs no extra starting motor and need not be synchronized
 An Induction motor has basically two parts – Stator and Rotor

The Stator is made up of a number of stampings with slots to carry three phase windings. It is
wound for a definite number of poles. The windings are geometrically spaced 120 degrees apart. Two
types of rotors are used in Induction motors - Squirrel-cage rotor and Wound rotor

20
4.1 Induction motor general principle

As a general rule, conversion of electrical power into mechanical power takes place in the
rotating parts of an electrical motor. In dc motor, the electrical power is conducted directly in armature
the rotating part of the motor through brush or commutates and hence dc motor called as conduction
motor but in case of induction motor the motor does not receive the electrical power by conduction but
by induction in exactly same way as the secondary of a 2-winding transformer receives its power from
the primary. That is why such motor known as induction motor.

In fact, an induction motor can be treated as a rotating transformer i.e. one in which primary
winding is stationary but the secondary is free to rotate. Of all the a.c. motors, the poly phase induction
motor is the one which is extensively used for various kinds of industrial drives.

When a three-phase supply is connected to the stator windings, a rotating magnetic field is
produced. As the magnetic flux cuts a bar on the rotor, an e.m.f. is induced in it and since it is joined,
via the end conducting rings, to another bar one pole pitch away, current flows in the bars.

21
 Figure4.1. showing various parts of induction motor

The magnetic field associated with this current flowing in the bars interacts with the rotating
magnetic field and a force is produced, tending to turn the rotor in the same direction as the rotating
magnetic field. Similar forces are applied to all the conductors on the rotor, so that a torque is produced
causing the rotor to rotate.

Figure4.2. showing production of magnetic field

22
 They are widely used for different applications ranging from small induction motors in washing
machines, household fans etc to vary large induction motors which are capable of tens of thousands of
kW in output, for pipeline compressors, wind-tunnel drives and overland conveyor systems. Through
electromagnetic induction, the rotating magnetic field induces a current in the conductors in the rotor,
which in turn sets up a counterbalancing magnetic field that causes the rotor to turn in the direction the
field is rotating. The rotor must always rotate slower than the rotating magnetic field produced by the
polyphase electrical supply; otherwise, no counterbalancing field will be produced in the rotor.
Induction motors are the workhorses of industry and motors up to about 500 kW (670 horsepower) in
output are produced in highly standardized frame sizes, making them nearly completely
interchangeable between manufacturers.

Construction of induction motor

An induction motor consists of many parts, the stator and rotor being the basic subsystems of
the machine. An exploded view of a squirrel-cage motor is shown .The motor case (frame), ribbed
outside for better cooling, houses the stator core with a three phase winding placed in slots on the
periphery of the core. The stator core is made of thin (0.3 mm to 0.5 mm) soft-iron laminations, which
are stacked and screwed together. Individual laminations are covered on both sides with insulating
lacquer to reduce eddy-current losses. On the front side, the stator housing is closed by a cover, which
also serves as a support for the front bearing of the rotor. Usually, the cover has drip-proof air intakes
to improve cooling. The stator is the stationary electrical part of the motor. The stator core of a NEMA
motor is made up of several hundred thin laminations.

Figure of Lamination of core

23
 Stator laminations are stacked together forming a hollow cylinder. Coils of insulated wire are
inserted into slots of the stator core. Each grouping of coils, together with the steel core it surrounds
form an electromagnet.

Figure of windings in stator

Electromagnetism is the principle behind motor operation. The stator windings are connected
directly to the power source. The rotor, whose core is also made of laminations, is built around a shaft,
which transmits the mechanical power to the load. The rotor is equipped with cooling fins. At the back,
there is another bearing and a cooling fan affixed to the rotor. The fan is enclosed by a fan cover.
Access to the stator winding is provided by stator terminals located in the connection box that covers
an opening in the stator housing. Open-frame, partly enclosed, and totally enclosed motors are
distinguished by how well the inside of stator is sealed from the ambient air. Totally enclosed motors
can work in extremely harsh environments and in explosive atmospheres, for instance, in deep mines
or lumber mills. However, the cooling effectiveness suffers when the motor is tightly sealed, which
reduces its power rating.

The squirrel-cage rotor winding, illustrated, consists of several bars connected at both ends by
end rings. The rotor cage shown is somewhat oversimplified, practical rotor windings being made up
of more than few bars, not necessarily round, and slightly skewed with respect to the longitudinal axis
of the motor. In certain machines, in order to change the inductance-to-resistance ratio that strongly
influences mechanical characteristics of the motor, rotors with deep-bar cages and double cages are
used.

24
fig

The stator consists of wound 'poles' that carry the supply current to induce a magnetic field that
penetrates the rotor. In a very simple motor, there would be a single projecting piece of the stator (a
salient pole) for each pole, with windings around it; in fact, to optimize the distribution of the magnetic
field, the windings are distributed in many slots located around the stator, but the magnetic field still
has the same number of north-south alternations. The number of 'poles' can vary between motor types
but the poles are always in pairs (i.e. 2, 4, 6, etc.).
Induction motors can be built to run on either single-phase or three-phase power. Single-phase power
is more widely available in residential buildings, but cannot produce a rotating field in the motor (the
field merely oscillates back and forth), so single-phase induction motors must incorporate some kind of
starting mechanism to produce a rotating field. They would, using the simplified analogy of salient
poles, have one salient pole per pole number; a four-pole motor would have four salient poles. Three-
phase motors have three salient poles per pole number, so a four-pole motor would have twelve salient
poles. This allows the motor to produce a rotating field, allowing the motor to start with no extra
equipment and run more efficiently than a similar single-phase motor.
Types of rotor:
Squirrel-cage rotor
The most common rotor is a squirrel-cage rotor. It is made up of bars of either solid copper
(most common) or aluminum that span the length of the rotor, and are connected through a ring at each
end. The rotor bars in squirrel-cage induction motors are not straight, but have some skew to reduce
noise and harmonics.
25
Slip ring rotor

A slip ring rotor replaces the bars of the squirrel-cage rotor with windings that are connected to
slip rings. When these slip rings are shorted, the rotor behaves similarly to a squirrel-cage rotor; they
can also be connected to resistors to produce a high-resistance rotor circuit, which can be beneficial in
starting.

Fig-4.7. A squirrel-cage AC motor

Revolving Magnetic Field

The principles of electromagnetism explain the shaft rotation of an AC motor. Recall that the
stator of an AC motor is a hollow cylinder in which coils of insulated wire are inserted.

26
Stator Coil Arrangement:

The following schematic illustrates the relationship of the coils. In this example six coils are
used, two coils for each of the three phases. The coils operate in pairs. The coils are wrapped around
the soft iron core material of the stator. These coils are referred to as motor windings. Each motor
winding becomes a separate electromagnet. The coils are wound in such a way that when current flows
in them one coil is a north pole and its pair is a south pole. For example, if A1 were a north pole then
A2 would be a south pole. When current reverses direction the polarity of the poles would also reverse.

Figure indicating coli arrangements in stator.

Power Supply:

The stator is connected to a 3-phase AC power supply. In the following illustration phase A is
connected to phase A of the power supply. Phase B and C would also be connected to phases B and C
of the power supply respectively.

27
 Fig 4.8. phase currents in stator windings

Phase windings (A, B, and C) are placed 120° apart. In this example, a second set of three-
phase windings is installed. The number of poles is determined by how many times a phase winding
appears. In this example, each phase winding appears two times. This is a two-pole stator. If each
phase winding appeared four times it would be a four-pole stator.

When AC voltage is applied to the stator, current flows through the windings. The magnetic
field developed in a phase winding depends on the direction of current flow through that winding. The
following chart is used here for explanation only. It will be used in the next few illustrations to
demonstrate how a rotating magnetic field is developed. It assumes that a positive current flow in the
A1, B1 and C1 windings result in a north pole.

28
 It is easier to visualize a magnetic field if a start time is picked when no current is flowing
through one phase. In the following illustration, for example, a start time has been selected during
which phase A has no current flow, phase B has current flow in a negative direction and phase C has
current flow in a positive direction. Based on the above chart, B1 and C2 are south poles and B2 and
C1 are north poles. Magnetic lines of flux leave the B2 North Pole and enter the nearest South Pole,
C2.

Table indicating the formation of poles in phase windings

Winding Current Flow Direction

Positive Negative
A1 North South
A2 South North
B1 North South
B2 South North
C1 North South
C2 South North

Magnetic lines of flux also leave the C1 North Pole and enter the nearest South Pole, B1. A
magnetic field results, as indicated by the arrow.

Fig4.9 for time T=0

29
Time 1:

If the field is evaluated at 60° intervals from the starting point, at Time 1, it can be seen that the
field will rotate 60°. At Time 1 phase C has no current flow, phase A has current flow in a positive
direction and phase B has current flow in a negative direction. Following the same logic as used for the
starting point, windings A1 and B2 are north poles and windings A2 and B1 are south poles.

Fig 4.10.for time T=1

Time 2:

At Time 2 the magnetic field has rotated 60°. Phase B has no current flow. Although current is
decreasing in phase A it is still flowing in a positive direction. Phase C is now flowing in a negative
direction. At start it was flowing in a positive direction. Current flow has changed directions in the
phase C windings and the magnetic poles have reversed polarity.

30
 Fig 4.11. for time T=2

360 Degree Rotation:

At the end of six such time intervals the magnetic field will have rotated one full revolution or
360°. This process will repeat 60 times a second on a 60 Hz power supply.

Fig:4.12. 360 Degree Rotation:

2.3.3 Synchronous Speed:

The speed of the rotating magnetic field is referred to as synchronous speed (NS). Synchronous
speed is equal to 120 times the frequency (F), divided by the number of poles (P).
Ns = 120 F / P
If the frequency of the applied power supply for the two-pole stator used in the previous example is 60
Hz, synchronous speed is 3600 RPM.
N s =( 120 x 60 )/ 2
31
 N = 3600 RPM

The synchronous speed decreases as the number of poles increase. The following table shows
the synchronous speed at 60 Hz for the corresponding number of poles.

no of poles synchronous speed

2 3600
4 1800
6 1200
8 900

Rotor Rotation:

A magnet mounted on a shaft can be substituted for the squirrel cage rotor. When the stator
windings are energized a rotating magnetic field is established. The magnet has its own magnetic field
that interacts with the rotating magnetic field of the stator. The north pole of the rotating magnetic field
attracts the south pole of the magnet, and the south pole of the rotating magnetic field attracts the north
pole of the magnet. As the rotating magnetic field rotates, it pulls the magnet along causing it to rotate.
This design, used on some motors, is referred to as a permanent magnet synchronous motor.

Fig4.13. for rotation of rotor

Induced Voltage Electromagnet:

The squirrel cage rotor acts essentially the same as the magnet. When power is applied to the

32
stator, current flows through the winding, causing an expanding electromagnetic field which cuts
across the rotor bars.

When a conductor, such as a rotor bar, passes through a magnetic field a voltage (emf) is
induced in the conductor. The induced voltage causes a current flow in the conductor. Current flows
through the rotor bars and around the end ring. The current flow in the conductor bars produces
magnetic fields around each rotor bar. Recall that in an AC circuit current continuously changes
direction and amplitude. The resultant magnetic field of the stator and rotor continuously change. The
squirrel cage rotor becomes an electromagnet with alternating north and south poles.

The following drawing illustrates one instant in time during which current flow through
winding A1 produces a north pole. The expanding field cuts across an adjacent rotor bar, inducing a
voltage. The resultant magnetic field in the rotor tooth produces a south pole. As the stator magnetic
field rotates the rotor follows.

33
Slip:

There must be a relative difference in speed between the rotor and the rotating magnetic field.
If the rotor and the rotating magnetic field were turning at the same speed no relative motion would
exist between the two, therefore no lines of flux would be cut, and no voltage would be induced in the
rotor. The difference in speed is called slip. Slip is necessary to produce torque. Slip is dependent on
load. An increase in load will cause the rotor to slow down or increase slip.
A decrease in load will cause the rotor to speed up or decrease slip. Slip is expressed as a percentage
and can be determined with the following formula.
% Slip = (Ns - Nr) x 100/Ns
Induction motor drives

The ac induction motor is by far the most widely used motor in the industry. Traditionally, it
has been used in constant and variable-speed drive applications that do not cater for fast dynamic
processes. Because of the recent development of several new control technologies, such as vector and
direct torque controls, this situation is changing rapidly. The underlying reason for this is the fact that
the cage induction motor is much cheaper and more rugged than its competitor, the dc motor, in such
applications. This section starts with induction motor drives that are based on the steady-state
equivalent circuit of the motor, followed by vector-controlled drives that are based on its dynamic
model.

34
Steady-State Representation

The traditional methods of variable-speed drives are based on the equivalent circuit
representation of the motor shown below.

Steady-state equivalent circuit of an induction motor

From this representation, the following power relationships in terms of motor parameters and
the rotor slip can be found

𝑅2
Power in the rotor circuit, 𝑝 = 3𝐼2 = 3𝑉 𝐼
2 2 𝑠 22
3𝑠𝑅2𝐸2
1
=
𝑅2
2 + (𝑠𝜔1𝐿 2)2
The output power

𝜔1−𝑝𝜔 𝑜
Where slip s = 𝜔1−𝜔𝑟 =
𝜔1 𝜔1

P = number of pole pairs

2𝜋𝑁
𝜔0 =
60
𝜔𝑟 = rotar speed
𝑓1 Being the frequency

The developed torque is

35
The slip frequency s𝑓1, is the frequency of the rotor current and air gap flux is given by

Where 𝜆m is the stator flux linkage due to the airgap flux. If the stator impedance is negligible
compared to E1, which is true when f1 is near the rated frequency f0,

Torque

36
 CHAPTER 5
CONTROL STRATEGY

5.1 Control Of DVR

Reactive or real voltage may be used for injecting or absorbing voltage slumps by means of DVR.

A. BESS DVR Control of Voltage Sag, Swell and Compensation of Harmonics

The synchronous reference frame (SRF) theory is applied to the estimation of a DVR control block's
reference signal. The gate signal of the IGBTs is used to detect voltages at PCC and the load terminal
VL. The derived voltage is used for the referral voltage VL.

In the rotating reference system, the DVR voltages are then determined as follows

The reference DVR voltage is measured as follows:

Two proportional-integral (PI) controllers balance the error from the relation to the real DVR voltages
in the revolving frame. In the abc system, the reference DVR voltages are obtained by using VDd from
(4), VDq from (5), and VD0 as zero in the reverse park transformation.

37
A pulse width (PWM) controller uses the DVR voltage (Vdvra*, Vdvrb*, Vdrvc*), actual DVR
voltage, and a citation for the production of gating pulses (Vdvra, Vdvrb, Vdrvc). The PWM controller
uses a switching frequency of 10 kHz.

B. Self-support DVR Control for Voltage Compensation Sag, Swell and Harmonics

A three-phase critical load-assisted condenser DVR, as also of a DVR control block that uses the
autonomous DVR control SRF Concept. Transformation from Park uses the abc-dq0 conversion to
convert voltages on the PCC Vs into the rotate reference frame. The harmonics and oscillatory
components of voltage are excluded by low pass filters (LPFs). The d- and q-axes have voltage
components.

MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF THREE-PHASE SQUIRRELCAGE

INDUCTION MOTOR
The variables of a detailed mathematical model of a three-phase induction motor model in abc machine
are formulated as follows [21]:

38
where, Electro-magnetic Torque ◻ ◻ em T is:

PWM Generator -Generate pulses for carrier-based two-level pulse width modulator (PWM) in
converter bridge
Library
Extras/Control Blocks
A discrete version of this block is available in the Extras/Discrete Control Blocks library.
Description

The PWM Generator block generates pulses for carrier-based pulse width modulation (PWM)
converters using two-level topology. The block can be used to fire the forced-commutated devices
(FETs, GTOs, or IGBTs) of single-phase, two-phase, three-phase, two-level bridges or a combination
of two three-phase bridges.The pulses are generated by comparing a triangular carrier waveform to a
reference modulating signal. The modulating signals can be generated by the PWM generator itself, or
they can be a vector of external signals connected at the input of the block. One reference signal is
needed to generate the pulses for a single- or a two-arm bridge, and three reference signals are needed
to generate the pulses for a three-phase, single or double bridge.
The amplitude (modulation), phase, and frequency of the reference signals are set to control the
output voltage (on the AC terminals) of the bridge connected to the PWM Generator block.
The two pulses firing the two devices of a given arm bridge are complementary. For example, pulse 4
is low (0) when pulse 3 is high (1). This is illustrated in the next two figures.
The following figure displays the two pulses generated by the PWM Generator block when it is
programmed to control a one-arm bridge.

39
 The triangular carrier signal is compared with the sinusoidal modulating signal. When the
modulating signal is greater than the carrier pulse 1 is high (1) and pulse 2 is low (0).
For a single-phase two-arm bridge the modulating signal used for arm 2 is the negative of modulating
signal used for arm 1 (180 degrees phase shift). For a three-phase six-arm bridge the three modulating
signals used for bridge 2 are the negative of the modulating signals applied to bridge 1.
The following figure displays the six pulses generated by the PWM Generator block when it is
programmed to control a three-arm bridge.

40
41
 CHAPTER 6
MATLAB & SIMULINK

MATLAB
Introduction
MATLAB® is a high-level technical computing language and interactive environment for
algorithm development, data visualization, data analysis, and numeric computation. Using the
MATLAB product, you can solve technical computing problems faster than with traditional
programming languages, such as C, C++, and FORTRAN.
MATLAB is used in wide range of applications, including signal and image processing,
communications, control design, test and measurement, financial modeling and analysis, and computational
biology. Add-on toolboxes (collections of special-purpose MATLAB functions, available separately) extend the
MATLAB environment to solve particular classes of problems in these application areas.

MATLAB provides a number of features for documenting and sharing your work. You can
integrate your MATLAB code with other languages and applications, and distribute your MATLAB
algorithms and applications.

Key Features

 High-level language for technical computing

 Development environment for managing code, files, and data

 Interactive tools for iterative exploration, design, and problem solving

 Mathematical functions for linear algebra, statistics, Fourier analysis, filtering, optimization,

and numerical integration

 2-D and 3-D graphics functions for visualizing data

 Tools for building custom graphical user interfaces

 Functions for integrating MATLAB based algorithms with external applications and languages,

such as C, C++, Fortran, Java, COM, and Microsoft Excel

42
SIMULINK
Introduction
Simulink® is an environment for multidomain simulation and Model-Based Design for
dynamic and embedded systems. It provides an interactive graphical environment and a customizable
set of block libraries that let you design, simulate, implement, and test a variety of time-varying
systems, including communications, controls, signal processing, video processing, and image
processing.Add-on products extend Simulink software to multiple modeling domains, as well as provide tools
for design, implementation, and verification and validation tasks.

Simulink is integrated with MATLAB®, providing immediate access to an extensive range of

tools that let you develop algorithms, analyze and visualize simulations, create batch processing
scripts, customize the modeling environment, and define signal, parameter, and test data.

Key Features

 Extensive and expandable libraries of predefined blocks

 Interactive graphical editor for assembling and managing intuitive block diagrams
 Ability to manage complex designs by segmenting models into hierarchies of design
components
 Model Explorer to navigate, create, configure, and search all signals, parameters, properties,
and generated code associated with your model
 Application programming interfaces (APIs) that let you connect with other simulation programs
and incorporate hand-written code
 Embedded MATLAB™ Function blocks for bringing MATLAB algorithms into Simulink and
embedded system implementations
 Simulation modes (Normal, Accelerator, and Rapid Accelerator) for running simulations
interpretively or at compiled C-code speeds using fixed- or variable-step solvers
 Graphical debugger and profiler to examine simulation results and then diagnose performance
and unexpected behavior in your design
 Full access to MATLAB for analyzing and visualizing results, customizing the modeling
environment, and defining signal, parameter, and test data
 Model analysis and diagnostics tools to ensure model consistency and identify modeling errors.

43
 Block Diagram

A Simulink block diagram is a pictorial model of a dynamic system. It consists of a set of

symbols, called blocks, interconnected by lines. Each block represents an elementary dynamic
system that produces an output either continuously (a continuous block) or at specific points in
time (a discrete block). The lines represent connections of block inputs to block outputs. Every
block in a block diagram is an instance of a specific type of block. The type of the block
determines the relationship between a block's outputs and its inputs, states, and time. A block
diagram can contain any number of instances of any type of block needed to model a system.
Blocks represent elementary dynamic systems that Simulink knows how to simulate. A block
comprises one or more of the following:

1) A set of inputs,
2) A set of states, and
3) A set of outputs
A block's output is a function of time and the block's inputs and states (if any). The specific
function that relates a block's output to its inputs, states, and time depends on the type of block of
which the block is an instance. Continuous Versus discrete Blocks Simulink standard block set
includes continuous blocks and discrete blocks. Continuous blocks respond continuously to
continuously changing input. Discrete blocks, by contrast, respond to changes in input only at integral
multiples of a fixed interval called the block's sample time. Discrete blocks hold their output constant
between successive sample time hits. Each discrete block includes a sample time parameter that allows
you to specify its sample rate. The Simulink blocks can be either continuous or discrete, depending on
whether they are driven by continuous or discrete blocks. A block that can be either discrete or
continuous is said to have an implicit sample rate. The implicit sample time is continuous if any of the
block's inputs are continuous. The implicit sample time is equal to the shortest input sample time if all
the input sample times are integral multiples of the shortest time. Otherwise, the input sample time is
equal to the fundamental sample time of the inputs, where the fundamental sample time of a set of
sample times is defined as the greatest integer divisor of the set of sample times.

Simulink can optionally color code a block diagram to indicate the sample times of the blocks it
contains, e.g., black (continuous), magenta (constant), yellow (hybrid), red (fastest discrete), and so on.
The block contains block name, icon, and block library that contain the block, the purpose of the block

44
Simulink Block Libraries
Simulink organizes its blocks into block libraries according to their behavior:

1) The Sources library contains blocks that generate signals.

2) The Sinks library contains blocks that display or write block output.
3) The Discrete library contains blocks that describe discrete-time components.
4) The Continuous library contains blocks that describe linear functions.
5) The Math library contains blocks that describe general mathematics functions.
6) The Functions & Tables library contains blocks that describe general functions and table look-
up operations.
7) The Nonlinear library contains blocks that describe nonlinear functions.
8) The Signal & Systems library contains blocks that allow multiplexing and demultiplexing,
implement external input/output, pass data to other parts of the model, and perform other
functions.
9) The Subsystems library contains blocks for creating various types of subsystems.
10) The Block sets and Toolboxes library contains the Extras block library of specialized blocks.

Sub Systems
Simulink allows to model a complex system as a set of interconnected subsystems each of
which is represented by a block diagram. We create a subsystem using Simulink's Subsystem block
and the Simulink model editor. We can embed subsystems with subsystems to any depth to create
hierarchical models. We can create conditionally executed subsystems that are executed only when a
transition occurs on a triggering or enabling input.

Solvers
Simulink simulates a dynamic system by computing its states at successive time step solver a
specified time span, using information provided by the model. The process of computing the
successive states of a system from its model is known as solving the model. No single method of
solving a model suffices for all systems. Accordingly, Simulink provides a set of programs, known as
solvers, that each embody a particular approach to solving a model. The Simulation Parameters dialog
box allows us to choose the solver most suitable for our model.

Fixed-Step Solvers
45
 Fixed-step solvers solve the model at regular time intervals from the beginning to the end of the
simulation. The size of the interval is known as the step-size. We can specify the step size or let the
solver choose the step size. Generally decreasing the step size increases the accuracy of the results
while increasing the time required to simulate the system.

Variable-Step Solvers
Variable-step solvers vary the step size during the simulation, reducing the step size to increase
accuracy when a model's states are changing rapidly and increasing the step size to avoid taking
unnecessary steps when the model's states are changing slowly. Computing the step size adds to the
computational overhead at each step but can reduce the total number of steps, and hence simulation
time, required to maintain a specified level of accuracy for models with rapidly changing or piecewise
continuous states.

Continuous Solvers
Continuous solvers use numerical integration to compute a model's continuous states at the
current time step from the states at previous time steps and the state derivatives. Continuous solvers
rely on the model's blocks to compute the values of the model's discrete states at each time step.
Mathematicians have developed a wide variety of numerical integration techniques for solving the
ordinary differential equations (ODEs) that represent the continuous states of dynamic systems.
Simulink provides an extensive set of fixed-step and variable-step continuous solvers, each
implementing a specific ODE solution method. Some continuous solvers subdivide the simulation time
span into major and minor steps, where a minor time step represents a subdivision of the major time
step. The solver produces a result at each major time step. It uses results at the minor time steps to
improve the accuracy of the result at the major time step.

Discrete Solvers
Discrete solvers exist primarily to solve purely discrete models. They compute the next
simulation time-step for a model and nothing else. They do not compute continuous states and they
rely on the model's blocks to update the model's discrete states. We can use a continuous solver, but
not a discrete solver, to solve a model that contains both continuous and discrete states.

This is because a discrete solver does not handle continuous states. If you select a discrete
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solver for a continuous model, Simulink disregards your selection and uses a continuous solver instead
when solving the model.
Simulink provides two discrete solvers, a fixed-step discrete solver and a variable-step discrete
solver. The fixed-step solver by default chooses a step size and hence simulation rate fast enough to
track state changes in the fastest block in our model. The variable-step solver adjusts the simulation
step size to keep pace with the actual rate of discrete state changes in our model. This can avoid
unnecessary steps and hence shorten simulation time for multirate models.

The Power System Block Set

Electrical power systems are combinations of electrical circuits and Electro-mechanical

devices, like motors and generators. Engineers working in this discipline are frequently tasked to
improve the performance of the systems. Requirements for drastically increased efficiency have forced
power system designers to use power electronic devices and sophisticated control system concepts that
tax traditional analysis tools and techniques. Further complicating the analyst’s role is the fact that the
system is often so nonlinear that the only way to understand it is through simulation. Land-based
power generation from hydroelectric, steam, or other devices is not the only use of power systems. A
common attribute of these systems is their use of power electronics and control systems to achieve
their performance objectives. The Power System Block set was designed to provide a modern design
tool that will allow scientists and engineers to rapidly and easily build models that simulate power
systems. The block set uses the Simulink® environment allowing a model to be built using simple
click and drag procedures. Not only can the circuit topology be drawn rapidly, but the analysis of the
circuit can include its interactions with mechanical, thermal, control, and other disciplines. This is
possible because all the electrical parts of the simulation interact with Simulink extensive modeling
library. Because Simulink uses MATLAB® as the computational engine, you can use MATLAB’s
toolboxes as you design your simulation.
The block set can be put to work rapidly. The libraries contain models of typical power
equipment, such as transformers, lines, machines, and power electronics. These models are proven
ones coming from textbooks, and their validity is based on the experience of the Power Systems
Testing and Simulation Laboratory of Hydro-Québec, a large North American utility located in
Canada.
The capabilities of the block set for modeling a typical electrical grid are illustrated in

47
demonstration files. The block set fits well with other specialized analytical tools you use in the power
system community.

Simulink Blocks used in the Simulation:

1. Three-Phase Source:

Purpose: Implement three-phase source with internal R-L impedance

Description: The Three-Phase Source block implements a balanced three-phase voltage source with
internal R-L impedance. The three voltage sources are connected in Y with a neutral connection that
can be internally grounded or made accessible. You can specify the source internal resistance and
inductance either directly by entering R and L values or indirectly by specifying the source inductive
short-circuit level and X/R ratio.

2. in port:

Purpose: Provide a link to an external input and for linearization.

Description: In ports are the links from the outside world into a system. Inside a subsystem block,
there is an in port corresponding to each input port on the block. A signal that arrives at an input port
on a subsystem block flows out of the corresponding in port within that block. The imports within a
subsystem block must be numbered consecutively, starting with1.

3. out port:

Purpose: provide a link to an external output and for linearization.

Description: The Out port block provides a mechanism for labeling a system’s outputs. In a
subsystem, output ports correspond to outputs on the subsystem block.

48
4. Subsystem:

Purpose: Group blocks into a subsystem

Description: Subsystem blocks represent one system within another system. Any set of blocks and
lines can be converted to a Subsystem block with the Group command on the options menu. The
Group command removes all selected objects from the active window and replaces them within a
Subsystem block. This new block, when opened, redisplays all of the grouped objectives.
5. Gain:

Purpose: Multiply its input by a constant.

Description: The Gain block implements Y=KU, where Y is the output, U is the input, and K is the
specified gain. The Gain block displays scalar gain data entered as variable or a constant. The block
displays the text as it appears in the dialog box.
6. Scope:

Purpose: Display signals during simulation.

Description: While the simulation is running, the Scope block displays the output of the block driving
it. Opening a scope block produces a scope window. The title of this window matches the name of the
block.

7. Simplified Synchronous Machine:

49
Purpose: Model the dynamics of a simplified three-phase synchronous machine

Description: The Simplified Synchronous Machine block models both the electrical and mechanical
characteristics of a simple synchronous machine. The electrical system for each phase consists of a
voltage source in series with RL impedance, which implements the internal impedance of the machine.
The value of R can be zero but the value of L must be positive.
8. Voltage Measurement:

Purpose: Measure a voltage in a circuit

Description: The Voltage Measurement block is used to measure the instantaneous voltage between
two electric nodes. The output is a Simulink signal that can be used
by other Simulink blocks.
9. Breaker:

Purpose: Implement a circuit breaker opening at current zero crossing

Description: The Breaker block implements a circuit breaker that is controlled by a Simulink signal
applied on its second input. The control signal must be 0 or 1, 0 for open and 1 for closed. The arc
extinction process is simulated by opening the breaker when the current passes through zero (first
current zero-crossing following the transition of the Simulink control input from 1 to 0). When the
breaker is closed, it behaves as a series RL circuit. The R and L values can be set as small as necessary
in order to be negligible compared with external components (typical values Ron=10m?, Lon=10µH).
When the breaker is open, it has infinite impedance. If the breaker’s initial state is set to 1 (closed),
initializes all the states of the linear circuit and breaker initial current so that the simulation starts in
steady-state.

50
10. Bus bar:

Purpose: Implement a labeled network node

Description: The Bus Bar block is used to interconnect components. It allows multiple electrical block
outputs and inputs to be connected together.

11. Current Measurement:

Purpose: Measure a current in a circuit

Description: The Current Measurement block is used to measure the instantaneous current flowing in
any electrical block or connection line. The first output provides a Simulink signal that can be used by
other Simulink blocks.

12. Distributed Parameter Line:

Purpose: Implement an N-phase distributed parameter transmission line model with lumped losses
Description: The Distributed Parameter Line block implements an N-phase distributed parameter line
model with lumped losses.

13. Excitation System:

51
Purpose: Provide an excitation system for the synchronous machine and regulate its terminal voltage
in generating mode
Description: The basic elements that form the Excitation System block are the voltage regulator and
the exciter. The voltage regulator consists of a main regulator with gain Ka and time constant Ta and a
lead-lag compensator with time constants Tb and Tc. A derivate feedback is also provided with gain Kf
and time constant Tf. The limits E fmin and Efmax are imposed to the output of the voltage regulator. The
upper limit can be constant and equal to Efmax or variable and equal to the rectified stator terminal
voltage Vtf times a proportional gain Kp. If Kp is set to zero, the former will apply. If Kp is set to a
positive value, the latter will apply. The stator terminal voltage transducer is represented by a first-
order low-pass filter with time constant Tr.
14. Steam Turbine and Governor:

Purpose: Model a steam turbine and a PID governor system

Description: The Steam Turbine and Governor implement a steam turbine model, a PID governor
system, and a servo-motor. The static gain of the governor is equal to the inverse of the permanent
droop Rp in the feedback loop. The input to this feedback loop can be selected to be the gate position
or the electrical power deviation by setting the droop reference parameter in the dialog box to one or
zero, respectively.

15. Linear Transformer:

52
Purpose: Implement a two- or three-winding linear transformer
Description: The Linear Transformer block model shown below consists of three coupled windings
wound on the same core.

16. Saturable Transformer:

Purpose: Implement a two- or three-winding saturable transformer

Description: The Saturable Transformer block model shown below consists of three coupled windings
wound on the same core.

53
 CHAPTER 7
SIMULATION RESULTS

IV. SIMULATION RESULTS

To evaluate the performance of the proposed control technique for DVR whole system is simulated in
Matlab/Simulink environment, the system is designed with parameters given in Table-1
Parameter Value
Ac supply 440v
Dc link 1000v
frequency 50Hz
speed 1500rpm

Fig. 5 Simulation model without DVR

Results

Fig. 6 Source voltage

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 Fig. 7 Load voltage

Fig. 8 Simulation model with DVR

Fig. 9 Control Circuit

55
Fig. 10 Source voltage with sag

Fig. 11 Load voltage without sag

Fig. 12 Stator current

56
 CHAPTER 8

CONCLUSION

This paper proposes a fast and efficient Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR) to address power
quality issues in industrial distribution systems with large loads of inductive nature. The DVR
proposed uses the classical Fourier Transform technology to detect and quantify the voltage
disturbances (sags/swells). In the event of tension disruption, since the Induction motors are not
sensitive to changes in phase angle, a phase-compensation system is used to measure the
countervailing voltage because the countervailing tension is rapidly and simply. During normal
operation, the proposed DVR would draw energy from the supply line's source and store it in
condensers, which are converted to an adjustable 3-phase alternating current voltage suitable for
voltage swell mitigation. The complete modelling and analysis of DVR was implemented on
MATLAB software with extensive simulation studies are presented in this research paper.

57
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