Sound

• Speed of sound in air at 0℃ = 331.5ms-1 (1087 fts-1)

• It increases about 0.6ms-1 for each degree Celsius above 0℃
• Speed of sound in solids & liquids > air but frequencies are
the same
• vT =331 + 0.6 T
• f 𝛼 1/l
• f 𝛼 √𝑇
• f 𝛼 1/√𝜇
• fundamental frequency – can be raised by increasing tension
• heavier string with same tension & length – has lower
fundamental frequency
• tension increase (shorten vocal cords) – high pitch
• tension decrease (lengthen vocal cords) – low pitch
• Male voice – lower than female because vocal cords are more
massive
• Fundamental characteristics of sound are pitch, loudness &
quality
• Units of loudness = phon (noise meters)
• Quality – determined by no of overtones present
• Unit of intensity – Wm-2
• Minimum intensity of a sound wave to be audible=10-12 Wm-2
• Intensity – inversely proportional to square of distance
• Unit of intensity level – bel (more common = decibel (dB)
• 𝛽(𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝐵) = 10 log 𝐼/𝐼 o
• For 10dB, intensity = 10 times of 0 dB
• For 20dB, intensity = 100 times of 0 dB
• For 30dB, intensity = 1000 times of 0 dB
• Threshold of hearing = 0 dB (10-12 Wm-2)
• Threshold of pain = 120 dB (1 Wm-2)
• Frequencies as high as 15 million cycles per second (15MHz)
– used in medical applications
• Above 20,000 Hz – ultrasonic sound
 • Higher frequency has very short wavelength and can
penetrate into body
• Avoid tissue damage → 10-2 Wm-2
• Ultrasonic diathermy (deep heating) → 1-10 Wm-2
• Destroy cancer tissues or gallstones → 103 Wm-2
• Ultrasound is useful only to depth as great as 200
wavelengths
• 1 wavelength = smallest detail observable when using a wave
as a probe
• Doppler technique – megahertz frequency range

Doppler effect equation

v0 and vs = zero (at stationary)

v0 and vs = positive (moving towards)

v0 and vs = negative (moving away from)

Structured Questions

Human audiogram - hearing tests are recorded in a graph

form called audiogram where sound intensity is plotted vertically
& sound frequency is plotted horizontally.

Hearing aids

1. Microphone – gathers sound waves / changes sound

energy to electrical energy
2. Amplifier - electronic device which increases intensity
of sound received
3. Loudspeaker - produces sound energy from electric
current is either inserted into external ear opening for air
conduction / or placed behind ear lobe for bone conduction
in the form of transducer.

Beats - fluctuations in intensity or loudness when two

soundwaves of slightly different frequencies interfere with each
other

Beat frequency

n = f1 – f2 (If f1 > f2)

n = f2 -f1 (If f2 > f1)
n = number of beats per second (or) beat frequency

Doppler effect - the apparent change in frequency of a sound

brought about by the relative motion between source & observer.
What does doppler effect depend on?

vs = velocity of source

vo = velocity of observer

v = velocity of sound in air

f = frequency of source

Doppler technique - ultrasonic waves reflected from RBCs

can be used to determine velocity of blood flow. Similarly,
technique can be used to detect the movement of chest of a young
fetus & also to monitor its heart beat.

Transducer

➢ both sources & detectors of the ultrasound

➢ devices that convert energy from one form to another
➢ Source transducer converts electrical energy into
ultrasound
➢ Receiving transducer converts ultrasound back into an
electrical signal, which can be processed for display

Doppler ultrasound benefits

1) Main benefit – it is less invasive than other procedures used

to identify these types of medical problems
2) Ultrasound is performed on outside of the body & is not
painful
3) Some discomfort may be experienced as transducer is used
but it is often minimal.
Why does 3-D doppler ultrasound identify breast cancer?

Malignant breast masses often show increased blood flow

compared to normal tissue or delicate masses. Using 3-D power
Doppler ultrasound, radiologists can detect vessels with higher
flow speeds, which likely indicate cancer.

Why can doppler ultrasound indicate circulatory problems?

Doppler ultrasound can actually measure how fast or slow

blood is moving, which can indicate a circulatory problem.

How to use doppler ultrasound for circulatory problems?

 Doppler ultrasound can actually measure how fast or slow

blood is moving, which can indicate a circulatory problem
 Blood clots can be found using Doppler ultrasound because
ultrasound can detect slower blood flow or a lack of blood
flow where the clot is located
 It can identify narrowed arteries, plaque buildup in blood
vessels or blocked arteries