THE NATURE AND ORIGIN OF PEBBLE DIKES AND ASSOCIATED

ALTERATION: TINTIC MINING DISTRICT (AG-PB-ZN-AU), UTAH

Douglas M. Johnson1 and Eric H. Christiansen2

ABSTRACT
In many ore deposits throughout the world, brecciation often accompanies or occurs in association with minerali-
zation. Such is the case in the Tintic mining district (Ag-Pb-Zn-Au) of north-central Utah, where unique breccia
features called pebble dikes occur alongside significant mineralization. Pebble dikes are tabular bodies of breccia,
which consist of angular to rounded clasts of quartzite, shale, carbonate, and minor igneous rock cemented in a fine-
grained clastic matrix. All clasts now lie above or adjacent to corresponding source rocks. Dikes are thin, typically
less than 0.3 m wide to as much as 1 m, and can exceed 100 m in length. The average of the largest clast size is
less than 3 cm but correlates positively with pebble dike width. Contacts are sharp and envelopes of fine breccia sur-
round roughly half of the dikes; parallel sub-vertical fractures are also common. Pebble dikes are mostly hosted in an
Eocene rhyolite lava flow, which displays argillic to silicic alteration where in contact with pebble dikes, but the dikes
are also hosted in an assortment of deformed Paleozoic sedimentary rocks. The pebble dikes have a strong northeast
trend, following a regional fabric of northeast-trending strike-slip and oblique-slip faults.

The formation of pebble dikes has been historically attributed to the intrusion of the Silver City stock, the Tintic
district’s main productive intrusion. However, pebble dikes in the eastern part of the Tintic district are spatially asso-
ciated with a previously unrecognized andesitic unit, informally named the porphyry of North Lily, which is texturally,
mineralogically, and chemically distinct from the Silver City stock, and like pebble dikes, was emplaced in northeast-
trending plugs and dikes. In addition to the strong spatial association, there are clasts of the porphyry of North Lily in
the pebble dikes, and quartzite clasts like those in the pebble dikes are found as xenoliths in the porphyry of North
Lily. Some of the igneous dikes are comingled with the pebble dikes. These similarities and interactions suggest
simultaneous formation.

Geochemical alteration patterns revealed by isocon analysis show no enrichments in Cu, Pb, or Zn related to the peb-
ble dikes. This is consistent with their formation before major mineralization. Low-grade alteration associated with
pebble dikes indicates that they formed at elevated temperatures (100-170°C). Stable isotope (O and H) composi-
tions of rhyolite altered by the pebble dikes show they formed in the presence of heated groundwater, with very low
water/rock ratios, and little to no magmatic water association. The overall physical, spatial, and chemical character-
istics of pebble dikes of the Tintic mining district suggest that they formed by the mobilization of breccia during the
explosive expansion of groundwater that had been heated by the intrusion of the porphyry of North Lily. This escape
occurred along pre-existing, northeast-trending faults and fractures and created new fractures with similar orienta-
tions. These phreatic explosions released early hydrothermal fluids and enhanced permeability, serving as “ground
preparation” by forming pathways for later mineralizing fluids.

INTRODUCTION productive mining districts throughout the world. These

Breccias are common accompaniments to hydrothermal
ore deposits worldwide, especially those formed during
the emplacement of subduction-related magmas (Silli-
toe, 1985). The formation of breccias is often a critical
step in the creation of necessary permeability for the
transmission of ore fluids (Byrne and Tosdal, 2014).
Without brecciation, the concentration of metals in eco-
nomically-viable quantities could be severely hindered.
Breccia features, including diatremes, breccia pipes,
and breccia dikes, have been recognized in multiple
include, but are not limited to, Sudbury, Ontario, the por-
phyry copper systems of the Basin and Range, Chile, and
Butte, Montana, the uranium and gold deposits of the
Colorado Plateau, and, the lead-zinc deposits of Yugo-
slavia (Bryner, 1961). Although breccias form through a
variety of processes, this study focuses on defining the
origin of a specific set of intrusive breccias – breccias
formed “by the fragmentation of a rock and its [subse-
quent] mobilization by magma or [fluids]” (Wright and
Bowes, 1963, p. 84) – found in the Tintic mining district
(Ag-Pb-Zn-Au) of north-central Utah.

1
Department of Geology
Brigham Young University-
Idaho, Romney 150
Rexburg, Idaho, 83460
doug.m.johnson@gmail.com
2
Department of Geological Johnson, D.M. and Christiansen, E.H., 2016, The Nature and
Sciences Origin of Pebble Dikes and Associated Alteration: Tintic
Brigham Young University Mining District (Ag-Pb-Zn-Au), Utah, in Comer, J.B.,
S389 ESC Inkenbrandt, P.C., Krahulec, K.A., and Pinnell, M.L., edi-
Provo, Utah 84602 tors, Resources and Geology of Utah’s West Desert: Utah
Geological Association Publication 45, p. 13-42.
14 The Nature and Origin of Pebble Dikes and Associated Alteration: Tintic Mining District (Ag-Pb-Zn-Au), Utah

The Tintic mining district (including the historical Main,
North, East, and Southwest subdistricts (Krahulec and
Briggs, 2006)), lies 50 km southwest (figure 1) of Provo,
Utah. It is presently recognized as the second most
productive mining district in the state of Utah. Total pro-
duction, to the present, has resulted in nearly 20 million
tons of silver, lead, zinc, gold, and copper ore total-
ing $3.5 billion at 2006 prices (Krahulec and Briggs,
2006). Tintic ores are dominated by carbonate-hosted
Ag-Pb-Zn-Au replacement bodies, but minor quartzite-
hosted Cu-Au veins have also been exploited (Bush and
others, 1960).

Quaternary alluvium
40°15’N

73
Fairfield
Undifferentiated Tertiary
igneous rocks
Laguna Springs Volcanic Group
33.29 ± 0.09 Ma

Laguna Springs intrusive latite

40°10’N

Porphyry of North Lily

~33.29 ± 0.09 Ma
Latite of Rock Canyon
33.80 ± 0.10 Ma
Silver City Stock
40°05’N

~33.80 ± 0.10 Ma
Tintic Mountain Volcanic Group
North 34.64 ± 0.17 Ma
Sunrise Peak intrusion and flows
34.70 ± 0.30 Ma
Packard Quartz Latite
40°00’N

35.27 ± 0.03 Ma
Undifferentiated Paleozoic
East sedimentary rocks
Eureka
6 Fault
36
39°55’N

Main

Rocky
Figure 3 and 9
Mountains
Basin
and
Range
South
39°50’N

Provo
West

0 2 4 8 km

Colorado
39°45’N

Plateau

112°15’W 112°10’W 112°05’W 112°00’W

Figure 1. Simplified geologic map of the East Tintic Mountains, modified from Morris and Lovering (1961), Proctor (1985),
and McKean (2011); unit ages as discussed in text. The red box shows the boundaries of the maps in figures 3 and 9. The
black box on the shaded relief map shows the location of the geologic map relative to Provo, Utah. The boundaries of the
historic Main, North, East, and Southwest Tintic Mining Districts are also shown (Krahulec and Briggs, 2006).

UGA Publication 45 (2016)—Resources and Geology of Utah’s West Desert

Johnson, D.M. and Christiansen, E.H.
Breccia features in the Tintic mining district include
tabular alloclastic dikes (non-volcanic rocks disrupted
by volcanic processes) composed of rounded clasts of
multiple rock types set in a fine-grained clastic matrix
(figure 2). Due to the rounded nature of the individu-
al clasts, they have been called pebble dikes, as clast
roundness approximates the appearance of streambed
pebbles (Farmin, 1934; Kildale, 1938). Similar peb-
ble dike features have been found and described in ore
deposits at Butte, Montana; Urad, Mt. Emmons, Central
City, and Leadville, Colorado; Bisbee, Arizona; Cuajone
and Toquepala, Peru; El Salvador, Chile; and Mt. Morgan,
Australia. Most pebble dike features are associated with
porphyry Cu-Mo deposits, with a smaller amount asso-
ciated with Ag-Pb-Zn-Au replacement deposits similar
to the Tintic district (Sillitoe, 1985). This study seeks
to define the origin of the pebble dikes specifically in
the East Tintic subdistrict by addressing these primary
questions: What is the nature of pebble dikes in the East
Tintic subdistrict? Are these pebble dikes related to a
specific intrusive body? How are host rocks altered near
pebble dikes? What is the character and origin of the
fluid involved in the emplacement of pebble dikes? Is
there any connection between pebble dike formation and
ore-generating processes in the Tintic mining district?
METHODS
To answer these questions, a comprehensive field and
laboratory analysis of pebble dikes and associated intru-
sive and extrusive igneous rocks was conducted in the
eastern portion of the Tintic mining district, mostly with-
in the boundaries of the historical East Tintic subdistrict
(figures 1 and 3). Field analysis included the loca-
tion and description of both pebble dikes and igneous
dikes followed by mapping and analysis in Geographical
Information System (GIS) software. Laboratory analysis
included petrographic microscopy, X-ray diffractometry
(XRD), X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (XRF), and sta-
ble-isotope mass spectrometry. For a full treatment of
methods see Johnson (2014).
GEOLOGIC SETTING
The Tintic mining district is underlain by a basement
sequence of phyllitic slate and quartzite belonging to
the Neoproterozoic Big Cottonwood Formation that is
presumably underlain by Mesoproterozoic schist, gneiss,
and granite as exposed in the nearby Wasatch Range. A
thick section of Paleozoic sedimentary rocks lies uncon-
formably on top of this Proterozoic basement (Hintze and
Kowallis, 2009). These sedimentary rocks are mostly
Cambrian to Mississippian carbonates, but also include
the massive Cambrian Tintic Quartzite, a buff-colored,
medium-grained quartzite, and the Cambrian Ophir
Formation, an interbedded assortment of limestones,
sandstones, and micaceous shales (Morris and Lovering,
1979). The sedimentary rocks of the Tintic mining dis-
trict appear to have accumulated on a rifted continental
margin that subsided throughout much of the Paleozoic
(Hintze and Kowallis, 2009).
Comer, J.B., Inkenbrandt, P.C., Krahulec, K.A., and Pinnell, M.L.
15
After deposition, these sedimentary rocks were deformed
during the Cretaceous Sevier orogeny into large north-
south-trending anticlines and synclines. Sevier orogenesis
also created north-south-trending thrust faults, as well
as northeast-trending strike- and oblique-slip faults
(Krahulec and Briggs, 2006), which appear to have
accommodated differential movement in the eastward-
verging Sevier thrust sheet (McKean and others, 2011).
All these faults later became important in ore deposition,
as most major replacement ore bodies in the district are
now found within carbonate lithologies near the intersec-
tions of strike-slip faults and thrust faults (Morris and
Lovering, 1979). Following deformation, a lengthy period
of geologic quiescence resulted in the erosion of Paleo-
zoic strata.
This was followed by intense late Eocene to Oligocene
subduction-related magmatism, which intruded into and
covered Paleozoic strata in the area (figure 3). Given the
late Tertiary eastward rotation of the Tintic range, vol-
canic cover is thickest to the east and thins to the west to
expose the Paleozoic sedimentary rocks at higher eleva-
tions (Morris and Mogensen, 1978; Morris and Lovering,
1979; Krahulec and Briggs, 2006).
The oldest volcanic unit produced during Eocene to
Oligocene magmatism is the Packard Quartz Latite, a
rhyolite lava flow. Within the boundaries of the East Tin-
tic subdistrict, the Packard covers approximately 60% of
the surface area east of the crest of the East Tintic Moun-
tains and is the unit most commonly cut and altered by
pebble dikes (Morris and Lovering, 1979). A 40Ar/39Ar age
on sanidine shows that the Packard Quartz Latite was
emplaced 35.27 ± 0.03 Ma (Allen, 2012). The Sunrise
Peak intrusion and flows followed the Packard Quartz
Latite at 34.7 ± 0.3 Ma, bearing no association to Tin-
tic mineralization (Keith and others, 1997). The Tintic
Mountain Volcanic Group, consisting of three distinct
ash-flow tuffs, came shortly after. A 40Ar/39Ar age on bio-
tite from one of the three units is 34.64 ± 0.17 Ma (UGS
and NMGRL, 2007).
The monzonite to quartz monzonite of the Silver City
stock was emplaced next, and due to its close associa-
tion with the district’s significant Ag-Pb-Zn-Au resources,
is thought to be the source of both the Tintic district’s
metals and mineralizing fluids (Morris and Lovering,
1979; Hildreth and Hannah, 1996; Kim, 1997). The
age of the Silver City stock is not well known, but it has
been chemically correlated (Kim, 1997) to the latite of
Rock Canyon (figure 3, previously called the monzonite
porphyry of Gough Sill by Morris and Lovering, 1979).
The latite of Rock Canyon is a dark-colored complex of
lava flows and shallow intrusions (Kim, 1992). This vol-
canic equivalent to the Silver City stock has a 40Ar/39Ar
age on biotite of 33.80 ± 0.10 Ma, which suggests that
the stock was emplaced at or before this age (Moore and
others, 2007).
Pebble dikes in the East Tintic subdistrict, the focus of
this study, were thought to have formed at some point
during the intrusion of the Silver City stock by Farmin
16 The Nature and Origin of Pebble Dikes and Associated Alteration: Tintic Mining District (Ag-Pb-Zn-Au), Utah

A B

C D

Figure 2. Photographs of pebble dikes of the East Tintic subdistrict. A – Pebble dike in a roadcut on Highway 6. This
dike is hosted in Packard Quartz Latite and demonstrates the characteristic limonite stain and subvertical dip common
to most pebble dikes. B – Close-up of the pebble dike in A, showing that dikes consist of rounded quartzite fragments in
a fine-grained matrix. This pebble dike is zoned in clast size, with finer fragments in the margin and coarser fragments in
the interior. C – Outcrop of silicified pebble dike, created when the erosional resistance of the pebble dike exceeds that
of its host rock. D – Pebble dike hosted in Cambrian dolomite. A significant breccia envelope extends up and away from
this vertical dike. Breccia on the sides of the dike grades outward into sub-parallel fractures.

UGA Publication 45 (2016)—Resources and Geology of Utah’s West Desert

Johnson, D.M. and Christiansen, E.H. 17

Tls
Qa
Qa
Quaternary
Pu
» North Standard alluvium

Tss
Water Lillie
Tls
39°59'N

» Silver Shield
Quartz Latite
Tls Figure 5
Homansville » Central Standard Tls
» Tap Laguna Springs
Tss Volcanic Group
Tp Qa
» Copper Leaf »
Silver Shield Tnl
39°58'N

6 Porphyry of
Tnl North Lily
Tp 6
Qa North Lily
Trc
» Latite of
Rock Canyon
Eureka Big Hill » Qa
39°57'N

Tsc
» Burgin
Silver City Stock
Pu
Tsc Ttm
Pu Tp Tintic Mountain
Volcanic Group
39°56'N

Tsp
Trixie
Ttm » Sunrise Peak
intrusion and flows
Pu
Tp
Nevada Ttm Packard Quartz
» Tsp Latite
39°55'N

Tsp Trc Tap

Qa
Apex
Tsc Conglomerate
Trc
112°7'W 112°6'W 112°5'W 112°4'W 112°3'W 112°2'W Pu
Undifferentiatied
0 0.5 1 2 Km Faults » Mineshaft Paleozoic
Normal sedimentary
1:58,000 Strike-slip Pebble Dikes rocks

Figure 3. Simplified geologic map of the Tintic mining district modified from Lindgren and Louglin (1919), Morris
(1964), Morris and Lovering (1979), and Keith and others (2009). This geologic map shows the relative locations of
important igneous units and mines, with the town of Eureka included on the western edge of the map for reference.
All Paleozoic sedimentary units are combined into one unit. Pebble dikes (black lines, size exaggerated) mostly occur
within the boundaries of the red box (pebble dikes not shown within the red box, see figure 5), but also occur to the
south between the Trixie and Nevada mineshafts. The intrusive units within the red box (red) were originally mapped
as Silver City stock.

Comer, J.B., Inkenbrandt, P.C., Krahulec, K.A., and Pinnell, M.L.

18 The Nature and Origin of Pebble Dikes and Associated Alteration: Tintic Mining District (Ag-Pb-Zn-Au), Utah
(1934), Kildale (1938), Lovering (1949), Cook (1957),
Morris and Mogensen (1978), and Morris and Lovering
(1979). This idea was based on the very close spatial
association of pebble dikes to a swarm of porphyritic
plugs and dikes that were mapped as Silver City stock
by Morris (1979). However, no conclusive chemical or
mineralogical correlation was made between these por-
phyritic dikes and the main Silver City stock which lies
5 km to the southwest. Below, we show that these dikes
in the East Tintic subdistrict are related to a separate
intrusion.
The Laguna Springs Volcanic Group, a group of latite lava
flows and tuffs, followed the intrusion of the Silver City
stock. A 40Ar/39Ar age on hornblende indicates that the
Laguna Springs Volcanic Group was emplaced 33.29 ±
0.09 Ma (Moore and others, 2007).
Magmatism continued after the emplacement of this
group; however, the composition of subsequent Mio-
cene volcanic units is transitional to extension-related
types, signaling the end of subduction-related mag-
matism in the Tintic mining district (Christiansen and
others, 2007). Bimodal magmatism and deformation
related to Basin and Range extension followed, creating
north-south-trending, high-angle normal faults that cut
all pre-Miocene rocks and features (McKean and others,
2011; Allen, 2012).
RESULTS
Characteristics of Igneous Rocks Related
to Pebble Dikes
Packard Quartz Latite
The Packard Quartz Latite, a rhyolite by the current IUGS
chemical classification (Le Bas and Streckeisen, 1991),
covers the majority of the of the East Tintic subdistrict.
From the crest of the East Tintic Mountains in the west,
the Packard Quartz Latite extends eastward in a thicken-
ing wedge between the Trixie and North Standard shafts
until it is buried by young sediments in the Goshen Valley
(figure 3). The thickness of the formation is highly vari-
able, varying from under 10 m in the west to greater than
1000 m in the east based on drilling results summarized
by Morris and Lovering (1979). The Packard Quartz Latite
includes local basal flow breccias and a main porphyritic
unit that is strongly flow foliated and locally brecciated
and vitrophyric. Textures and flow structures show that
it was emplaced as a lava flow. Phenocrysts (0.5 to 1
mm) comprise roughly 20 to 30% of the rock and con-
sist of (in order of decreasing abundance) andesine,
biotite, quartz, and sanidine. Accessory phases include
magnetite, apatite, zircon, and titanite. The groundmass
consists of a microcrystalline aggregate of feldspar and
quartz or glass (Morris and Lovering, 1979).
Significant portions of the Packard Quartz Latite display
moderate to intense alteration (Lovering, 1949). In fact,
it is difficult to find truly fresh Packard Quartz Latite,
UGA Publication 45 (2016)—Resources and Geology of Utah’s West Desert
but large glassy masses are locally preserved. Moderate
alteration consists of mild iron staining and argillization
of plagioclase. More intense alteration includes the near
complete destruction of original texture through intense
argillization or silicification. These areas are easily recog-
nized due to significant bleaching accompanied by iron
staining. Areas of the Packard Quartz Latite that display
more intense alteration often host swarms of pebble
dikes.
Silver City Stock
The Silver City stock, identified by most as the produc-
tive intrusion of the Tintic mining district, crops out
primarily in the Main and Southwest subdistricts over a
5 km2 area (figures 1 and 3). It is mostly phaneritic, with
a generally equigranular texture; but it was emplaced at
a shallow level—it intruded and altered volcanic rocks
related to the Sunrise Peak intrusion (Keith and others,
2009). Pervasive propylitic alteration applies a greenish
hue to some of the stock. The stock includes 1 to 2 mm
crystals of (in order of decreasing abundance) plagio-
clase, K-feldspar, augite, biotite, and quartz. Accessory
phases include magnetite, apatite, zircon, and titanite.
Secondary uralitic hornblende is common. It is a dis-
tinctly potassic monzonite with high concentrations of
Rb, Th, and other incompatible elements compared to
other units with similar silica concentrations (figure 4).
Numerous irregular apophyses of the stock extend away
from the main body along bedding planes and fractures
in sedimentary wall rock. This possibly indicates that the
stock was emplaced by the stoping of wall rock into the
intrusion (Morris and Lovering, 1979; Kim, 1992).
A series of porphyritic plugs and dikes extend away from
the main body of the Silver City stock to the northeast
(figure 3). There are a few short dikes near the intrusion,
but other more abundant dikes lie 5 km to the northeast,
in a zone of more abundant pebble dikes (figure 3). All
of these dikes were mapped as Silver City stock by Morris
(1964) and Morris and Lovering (1979). With increas-
ing distance from the main stock, these plugs and dikes
become increasingly porphyritic and hornblende-rich.
Despite differences in mineralogy and texture, the plugs
and dikes were correlated with the Silver City stock (Mor-
ris and Lovering, 1979; Kim, 1992). Due to their close
spatial association to pebble dikes, these plugs and dikes
are discussed in more detail below.
Latite of Rock Canyon
The latite of Rock Canyon is exposed in the southern
portions of the Main and East Tintic subdistricts, directly
east of the Silver City stock (figure 3). It is comprised
of latitic lava flows, lahars, and a vent-filling complex
of lava flows and intrusions that vary in thickness from
100 to 300 m. The latite of Rock Canyon is dominantly
porphyritic. Phenocrysts comprise approximately 25 to
30% of the rock and consist of 2 to 3 mm crystals of (in
order of decreasing abundance) plagioclase, augite, bio-
tite, hornblende, and orthopyroxene. Accessory phases
include magnetite and titanite. The latite of Rock Canyon
Johnson, D.M. and Christiansen, E.H. 19

12 8
11 A B
7
Trachydacite
10 Quartz Monzonite
6
Latite Rhyolite
9 Monzonite Shoshonitic
Na2O + K2O (wt%)

K2O (wt%)
8 nl
nl
nl nl nlnlnl nl
4 nl nlnl High K
7 Monzodiorite nl' Silic nl nl nl
nl nl
nl
nl nl nl nlnlnl ifica
tion nl
nl
nlnl nlnl nlnl
nl nl nl nl nl' nl
nl nl

Argillization
nl 3
nl nlnl
nl nl nlnl nl
6 nl
nl nl
nl nl nlnlnl Medium K
2
5 nl Dacite
Andesite 1
4 B. Andesite
Low K
3 0
50 55 60 65 70 75 80 50 55 60 65 70 75 80
SiO2 (wt %) SiO2 (wt %)

300 40
C D
250 35

30
200
Rb (ppm)

Th (ppm)
25
150 nl
nl 20
nl nl nl
nl nl
100 nlnl nl
nlnl
nl nl nl nl
nl nl nl nl 15 nl
nl nl nl nl
nl nl nl
nlnl nl
50 10

0 5
50 55 60 65 70 75 80 150 170 190 210 230 250 270 290
SiO2 (wt %) Zr (ppm)

nl

Packard Quartz Latite Silver City Stock Latite of Rock Canyon Porphyry of Laguna Springs
35.3 Ma ~33.8 Ma 33.8 Ma North Lily Volcanic Group
~33.3 Ma 33.3 Ma
Figure 4. These variation diagrams demonstrate the chemical differences between the Silver City stock and the porphyry
of North Lily. A – The Silver City stock is a monzonite to quartz monzonite while the porphyry of North Lily is dominantly
andesite (Le Bas and Streckeisen, 1991). This total alkali-silica diagram also shows alteration trends seen in the Packard
Quartz Latite due to interaction with pebble dikes. B, C – The porphyry of North Lily has lower concentrations of alkali
elements than the Silver City stock, as seen in these K2O (Le Bas and Streckeisen, 1991) and Rb diagrams. D – The
porphyry of North Lily also has lower concentrations of Th and Zr than the Silver City stock. These diagrams identify
volcanic equivalents for the Silver City stock and the porphyry of North Lily, which are the latite of Rock Canyon and
Laguna Springs Volcanic Group, respectively. This equivalency is based on chemical similarity. Actual porphyry of North
Lily data points are marked by ‘nl’. Data sources are referenced in the text.

is generally free of alteration; however, outcrops near the tify the latite of Rock Canyon as the volcanic equivalent
Silver City stock display mild argillic to silicic alteration of the Silver City stock. The accepted age (33.80 ± 0.10
(Kim, 1992). Based on published whole-rock and miner- Ma) for the latite of Rock Canyon is used to estimate the
al compositions (Morris and Lovering, 1979; Kim, 1992; age of the Silver City stock.
Kim, 1997; Moore and others, 2007) and new whole-
rock analyses (table 1 and table 2), the latite of Rock Porphyry of North Lily (Monzonite Porphyry Plugs and
Canyon is very similar to the Silver City stock. In contrast Dikes)
to other igneous rocks considered, both the latite of Rock
Canyon and the Silver City stock are ferroan and sho- Porphyritic plugs and dikes, formerly referred to as “mon-
shonitic. Both have similar enrichments in incompatible zonite porphyry plugs and dikes” (Morris and Lovering,
elements. Moreover, compositions of rocks from each 1979; Kim, 1992; Kim, 1997), occupy a ~4 km-long
unit plot in overlapping fields on many variation diagrams northeast-trending zone in the East subdistrict, 5 km
(figure 4). In agreement with mineral chemistry evidence northeast of the main body of the Silver City stock (figure
from Kim (1997), whole-rock chemistry appears to iden- 3). Only the most northeastern plugs and dikes, bounded

Comer, J.B., Inkenbrandt, P.C., Krahulec, K.A., and Pinnell, M.L.

20 The Nature and Origin of Pebble Dikes and Associated Alteration: Tintic Mining District (Ag-Pb-Zn-Au), Utah

Table 1. Major element compositions (wt %) normalized to 100% on a volatile-free basis of rocks from the TIntic mining district.

Sample Rock SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 MnO MgO CaO Na2O K2 O P2 O5 Total
EUREKA-DGK-13 Tnl* 65.39 0.77 15.29 5.36 0.08 1.97 3.62 3.53 3.65 0.35 100.00
EUREKA-WJJ-13 Tp 72.33 0.46 14.98 2.07 0.03 0.43 2.03 2.64 4.90 0.13 100.00
EUREKA-RAF-13 Tp 75.03 0.44 14.81 2.65 0.02 0.41 0.71 1.74 4.06 0.12 100.00
EUREKA-KAG-13A Tp 76.54 0.46 15.84 0.90 0.00 0.18 0.20 0.88 4.93 0.07 100.00
EUREKA-BB-13 Tsc 60.62 1.03 15.66 7.28 0.12 2.70 4.70 3.36 4.11 0.42 100.00
EUREKA-TAK-13 Tsc 63.08 0.89 15.46 6.13 0.10 2.33 3.81 3.47 4.40 0.35 100.00
EUREKA-TDG-13A Tsc 64.07 0.98 16.21 6.78 0.10 2.77 1.02 3.14 4.56 0.37 100.00
EUREKA-DJ-01 Tnl 57.97 1.21 15.30 8.66 0.13 4.15 6.43 3.22 2.48 0.44 100.00
EUREKA-DJ-02 Tnl 61.74 1.04 16.10 7.62 0.10 2.29 3.92 3.24 3.55 0.39 100.00
EUREKA-DJ-03 Tnl 57.10 1.24 15.64 8.67 0.16 3.92 7.20 2.85 2.77 0.46 100.00
EUREKA-DJ-04 Tnl 60.64 1.13 15.48 6.69 0.12 2.48 6.72 2.86 3.34 0.55 100.00
EUREKA-DJ-05 Tnl 59.47 1.23 15.74 7.06 0.10 2.32 6.96 3.25 3.25 0.61 100.00
EUREKA-DJ-06 Tnl 59.71 1.22 15.54 7.17 0.07 3.09 6.04 3.26 3.30 0.61 100.00
EUREKA-DJ-07 Tnl 57.71 1.07 13.75 7.88 0.13 6.92 6.45 2.63 3.01 0.44 100.00
EUREKA-DJ-08 Tnl 55.29 1.16 13.30 8.87 0.22 8.26 7.44 2.48 2.52 0.47 100.00
EUREKA-DJ-09 Tnl 60.71 1.00 15.08 7.31 0.12 3.75 5.33 3.09 3.24 0.37 100.00
EUREKA-DJ-10 Tnl 62.66 0.97 15.59 7.00 0.10 3.08 3.75 3.17 3.33 0.35 100.00
EUREKA-DJ-11 Tnl 65.86 0.80 15.55 4.02 0.09 1.37 5.94 2.95 3.12 0.31 100.00
EUREKA-DJ-12 Tp 98.77 0.47 0.40 0.28 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.06 100.00
EUREKA-DJ-PD2a Tp 75.31 0.38 14.26 1.78 0.01 0.65 1.23 1.70 4.55 0.12 100.00
EUREKA-DJ-PD2b Tp 75.60 0.38 14.10 1.45 0.03 0.69 1.60 1.68 4.35 0.12 100.00
EUREKA-DJ-PD2c Tp 71.97 0.48 15.31 1.31 0.07 0.70 2.91 2.20 4.93 0.12 100.00
EUREKA-DJ-PD12a Tp 69.78 0.49 16.51 2.72 0.04 0.79 2.71 1.65 5.19 0.13 100.00
EUREKA-DJ-PD12b Tp 72.16 0.48 15.07 2.83 0.02 0.57 1.45 2.20 5.11 0.11 100.00
EUREKA-DJ-PD12c Tp 72.16 0.43 15.10 2.68 0.02 0.46 1.68 2.59 4.78 0.10 100.00
EUREKA-DJ-PD5 PD 88.92 0.27 5.63 1.99 0.04 0.26 1.78 0.00 1.03 0.07 100.00
EUREKA-DJ-PD12 PD 88.02 0.27 5.15 1.56 0.04 0.26 3.47 0.06 1.08 0.07 100.00
EUREKA-DJ-PD18 PD 88.67 0.31 6.60 1.70 0.01 0.30 0.42 0.34 1.57 0.08 100.00
EUREKA-DJ-PD29 PD 89.35 0.30 6.33 2.41 0.03 0.33 0.33 0.05 0.77 0.11 100.00
EUREKA-DJ-PD30 PD 40.92 0.33 7.19 2.63 0.30 19.31 27.98 0.01 1.20 0.13 100.00
*Tnl = Porphyry of North Lily, Tp = Packard Quartz Latite, Tsc = Silver City stock, PD = Pebble Dike

by the North Lily shaft in the southwest and Copper Leaf
shaft in the northeast, are considered here (figure 5).
Plugs and dikes in this area, all hosted in the Packard
Quartz Latite, were studied due to their close spatial
association to pebble dikes.
Exposures are commonly tabular dikes, ranging in width
from a few centimeters to 2 m. Plugs are less common,
covering areas of a few hundred square meters. The min-
eralogy of the plugs and dikes can vary greatly across
individual exposures, but all have 3 to 5 mm crystals
of plagioclase, biotite, and quartz (figure 6). Varying
amounts of hornblende and/or pyroxene are also often
present, but are entirely absent in some samples. Where
present, hornblende is much more abundant than pyrox-
ene. Accessory phases include magnetite and titanite.
Groundmass texture is also highly variable. Although it
usually comprises 70 to 80% of the rock, the groundmass
ranges from a microgranular aggregate of plagioclase and
quartz to dark black glass. Phenocryst size drops dramat-
ically in smaller plugs and dikes, and mild but pervasive
iron-staining and argillization is present in the majority
of thinner dikes. Most dikes strike northeast and appear
to have brecciated their Packard Quartz Latite host, sug-
gesting that the emplacement of the porphyry of North
Lily was somewhat violent (Morris and Lovering, 1979;
Kim, 1992; Krahulec and Briggs, 2006).
New and published whole-rock and mineral data (Mor-
ris and Lovering, 1979; Kim, 1992; Kim, 1997; Moore
and others, 2007) show there are significant differences
between the monzonitic Silver City stock and the por-

UGA Publication 45 (2016)—Resources and Geology of Utah’s West Desert

Johnson, D.M. and Christiansen, E.H. 21

Table 2. Trace element concentrations in rocks from the Tintic mining district (ppm).

Sample Unit Ba Ce Cr Cu Ga La Nb Nd Ni Pb Rb Sc Sm Sr Th U V Y Zn Zr

EUREKA-DGK-13 Tnl* 998 95 30 14 19 49 13 37 13 28 119 12 8 589 19 3 88 18 65 170

EUREKA-WJJ-13 Tp 2437 158 1 4 16 92 13 55 2 29 120 5 10 323 21 4 29 21 49 209

EUREKA-RAF-13 Tp 2316 134 1 4 15 82 12 48 0 21 102 7 10 260 19 4 26 22 39 206

EUREKA-KAG-13A Tp 1973 141 1 2 16 92 13 49 2 26 114 3 10 234 18 5 30 13 12 198

EUREKA-BB-13 Tsc 1020 100 13 37 21 50 12 43 11 21 147 18 8 632 20 4 142 25 97 220

EUREKA-TAK-13 Tsc 946 103 27 7 21 51 13 43 13 17 155 16 9 564 24 4 113 24 71 199

EUREKA-TDG-13A Tsc 1044 86 15 18 19 41 12 45 13 13 128 15 9 261 16 5 149 30 107 200

EUREKA-DJ-01 Tnl 885 90 88 27 19 46 13 42 23 17 78 20 8 662 12 2 173 26 88 187

EUREKA-DJ-02 Tnl 954 91 18 17 19 47 13 42 10 20 108 16 9 514 16 4 132 26 88 188

EUREKA-DJ-03 Tnl 1050 96 83 28 20 50 13 43 22 17 72 22 9 657 13 3 171 27 76 189

EUREKA-DJ-04 Tnl 1060 127 55 21 20 65 16 52 26 20 84 17 9 683 14 3 126 23 79 227

EUREKA-DJ-05 Tnl 1622 143 67 26 21 73 17 58 30 20 82 18 11 936 13 3 142 24 90 254

EUREKA-DJ-06 Tnl 1529 144 71 25 21 69 17 59 32 19 87 17 10 933 13 2 147 24 86 263

EUREKA-DJ-07 Tnl 1280 121 536 48 18 68 15 56 166 15 84 21 10 660 15 3 166 23 97 195

EUREKA-DJ-08 Tnl 990 115 560 51 17 60 15 54 203 15 65 21 10 670 12 2 194 24 74 193

EUREKA-DJ-09 Tnl 930 91 81 30 19 48 12 42 22 28 97 18 8 585 16 4 145 23 77 169

EUREKA-DJ-10 Tnl 1053 90 44 22 19 49 13 43 14 20 81 17 8 504 15 3 130 24 84 178

EUREKA-DJ-11 Tnl 979 99 37 74 18 49 13 38 12 70 83 14 7 387 17 4 79 27 55 183

EUREKA-DJ-12 Tp 1238 64 2 0 3 44 15 25 5 6 2 0 7 198 12 3 5 7 2 250

EUREKA-DJ-PD2a Tp 2322 151 1 4 14 89 11 53 2 23 108 4 10 243 19 4 26 18 30 192

EUREKA-DJ-PD2b Tp 2104 139 1 3 14 88 11 50 2 23 97 5 10 254 19 16 27 20 36 190

EUREKA-DJ-PD2c Tp 3077 133 1 3 15 87 14 49 2 21 118 6 9 317 19 3 28 21 35 197

EUREKA-DJ-
Tp 2298 135 1 3 16 80 13 46 2 25 118 5 9 245 22 4 29 17 55 205
PD12a
EUREKA-DJ-
Tp 2413 117 2 3 15 69 13 40 2 25 124 5 9 289 21 4 30 14 44 200
PD12b
EUREKA-DJ-
Tp 2356 118 2 2 15 70 12 43 3 25 117 5 9 339 21 4 27 14 42 210
PD12c
EUREKA-DJ-PD5 PD 134 63 19 71 8 39 6 26 7 46 38 5 6 74 9 5 32 13 36 157

EUREKA-DJ-PD12 PD 874 52 15 11 7 30 6 25 5 40 39 6 5 96 7 2 30 17 12 132

EUREKA-DJ-PD18 PD 778 83 13 8 9 54 7 37 7 11 52 3 8 110 10 3 32 15 16 157

EUREKA-DJ-PD29 PD 68 52 17 15 9 26 6 29 17 25 23 2 6 63 9 2 39 12 78 159

EUREKA-DJ-PD30 PD 74 38 19 13 7 19 8 0 11 13 29 0 0 42 6 2 39 14 85 97
*Tnl = Porphyry of North Lily, Tp = Packard Quartz Latite, Tsc = Silver City stock, PD = Pebble Dike

phyritic plugs and dikes. Unlike the Silver City stock,
the porphyritic plugs and dikes are magnesian and high-
K, but not shoshonitic (figure 4). The plugs and dikes
have significantly lower concentrations of alkali elements
(particularly K and Rb) than the Silver City stock, as well
as generally higher concentrations of MgO, Ni, and Cr.
The Silver City stock is best described as a monzonite
to quartz monzonite, whereas the porphyritic plugs and
dikes are better described as andesites. Given these
significant chemical differences, along with previously-
described textural and mineralogical differences, the
most northeastern porphyritic plugs and dikes are here
separated into a new lithologic unit, distinct from the
Silver City stock, termed the porphyry of North Lily due
to its proximity to the North Lily shaft.
Laguna Springs Volcanic Group
The Laguna Springs Volcanic Group is exposed primarily
in the north to northeastern portions of the East Tintic
subdistrict, and continues on into the North subdistrict
(figure 3). Locally, the group is subdivided into the North
Standard Latite, the Pinyon Queen Latite, and the Tintic
Delmar Latite. Small intrusive plugs of porphyritic latite
are also included (Morris and Lovering, 1979). The three
volcanic members consist of basal lithic-rich tuffs with
overlying lava flows, each ranging in thickness to as much
as 300 m (Morris and Lovering, 1979). Textures are
dominantly porphyritic, and the mineral assemblage is
similar in all flows. Phenocrysts account for 20 to 25% of
the rock, and include 2 to 5 mm crystals of plagioclase,

Comer, J.B., Inkenbrandt, P.C., Krahulec, K.A., and Pinnell, M.L.

22 The Nature and Origin of Pebble Dikes and Associated Alteration: Tintic Mining District (Ag-Pb-Zn-Au), Utah

Qa
Qa
Pu Quaternary
Qa
alluvium
» Central Standard
Tls
Tp
» Homansville Tls
Laguna Springs
39°58'30"N

DJ-PD30 DJ-PD29 Volcanic Group

6
Pu
Tnl

KAG-13A Pebble
DJ-12 Tap dikes
DJ-PD18 DJ-11

DJ-PD12 RAF-13
Tnl
DJ-06 » Porphyry of
Copper Leaf
DJ-PD5 North Lily
Tp DJ-PD2abc
WJJ-13 6
Tp
DJ-01
DJ-08 Packard Quartz
39°58'0"N

DJ-07 Latite
DJ-04 DJ-05

Tap
DJ-02 Apex
DJ-03
Conglomerate
Tnl
DGK-13
Tp Pu
DJ-09 DJ-10 Undifferentiated
Paleozoic
sedimentary
Tnl Ct rocks
Qa
» North Lily
39°57'30"N

Ct
Tintic
Tp
Quartzite
Big Hill Pu
(off map)
» Mineshaft
Tintic Standard
»
112°4'30"W » 112°4'0"W 112°3'30"W
0 0.25 0.5 1 Km
Sample
1:15,000 location

Figure 5. Simplified geologic map of the main pebble dike swarm. This map shows the strong spatial association
between dikes and plugs of the porphyry of North Lily (red) and pebble dikes (black lines). Pebble dikes appear to occur
in greatest number near outcrops of the porphyry of North Lily. Modified from Morris and Lovering (1979).

UGA Publication 45 (2016)—Resources and Geology of Utah’s West Desert

Johnson, D.M. and Christiansen, E.H. 23

Silver City Stock Porphyry of North Lily

Figure 6. Photographs and photomicrographs (20x magnification, cross-polarized light) of the Silver City stock
(EUREKA-TAK-13) and the porphyry of North Lily (EUREKA-DGK-13). These images show the textural and mineralogical
differences between these two units. The Silver City stock is phaneritic and equigranular with plagioclase, K-feldspar,
biotite, pyroxene, and very minor hornblende. The porphyry of North Lily is strongly porphyritic with phenocrysts of
plagioclase, biotite, quartz, and abundant hornblende.

Comer, J.B., Inkenbrandt, P.C., Krahulec, K.A., and Pinnell, M.L.

24 The Nature and Origin of Pebble Dikes and Associated Alteration: Tintic Mining District (Ag-Pb-Zn-Au), Utah
biotite, hornblende, ±augite, ±quartz, and ±titanite (Mor-
ris and Lovering, 1979; Kim, 1992). Even though the
formal unit name calls them latites, all members of the
Laguna Springs Volcanic Group are andesites using the
current IUGS chemical classification (figure 4).
Examination of whole-rock data from the literature (Mor-
ris and Lovering, 1979; Kim, 1992; Moore and others,
2007), in conjunction with new whole-rock analyses,
reveals distinct similarities between the Laguna Springs
Volcanic Group and the porphyry of North Lily. Both are
magnesian and high-K, and have similar concentrations
of alkali elements. The compositions of the two units plot
in overlapping fields on many variation diagrams (figure
4). Based on similar compositions and mineral assem-
blages, the Laguna Springs Volcanic Group appears to be
the volcanic equivalent of the porphyry of North Lily. Kim
(1997) also correlated the Laguna Springs Volcanic Group
and the porphyritic plugs and dikes (now recognized as
the porphyry of North Lily) through an examination of
mineral chemistry. Accordingly, the age (33.29 ± 0.09
Ma, Moore and others, 2007) for the Laguna Springs Vol-
canic Group is used to estimate the age of the porphyry
of North Lily.
Pebble Dikes
General Characteristics
Pebble dikes in the East Tintic subdistrict are tabular
bodies of breccia dominated by fragments of multiple
rock types enclosed in a fine-grained clastic matrix.
They are mainly found in a swarm of northeast-trending
dikes that occurs over a 6 km2 area (figure 5) between
the Big Hill and Water Lillie shafts (Morris and Lover-
ing, 1979). Pebble dikes are on average 25 cm wide,
but can range from 5 to 90 cm (see Johnson (2014)
for complete pebble dike data). Lengths of many exceed
100 m; the longest continuous pebble dike measured
exceeds 400 m in length, but some may be even longer
as outcrops are often difficult to trace. Dips are generally
subvertical and cut across flow foliation in the Packard
lava flows. A pervasive tan to brown limonite stain makes
the dikes stand out in outcrop. In roadcuts, pebble dikes
are readily recognizable; however, most surface expres-
sions consist solely of linear trains of quartzite pebbles
in the soil (Morris and Lovering, 1979). Pebble dike
thickness and strike are generally consistent throughout
outcrop exposures, but locally some pebble dikes display
large deviations in thickness and strike due to fracture
or bedding control. Pebble dikes mostly cut the Packard
Quartz Latite but are also hosted in various Paleozoic
sedimentary rocks (figure 3). Contacts with host rocks
are sharp and pebble dikes commonly have envelopes
of closely spaced fractures in the surrounding host rock
(figure 2D). Zones of finely brecciated and iron-stained
rock lie directly above some dikes and grade upward
into zones of closely spaced (1-5 cm) subvertical frac-
tures. Microbreccias are immediately adjacent to the
dikes that grade out to mesobreccia with centimeter- and
decimeter-sized fragments over distances of less than a
few meters. The three-dimensional shapes of the dikes
are blade-like; the upper and lower limits of several are
UGA Publication 45 (2016)—Resources and Geology of Utah’s West Desert
well exposed in road cuts (figure 2D). Some dikes are
isolated lenses within fracture systems that extend away
from the lenses (Lovering, 1949). Commonly, unfilled
but iron-stained fractures and minor breccia extend for
several meters above and below some dikes segments. A
few dikes have lateral off shoots or buds consistent with
propagation to the northeast. Zones of intense fractur-
ing, but with no pebble-dike fill, parallel some of the
dikes or connect dike segments and are most obvious in
carbonate wall rocks. The fracture zones are comparable
in width and structure to those enclosing pebble dikes
with microbreccia cores grading outward to mesobreccia
and ultimately to massive wallrock with a few paralleling
fractures. Some fracture zones are slightly altered, show-
ing coarser carbonate grains and iron stains formed by
oxidation of minor sulfide.
As mentioned, most pebble dike clasts are rounded.
Roundness covers a spectrum from subangular to rounded
with more resistant clast types having the highest degree
of rounding (Farmin, 1934). Clasts include quartzite,
limestone/dolomite, shale, and igneous rock (including
fragments of Packard Quartz Latite and porphyry of North
Lily). As confirmed by XRD and XRF, quartzite makes up
the most abundant clast type, representing well over
90% of clasts. Carbonate and shale clasts make up ~4%
each, with the remaining ~2% being igneous clasts. The
percentage of one particular clast type increases where
the dike is hosted in the same rock type, e.g., dolomite
clast abundance is higher where a pebble dike is hosted
in dolomite. The average longest dimension of the ten
largest clasts measured in a 1 m long section of pebble
dike is 2 cm, but ranges from <0.5 cm to at least 15 cm
across. Clast size correlates positively with pebble dike
width; wider pebble dikes carry larger clasts (figure 7).
All clasts appear to have originated from common sedi-
mentary rocks in the area, including the Tintic Quartzite,
the Ophir Shale, and a series of Cambrian to Mississip-
pian limestones and dolomites. All clasts now lie well
above or adjacent to their point of origin (Farmin, 1934;
Kildale, 1938; Morris and Lovering, 1979).
Quartzite clasts commonly have an onionskin structure,
where clast exteriors spall off in fragments that approxi-
mate the overall rounded shape of the original clast. This
has been interpreted as a thermal spallation effect, a
product of the rapid heating of the clasts (Farmin, 1934;
Kildale, 1938; Morris and Lovering, 1979; McCallum,
1985). Given quartzite’s poor thermal conductivity, any
increase in ambient temperature will result in the pref-
erential heating of the exterior of the clast. If heating is
extreme enough, thermal expansion of the clast’s exterior
will result in shallow fractures that parallel the exterior
of the clast. This spallation effect has been experimen-
tally shown to occur at temperature differentials of only
100°C in sandstone and granite (Smith and Pells, 2008;
Walsh and Lomov, 2013). Some rounding may also be
the result of abrasion during transport and emplacement.
Pebble dike clasts are hosted in a matrix of fine-grained
clastic material (figure 8). Matrix types include two varie-
ties: a loose, friable medium- to fine-grained matrix of
Johnson, D.M. and Christiansen, E.H. 25

the same material as the clasts themselves, or a dark- 8

colored jasperoid of clastic material that was likely A y = 0.077x
cemented by hydrothermal fluids (Farmin, 1934). Pebble 7 r2 = 0.69

Average largest clast size (cm)

dikes with friable matrices are easily weathered and form n = 40
recessive channels in outcrop. Dikes with silicified matri- 6
ces are much more resistant to erosion, to the point that 5
they exceed the resistance of their host rock and form
easily-recognizable linear protrusions (figure 2C). Pebble 4
dikes with friable matrices are much more abundant. Of
special note, some pebble dikes are zoned in clast and 3
matrix sizes (figure 2B). These dikes have fine-grained
2
margins and coarser-grained interiors that are separated
by sharp contacts. This suggests multiple generations of 1
pebble dike formation, with younger pebble dikes form-
ing in the same fractures occupied by older pebble dikes. 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Pebble dike width (cm)
Most pebble dikes have pervasive argillic to silicic altera-
tion that permeates the dikes and extends into rhyolite 20
host rock (figure 2A). Alteration haloes typically extend 18 B Mean: 2.4 ± 1.6 cm 1σ
only centimeters from the pebble dike/host rock contact,
16 Median: 2.3 cm
but in some places where pebble dikes are densely spaced
over a distance of a few meters, alteration effects overlap Mode: 2.1 cm
14 n = 40
producing wider swaths of argillized or silicificified rock.
Little to no alteration occurs in carbonate hosts, although 12
Frequency
most carbonates near pebble dikes are lightly silicified or 10
dolomitized, which is probably related to fluids flowing
into carbonate wall rock after pebble dike emplacement. 8
Additionally, most pebble dikes host small amounts of 6
disseminated sulfides, which are mostly pyrite. Second-
ary oxidation of sulfides in pebble dikes provides the 4
characteristic limonite stain. Although sulfides are often 2
present, whole-rock chemical analysis shows that the
shallow pebble dikes studied here do not host any signifi- 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
cant Pb or Zn mineralization characteristic of the Tintic Average largest clast size (cm)
mining district (table 2). Concentrations of Pb range from
11 to 46 ppm and Zn from 12 to 85 ppm; such concen- 18
trations are very similar to or only slightly higher than 16
C
Mean: 22 ± 18 cm 1σ
the host Packard Quartz Latite, indicating no remarkable
Median: 17 cm
enrichment. 14
Mode: 15 cm
12 n = 40
Relationship of Pebble Dikes and the
Frequency

Porphyry of North Lily 10

8
As noted above, the area of densest pebble dike occur-
rence overlaps with outcrops of the porphyry of North 6
Lily (figure 3). Within the bounds of the map in figure
5, wherever pebble dikes are found, exposures of the 4
porphyry of North Lily occur nearby. Pebble dikes have 2
been mapped extending into or emanating directly from
North Lily dikes (Morris, 1964). A few composite dikes 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
crop out and linear trains of quartzite pebbles can almost Pebble dike width (cm)
always be found within a few meters of a North Lily dike
outcrop. Likewise, Lovering (1949) found that some peb- Figure 7. Characteristics of pebble dikes. A – The average
ble dikes “rest on the top” of igneous dikes, some pebble largest clast size increases with pebble dike width,
dikes have intrusive cores, many formed alongside igne- although the correlation is somewhat weak. The slope and
ous dikes, and some form selvages on sills. Some pebble r2 values were calculated using Excel’s LINEST function,
dikes do crop out to the southwest around the northeast- bounded to zero. B – The average largest clast size in
ern margins of the Silver City stock, with no apparent pebble dikes is 2.4 ±1.6 cm 1σ, with a significant skew
spatial relationship to the porphyry of North Lily, but their towards smaller clasts sizes. C – The average pebble dike
abundance is dramatically less than porphyry of North width is 22 ± 18 cm 1σ, once again with a skew towards
smaller widths.
Lily-associated pebble dikes (figure 3 and 9). These
southernmost pebble dikes may represent an earlier gen-

Comer, J.B., Inkenbrandt, P.C., Krahulec, K.A., and Pinnell, M.L.

26 The Nature and Origin of Pebble Dikes and Associated Alteration: Tintic Mining District (Ag-Pb-Zn-Au), Utah
A of porphyritic andesite removed from pebble dikes show
B Within argillic alteration envelopes, variation in the
Figure 8. Photomicrographs (20x magnification, cross-
polarized light) of a pebble dike (EUREKA-DJ-PD18).
A – This thin section shows two rounded quartzite clasts
on the left and an unidentified highly-birefringent clast
on the right (shale?). Clasts are separated by an aggregate
of angular quartz grains and other clastic debris. B – This
thin section has one quartzite clast in the lower left and
a dark clast of porphyritic igneous rock (probably Packard
Quartz Latite) on the right. Again, clasts are separated by
an altered matrix of clastic debris.
eration of dike formation more related to the Silver City
stock, but are not directly addressed here.
In addition to a strong spatial association, the orienta-
tions of pebble dikes and dikes of the porphyry of North
Lily are very similar. Like North Lily dikes, pebble dikes
commonly strike northeast (figure 10). Both dike types
approximate the orientation of Cretaceous-age strike-
and oblique-slip faults hosted in Paleozoic rock (Morris,
1964). A subordinate north-south trend is also seen in
both dike types. The dikes displaying more northerly
trends may be part of a radial set of dikes around the
main North Lily stock that is obscured by the dominant
NE-trend.
As an additional indication of the relationship between
pebble dikes and the porphyry of North Lily, fragments
of the porphyry of North Lily make up a small portion of
UGA Publication 45 (2016)—Resources and Geology of Utah’s West Desert
the clasts in pebble dikes (figure 11). Rounded clasts
sufficient chemical and petrographic similarity to the
porphyry of North Lily to conclude they are North Lily
fragments (table 1, EUREKA-DJ-11). Additionally, angu-
lar xenoliths of Tintic Quartzite, identical to the quartzite
in pebble dikes, are found entrained in andesite dikes of
the porphyry of North Lily (figure 11).
Alteration and Pebble Dikes
Although the Tintic mining district is host to multiple
alteration types, specific emphasis is placed herein on
describing the low-grade alteration haloes in rhyolite host
rocks (the Packard Quartz Latite) that are directly related
to pebble dikes. Alteration varies from argillic to silicic,
with argillic being the dominant type.
intensity of alteration is common. Rhyolite outcrops that
host individual pebble dikes have weak argillic alteration
in the few centimeters nearest to the margin of the dike.
Original volcanic textures are almost entirely preserved;
however, most plagioclase phenocrysts are soft and milky
white. Plagioclase is partially pseudomorphed by fibrous,
blocky masses of smectitic clay. Biotite is partially con-
verted to clay as well (figure 12).
Rhyolite outcrops that host swarms of pebble dikes
display stronger argillic alteration, resulting in the
destruction and replacement of all phenocrysts except
quartz and K-feldspar. Plagioclase and mafic silicates are
completely replaced by smectitic clay (figure 12). XRD
analysis reveals that strong argillic alteration is accom-
panied by kaolinite as an additional alteration phase.
Although K-feldspar persists into the strong argillic stage,
it displays minor evidence of alteration to clay. Strong
argillic alteration also results in the partial destruction of
original volcanic texture; nonetheless, the persistence of
quartz and K-feldspar phenocrysts still reveal a rhyolite
parentage. Rhyolite that displays strong argillic altera-
tion crumbles very easily and is often white to yellow in
outcrop. Minor amounts of disseminated sulfides are also
found in strong argillic assemblages.
In rare cases, swarms of pebble dikes produce jasper-
oid from rhyolite as a result of pervasive silicification.
Similar to strong argillic assemblages, rhyolite jasperoids
display very little of their original volcanic texture. Of the
original phenocrysts only quartz remains; however, the
persistence of magmatic quartz is only readily appar-
ent in thin section (figure 12). Rhyolite jasperoids are
exceptionally hard, and are composed entirely of a mosa-
ic of small interlocking quartz grains, which permeate
the original groundmass and fill fractures and cavities.
Pebble dikes with silicified matrices probably developed
from the same fluids that produced the silicification of
rhyolite into jasperoid.
Isocon analysis (Grant, 2005) of fresh and altered
Packard Quartz Latite is consistent with the alteration
mineralogy and textures (figure 13). The isocons are
defined by a wide variety of elements that were essen-
tially immobile, including Al, Y, Zr, Nb, Th, and LREE.
Johnson, D.M. and Christiansen, E.H. 27

»North Standard Pebble

dike

Selma
an
n Pe ak

xm
Pinyo

Pa
»Water Lillie
39°59'N

nsville Tnl
Homa
Central Standard Porphyry of
Homansville » North Lily
» Copper Leaf
Canyon e
or

tic
lti
m » Tsc

Tin
Ba tic
39°58'N

in
East T

st
Silver City

Ea
ote
ial
Coy
nn

Stock
nte
Ce

Tint
ic
le

Ba
il » North Lily Tsp
Leadv

Stan

llpa
di ate Big Hill
rme Sunrise Peak

rk
Inte

ard
»
Eureka Lilly
h
Addie

ut intrusion and flows

So
39°57'N

South
»Burgin
20t
l

Faults:
tra

hC

ing
en

nK le
ent

idd
dC

Iro
ay

yon M
ury
an

Can
Yan Normal

z
yD

Ine
Gr

kee rd
Pine a
Ma

nd Strike-slip
rd ta
oth

n da e xS
Sta Ap Thrust
mm
39°56'N

re ka ex
Ma

Eu Ap
th
Sioux-Ajax S ou
» Mineshaft
»
Trixie

Nevada
»
39°55'N

d
on
am
Di
39°54'N

112°7'W 112°6'W 112°5'W 112°4'W 112°3'W 112°2'W

0 0.75 1.5 3 Km

1:60,000
Figure 9. Fault and dike map of the Tintic mining district modified from Lindgren and Louglin (1919), Morris (1964),
Morris and Lovering (1979), and Keith and others (2009). This map shows the fault network for the region, complete
with abundant northeast-trending strike- and oblique-slip faults (blue), north-south to east-west-trending normal faults
(orange), and eastward-verging thrust faults (purple). This map also shows the prevalence of pebble dikes (black lines,
size exaggerated) near the porphyry of North Lily and the relative lack of pebble dikes near the Silver City stock.

Weak argillic alteration, marked by the partial destruc- shows systematic increases in CaO and Na2O concentra-
tion of plagioclase feldspar, results in the loss of CaO and tions away from the dike (figure 14), showing that pebble
Na2O from the rock. In fact, when sampled at intervals dikes were flow paths for fluids that caused alteration. Up
from the margin of a pebble dike outward, the rhyolite to 60% of the original CaO and 40% of the original Na2O

Comer, J.B., Inkenbrandt, P.C., Krahulec, K.A., and Pinnell, M.L.

28 The Nature and Origin of Pebble Dikes and Associated Alteration: Tintic Mining District (Ag-Pb-Zn-Au), Utah

Pebble Dikes Porphyry of North Lily Dikes

n = 400 n = 83
Mean = 37.0° ± 3.2° 1σ Mean = 29.1° ± 6.2° 1σ

Faults
n = 26
Mean = 45.4° ± 6.5° 1σ
Figure 10. Rose diagrams showing orientations of pebble
dikes, porphyry of North Lily dikes, and strike-slip and normal
faults in the area shown in figure 9. These rose diagrams
were created in RockWorks using spatial data collected from
ArcMap. Each feature was approximated by a two-point
straight line, and endpoints of the line were used to calculate
the strike and length of the feature. Features were then
separated into 10° bins based on strike. The length of each
10° bin represents the cumulative length of all features in the
bin. The red lines show the mean and one standard deviation
for each diagram. On the faults diagram, only the mean and
standard deviation of strike-slip faults are shown. These rose
diagrams show that pebble dikes, igneous dikes, and strike-
slip faults share a common northeast orientation. Pebble dikes
and igneous dikes were perhaps guided by and emplaced
along pre-existing northeast-trending strike-slip faults.

Strike-slip faults Normal faults

A B

Figure 11. Clasts in dikes near the North Lily mine. A – These rounded clasts (EUREKA-DJ-11) were removed from a
pebble dike hosted in Packard Quartz Latite. Their texture, mineralogy, and chemistry indicate that they represent the
porphyry of North Lily. B – This sample of porphyry of North Lily contains a xenolith of Tintic Quartzite (marked by the
black arrow), the same material that makes up the bulk of pebble dike clasts.

UGA Publication 45 (2016)—Resources and Geology of Utah’s West Desert

Johnson, D.M. and Christiansen, E.H. 29

Weak argillization
A B

Strong argillization
C D

Silicification (jasperoid)

E F

Figure 12. Photomicrographs (20x magnification, cross-polarized light) of pebble dike-related alteration in Packard
Quartz Latite host rocks. A – Weak argillization (EUREKA-RAF-13) involves the partial decomposition of plagioclase
phenocrysts. This is seen in the brown, fibrous stripes in the large plagioclase phenocryst. B – Mafic silicates, like this
biotite, are also partially decomposed. C – Strong argillization (EUREKA-KAG-13A) is characterized by the complete
decomposition of plagioclase and mafic silicates. Plagioclase shapes remain, but are entirely replaced by clay. D –
K-feldspar phenocrysts persist into strong argillic alteration assemblages. E – Silicification (EUREKA-DJ-12) converts
all phenocrysts and groundmass to quartz. Secondary quartz often approximates the shape of the phenocryst it replaced
(here probably a plagioclase grain). F – Magmatic quartz phenocrysts persist in silicified assemblages (black line is a
fracture in the thin section).

Comer, J.B., Inkenbrandt, P.C., Krahulec, K.A., and Pinnell, M.L.

30 The Nature and Origin of Pebble Dikes and Associated Alteration: Tintic Mining District (Ag-Pb-Zn-Au), Utah

70
Weak argillization TiO2
SiO2
Fe2O3
60 % 1:1
50

Altered Packard Quartz Latite

+
CO
N Al2O3
50 ISO
Added P2O5
Cr MgO
40 Cu K2O

Ce Ba
Nb Na2O
30 Ni Ga -50%
Sc MnO
Sm Nd La
20 CaO
Th Rb Pb
U
10 Y V Sr Subtracted
Zn
Zr
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Unaltered Packard Quartz Latite

70
TiO2
Strong argillization
Al2O3
60 0% SiO2
Altered Packard Quartz Latite

+5 N 1:1
CO
ISO
50
Added Cr
K2O
40
Ce
Ni Nb P2O5
30 Ga -50%
Pb La
Rb Ba Fe2O3
Sm Nd Cu
20 U MgO
Na2O
Th
V Sc
10 Sr Subtracted
Zn Y CaO
Zr MnO
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Unaltered Packard Quartz Latite

90
SiO2
Silicification (jasperoid)
80
Altered Packard Quartz Latite

0%
70 +5 1:1
Added TiO2
60
N
CO
ISO
50 Cr

40 Nb
Ni
30 -50%
P2O5
20 Ce Ba
Nd La Subtracted
U Sm Na2O Fe2O3
10 Zn Y Sr Pb Ga MgO
Zr V K2O CaO Al2O3
Th Sc Rb Cu MnO
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Unaltered Packard Quartz Latite

Figure 13. Isocon diagrams (Grant, 2005) of different types of alteration related to pebble dikes in Packard Quartz Latite
host. Immobile elements and oxides form the isocon (blue line). Elements and oxides that plot below the isocon have
been removed during alteration, while those that plot above have been added. Weak argillization removed Na2O and CaO.
Strong argillization removed Na2O, CaO, MgO, and Fe2O3. Silicification resulted in the loss of most elements and oxides
with the significant addition of SiO2. 50% gained and lost lines are included to reference approximately how much of
each component was gained or lost during alteration. The lack of enrichment of Cu, Pb, or Zn is evidence that these
dikes are not directly related to mineralization. All element and oxide concentrations have been arbitrarily scaled using
different but consistent scaling factors in order to fit on the same diagram.
UGA Publication 45 (2016)—Resources and Geology of Utah’s West Desert
Johnson, D.M. and Christiansen, E.H.
are removed from the rhyolite due to weak argillic altera-
tion. Sr, Rb, Pb, Ba, K, Mg, and Mn were also leached
from the rhyolite to varying degrees. Strong argillic alter-
ation, characterized by the destruction of all phenocrysts
except for quartz and K-feldspar, results in the more
extreme loss of CaO (-90%), Na2O (-70%), MgO (-65%),
and Fe2O3 (-60%) as plagioclase and biotite break down
further. Minor losses of Ba and Sr are also observed as a
result of feldspar destruction. K2O concentration remains
more or less constant in strong argillic assemblages due
to the persistence of K-feldspar. Mn, P, Sc, and Cu also
show notable depletions. No elements were significantly
enriched during this low temperature alteration. Notably,
elements enriched in Tintic ores, e.g., Pb, Zn, and Cu,
are not enriched and instead are quite similar between
fresh and altered rhyolite. In rhyolite jasperoids, all major
elements (except for Si and Ti) and most trace elements
(except Zr, Nb, Ni, and Cr) were removed from the rock,
not just diluted by the addition of SiO2. This is indicated
by the position of most elements below the isocon. Pb,
Zn, and Cu are strongly depleted in the jasperoids. On
the other hand, SiO2 was introduced by the hydrothermal
fluids; it is not enriched simply by leaching. Concentra-
tions increase substantially in jasperoids, upwards of
35%, due to the addition of quartz (figure 12).
Stable Isotopes and Pebble Dikes
Given that pebble dike emplacement resulted in signifi-
cant changes in rhyolite host rock chemistry, changes in
stable isotope composition may reveal more about the
causes and conditions of alteration. Fresh and altered
host rocks (collected at or near the margins of pebble
dikes), pebble dikes, quartz phenocrysts, hydrothermal
quartz crystals, and dolomite clasts from pebble dikes
were analyzed for oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon iso-
tope compositions. All stable isotope data, referenced to
VSMOW and VPDB, are summarized in table 3.
Quartz phenocrysts separated from fresh (albeit still
displaying minor alteration) and altered Packard Quartz
Latite range from 8.8 to 8.9‰ δ18O. There is no dis-
cernible difference between quartz in fresh and altered
rhyolite samples. Because of the resistance of quartz to
alteration and weathering, the δ18O of analyzed quartz
phenocrysts approximates the original δ18O value of
quartz in the Packard Quartz Latite at ~8.9‰. This
value does not accurately estimate the δ18O value of the
original magma, as quartz is always richer in 18O than a
coexisting silicate melt (Taylor, 1968). The δ18O value of
the original magma should have been about 0.8‰ lower
than the quartz phenocrysts, at ~8.1‰ (Zhao and Zheng,
2003). This δ18O value is similar to that of many rhyo-
lites, which typically range from 6‰ to 10‰.
δ18O values in rhyolite whole-rocks that fall below
this magmatic value could be the result of isotopic
reequilibration with pebble dike-related fluids. Rhyolite
whole-rocks have δ18O values ranging from 5.8 to 8.1‰.
δ18O in fresher rhyolite ranges from 7.4 to 8.1‰ and is
fairly consistent with the value estimated from quartz.
More altered rhyolite occupies a lower range of δ18O from
5.7 to 7.7‰ (figure 15). Hydrothermal quartz formed
in crystal-lined cavities in a silicified pebble dike had
Comer, J.B., Inkenbrandt, P.C., Krahulec, K.A., and Pinnell, M.L.
31
Pebble Dike Packard Quartz Latite
-130
-140 δDVSMOW (‰)
-150
8
7 δ18OVSMOW (‰)
6
3
2 Na2O (wt %)
1
3
2 CaO (wt %)
1
0 50 100
Distance from pebble dike
into host rhyolite (cm)
Figure 14. Chemical and stable isotope trends near
pebble dikes. In the Packard Quartz Latite CaO, Na2O,
and δ18O all increase away from the pebble dike. Lower
values in each case represent more altered rock, with the
most altered samples occurring right on the margin of the
pebble dike. This observation identifies pebble dikes as a
possible alteration source.
a δ18O value of 9.1‰ and probably formed at low tem-
perature from isotopically exchanged fluids (see below).
Pebble dike whole-rocks range from 8.6 to 10.9‰ δ18O.
The higher δ18O values seen in pebble dikes (which are
composed of over 90% quartzite) and quartz relative to
rhyolite whole-rock are explained by the natural enrich-
ment of18O in quartz compared to other minerals (Sharp,
2007; Taylor, 1974). Pebble dike values cover a larg-
er range of δ18 O than quartz separates due to varying
amounts of carbonate contamination.
Overall, rhyolite whole-rocks have δD values ranging from
-135 to -147‰. δD for altered rhyolites overlaps with,
but extends to somewhat lower values than for fresh
rhyolite. δD in the freshest rhyolite ranges from -138 to
-139‰ with more altered rhyolite from -135 to -147‰
(figure 15). These δD values are much lower than typical
fresh igneous rocks which range in δD from -50 to -85‰.
Since these rhyolites fall significantly outside this range,
they must have experienced isotopic reequilibration—
probably with meteoric fluids at low water/rock ratios
which causes strong decreases in δD with little change in
δ18O (figure 15).
32 The Nature and Origin of Pebble Dikes and Associated Alteration: Tintic Mining District (Ag-Pb-Zn-Au), Utah

Table 3. Stable isotope compositions via mass spectrometry.

δ18O δ13C δ18O Wt. Calculated Calculated

δ18O Whole- δD Whole-
Sample Rock Type Dolomite Dolomite Quartz % Water δ18O Water δD Lab
Rock (‰) Rock (‰)
(‰) (‰) (‰) H2O (‰) (‰)

PD-Quartz Quartz 9.08 -8.7 Oregon

EUREKA-WJJ-13 Packard 8.91 8.09 -137.7 1.22 -8.9*/-9.2 -114.0 Oregon

EUREKA-RAF-13 Packard 8.84 6.87 -144.5 1.90 -9.0*/-8.6 -121.0 Oregon

EUREKA-KAG-13 Packard 8.84 7.65 -143.8 3.03 -9.0*/-8.8 -121.7 Oregon

EUREKA-DJ-PD2a Packard 5.95 -139.8 1.73 -9.5 -116.1 Oregon

EUREKA-DJ-PD2b Packard 5.77 -135.0 1.86 -9.6 -111.2 Oregon

EUREKA-DJ-PD2c Packard 5.66 -135.5 1.52 -9.8 -111.7 Oregon

EUREKA-DJ-PD12a Packard 6.37 -142.7 2.30 -9.1 -119.1 Oregon

EUREKA-DJ-PD12b Packard 6.83 -147.1 1.42 -8.6 -123.6 Oregon

EUREKA-DJ-PD12c Packard 7.40 -138.8 1.13 -9.9 -115.4 Oregon

Pebble
EUREKA-DJ-PD5 8.64 -128.2 1.41 -9.2 -104.2 Oregon
dike
Pebble
EUREKA-DJ-PD12 10.20 -125.9 1.12 -7.6 -101.8 Oregon
dike
Pebble
EUREKA-DJ-PD30 10.90 -135.0 1.68 -7.0 -111.2 Oregon
dike
PD6a Dolomite 9.9 -2.5 -9.5** BYU
PD26 Dolomite 27.7 -2.5 BYU
PD26 rind Dolomite 16.3 -7.0 -3.3** BYU
PD28 in Dolomite 23.2 -1.1 BYU

PD28 in rind Dolomite 14.5 -5.1 -5.0** BYU

PD28 out Dolomite 24.2 -1.0 BYU

PD29 in Dolomite 24.3 0.0 BYU
PD29 out Dolomite 23.2 -0.2 BYU
* Calculated Water δ18O values calculated from δ18O Quartz
**δ18O only calculated for clasts that experienced isotopic reequilibration (evidenced by low δ18O values)

Rounded clasts of Cambrian dolomite removed from peb-
ble dikes range widely in δ13C from 0.0 to -7.0‰ and
in δ18O from 9.9 to 27.7‰. Two groups are apparent:
an elevated δ18O group with δ18O values that range from
23.2 to 27.7‰ and δ13C values that range from 0.0 to
-2.5‰, and a group with lower δ18O ranging from 9.9 to
16.3‰ and δ13C ranging from -2.5 to -7.0‰ (figure 16).
While most clasts appeared to be unaltered gray marine
carbonate, some had tan to brown alteration rinds which
varied in thickness from 1 to 2 mm. When analyzed
independently, these alteration rinds fall into the group
with lower δ18O and δ13C, but the cores of these same
clasts are in the elevated δ18O group. Carbonate wall
rocks taken from the same outcrops that hosted carbon-
ate-bearing pebble dikes were isotopically similar to the
elevated δ18O group. The elevated δ18O group compares
well to the isotopic composition of unaltered Cambrian
carbonate of the Basin and Range at 16 to 23‰ δ18O
and 0 to -1‰ δ13C (Brasier, 1993; Saltzman and others,
1998), suggesting that this group has retained its origi-
nal Cambrian isotopic signature. The departure of the
lower δ18O and δ13C group away from the elevated group
indicates that some dolomite clasts experienced isotopic
reequilibration with a hydrothermal fluid, even if only on
their exteriors.

UGA Publication 45 (2016)—Resources and Geology of Utah’s West Desert

Johnson, D.M. and Christiansen, E.H. 33

0 0
SMOW
A B
-20 -20

e
in

Lin
L
er

er
at

at
-40 -40

W
Initial rhyolite

ic

ric
r
composition

eo
Magmatic

eo
et
δDVSMOW (‰)

et
-60 -60

δDVSMOW (‰)
Water

M
ite
in
-80

ol
-80

Ka
ite
ne
in
ge

ol
po
-100

Ka
-100

ght
0.003

Hy
ene

wei
rg
pe
Initial

ite
-120 -120

Su

lin
y 0.01
Water-Rock meteoric

ao

b
s
atio

gK
Exchange H2O Wa t e r / R o c k r

in
-140 -140

er
0.1

th
0.9 0.6 0.4 0.3 0.2

ea
0.03

W
-160 -160
-20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
δ18OVSMOW (‰) δ18OVSMOW (‰)

Modern Tintic Freshest rhyolite Argillically altered rhyolite Pebble dike Quartz δ18O Dolomite clast
groundwater Calculated water Calculated water Calculated water Calculated δ18O in water Calculated δ18O in water

Figure 15. δD versus δ18O of pebble dikes and rhyolites altered by pebble dikes. A – Solid symbols represent measured
compositions, while hollow symbols represent calculated compositions of equilibrium fluids. Tie lines connect measured
values to the corresponding fluid. Calculations were performed at 100°C. Altered rhyolite from the walls of the pebble
dikes plots near the line intended to separate supergene kaolinite on the right from hypogene kaolinite on the left
(Sheppard and others, 1969). Kaolinite formed by weathering (Savin and Epstein, 1970) is more enriched in δ18O than
the kaolinite of the altered rhyolites. Calculated water compositions fall to the right of the meteoric water line (Craig,
1961), far from the field for magmatic water, and approach the composition of modern Tintic groundwater (Norman and
others, 1991; Hamaker and Harris, 2007). These attributes suggest the unlikely participation of magmatic water in the
generation of pebble dikes and associated alteration. The general lowering of both δ18O and δD in more altered rhyolite
samples when compared to fresher rhyolite samples demonstrates an important role for groundwater (produced through
meteoric recharge) in alteration. Although they have no corresponding δD values, the δ18O of water calculated to be in
equilibrium with hydrothermal quartz and dolomite clasts are shown on the x-axis and are similar to that calculated for
the other materials. Measured values for the hydrothermal quartz are shown, but the measured δ18O of dolomite clasts
falls off the graph to the right. B – Calculated water/rock ratios involved in alteration assuming the initial values shown
and fractionation factors of 8.5 for oxygen and 30 for hydrogen using the equations of Taylor (1977).
0
Dolomite clast Cambrian Carbonates
of the Basin and Range
Dolomite clast rind
-1
Dolomite wall rock

Hydrothermal calcite
-2

-3
δ13CVPDB (‰)

Hydrothermal Calcite
-4

-5

-6

-7

-8
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
18
δ OVSMOW (‰)
Figure 16. δ13C versus δ18O of dolomite clasts in pebble dikes and dolomite wall rock shows two isotopically distinct
groups. Those that likely did not experience isotopic reequilibration with pebble-dike fluids plot near to the field for
Cambrian dolomite of the Basin and Range (Brasier, 1993; Saltzman and others, 1998). One clast and the rinds of two
other clasts that experienced isotopic reequilibration plot near to the field for hydrothermal calcite from the Tintic district
(Norman and others, 1991). Hypothetical trends for equilibration are shown with an arrow.

Comer, J.B., Inkenbrandt, P.C., Krahulec, K.A., and Pinnell, M.L.

34 The Nature and Origin of Pebble Dikes and Associated Alteration: Tintic Mining District (Ag-Pb-Zn-Au), Utah
DISCUSSION
Pebble dikes are hypothesized to form when superheated
water explosively flashes to steam, most likely due to a
sudden release of confining pressure (as would occur
when a fracture opens to the surface, releasing lithostatic
load), and escapes to an area of lower pressure while
carrying rock debris that was generated by the explo-
sions (Farmin, 1934; Kildale, 1938; Cook, 1957; Morris
and Mogensen, 1978; Morris and Lovering, 1979). Our
observations further refine this hypothesis.
The Role of the Porphyry of North Lily in
Pebble Dike Formation
Historically, the formation of pebble dikes in the Tintic
mining district has been attributed to the intrusion of
the Silver City stock, whether named specifically or sim-
ply referred to as the ‘monzonite’ or ‘quartz monzonite’
of the Tintic district. Early workers proposed that peb-
ble dikes formed as water interacted with the intruding
Silver City stock (Farmin, 1934; Kildale, 1938; Cook,
1957; Morris and Mogensen, 1978; Morris and Lover-
ing, 1979). Although the heating of water by an intrusive
body appears to be a requirement in pebble dike forma-
tion, the porphyry of North Lily, rather than the Silver City
stock, appears to have been responsible for those in the
East Tintic subdistrict.
The identification of the porphyry of North Lily as the heat
source was driven by the predominance of pebble dikes
in an area 5 km northeast of the main outcrops of the Sil-
ver City stock, near a swarm of igneous plugs and dikes
now identified as the porphyry of North Lily due to their
unique texture, hydrous mineralogy, and andesitic com-
position. The strong spatial association between pebble
dikes and the porphyry of North Lily is easily seen in map
view, where pebble dikes mostly overlap with the extent
of the porphyry of North Lily (figure 3, 5, and 9).This
spatial association strongly suggests that the porphyry of
North Lily was fundamental in pebble dike formation;
however, the Silver City stock may have its own aureole
of minor pebble and igneous dikes.
Additional lines of evidence indicate that the porphyry of
North Lily was directly involved in pebble dike formation.
The first evidence is the similarity in orientation between
North Lily dikes and pebble dikes (figure 10). Orientation
similarity, possibly brought about by the influence of a
series of subparallel, northeast-trending, Sevier-related
strike- and oblique-slip faults hosted in Paleozoic strata
(figure 9), suggests that both dike types were emplaced
when regional stresses were similar. This might indi-
cate that both dike types were actively forming at the
same time. Although dike emplacement likely utilized
northeast-trending zones of weakness in Paleozoic stra-
ta, similar northeast orientations continue in dikes that
crosscut Cenozoic volcanic and plutonic rocks. Cenozoic
volcanic rocks were emplaced long after Sevier deforma-
tion ended, and should therefore not have inherited the
structural weaknesses of the deformed Paleozoic strata.
UGA Publication 45 (2016)—Resources and Geology of Utah’s West Desert
Nevertheless, maximum horizontal stress in the western
United States maintained a northeast orientation until
30 Ma (Kowallis and others, 1995), thereby allowing the
continued emplacement of dikes with a northeast strike,
even in post-Sevier rocks. Thus, we conclude that old
fractures were re-opened where they aligned with the
Eocene stress regime, influencing new fractures with
similar orientations to form.
The final evidence of porphyry of North Lily and peb-
ble dike interaction is seen in the presence of rounded
North Lily clasts in pebble dikes and quartzite xenoliths
in North Lily dikes (figure 11). The genetic relationship
suggested by the spatial correlation of pebble dikes to
the porphyry of North Lily is even more strongly suggest-
ed by this direct incorporation of each rock type in the
other. Pebble dikes and the porphyry of North Lily would
likely have to be forming at the same time in order to
interact in this way.
Pebble Dike Characteristics
The physical characteristics of the pebble dikes provide
further refinements of the formation model. Breccia
envelopes that surround some pebble dikes (figure 2D)
indicate that pebble dike emplacement was violent, as
host rocks fractured to make space for pebble dike mate-
rial. Pebble dikes only contain clasts that originated
below or adjacent to their present-day structural posi-
tion, suggesting that the clasts were created by explosive
events that occurred at depth, and that pebble dikes
were formed by the general upward movement of mate-
rial. The rounding of the clasts likely occurred by thermal
spallation and abrasion as they were transported to their
current positions. The abundance of quartzite clasts rela-
tive to any other clast type could be explained by the
resistance of quartzite to the violence of emplacement,
but also likely indicates that the main explosive events
occurred within the Tintic Quartzite, which is estimated
to have been at a depth of 150 to 500 m (Morris, 1964).
Fluid involvement in the formation of pebble dikes is
strongly suggested by the nearly universal presence of
hydrothermal alteration within pebble dikes and along
their margins in rhyolite host rocks (Kildale, 1938) and
by our new chemical and isotopic data for the altered
rocks.
These observations suggest that the pebble dikes devel-
oped as subvertical NE-trending fractures opened (some
pre-existing and some newly developed), followed by
explosive fragmentation of the walls of the fracture. Once
the carapace breccia formed, a fluidized stream of peb-
bles and clastic debris filled the fracture. Escape of the
boiling fluid from the slurry caused further disruption of
the wall rocks. Finally, sheets of andesite magma fol-
lowed up the same conduits. The heated water moving in
and from the dikes caused minor alteration in surround-
ing host rocks.
Johnson, D.M. and Christiansen, E.H.
The Character of the Fluid Involved in
Pebble Dike Formation
Alteration characteristics and stable isotope composi-
tions can be used to determine the character of the fluid
involved in the formation of the pebble dikes. Alteration
effects in rhyolite host rocks, including the removal of
CaO, Na2O, MgO, MnO, Fe2O3, Ba, Sr, and Cu, and the
production of smectite, kaolinite, and jasperoid indicate
the participation of a hydrothermal fluid in pebble dike
formation. Assuming that this alteration mineral assem-
blage reached equilibrium with the fluid that caused
alteration, the fluid temperature for a system dominated
by smectite, kaolinite, and jasperoid is estimated to have
been at or below 150°C (Reed and Spycher, 1984). As a
further constraint on fluid temperature, pebble dike-relat-
ed alteration in the Packard Quartz Latite is very similar
to hydrothermal alteration observed in drill cores of the
Biscuit Basin rhyolite flow of Yellowstone National Park
(Sturchio and others, 1986). At Yellowstone, alteration
results in the loss of the same suite of elements (CaO,
Na2O, MgO, MnO, K2O, Ba, and Sr) from the rhyolite,
with the accompanying alteration of rhyolite to smectitic
clay, zeolites, celadonite, and secondary quartz. Altera-
tion temperatures at Yellowstone are estimated directly
by water temperatures measured during drilling, which
ranged from 130° to 170°C. This temperature range
overlaps with the ≤150°C estimated by the pebble dike-
related alteration mineral assemblage. Fluid temperature
can be further constrained by the requirement for boiling
in pebble dike formation, which occurs in water under
atmospheric pressure at 100°C. The boiling point of
water increases to 190°C at 150 m of hydrostatic pres-
sure, the estimated depth of the Tintic Quartzite below
this part of the Eocene-Oligocene volcanic field. This
temperature exceeds that estimated by alteration min-
eralogy, which indicates that boiling did not occur under
a full hydrostatic load, or that the altered rocks we sam-
pled represent more distal, and thus lower temperature,
alteration. The presence of onionskin structure in quartz-
ite clasts, created at a minimum temperature differential
of 100°C, may also constrain fluid temperature.
Stable isotope compositions can be used to provide fur-
ther insight into the character of the fluid. The effect
of pebble dike-related alteration on δ18O is most eas-
ily seen in the comparison of the freshest to the most
altered rhyolite samples, as it appears that quartzite in
the pebble dikes and quartz phenocrysts in the rhyolite
experienced little to no reequilibration. The freshest rhy-
olite analyzed (EUREKA-WJJ-13) has a higher δ18O value
than any other rhyolite at 8.1‰. The δ18O values in more
altered samples were consistently lower (5.7 to 7.7‰,
figure 15), which is in agreement with observations from
other areas, like Yellowstone, where near surface volcanic
rocks experience hydrothermal alteration (Sturchio and
others, 1986; Sharp, 2007). This trend continues in
pebble dike dolomite clasts, where the lowest δ18O val-
ues (10 to 16‰) are measured in samples displaying the
most alteration. In most cases, rocks that exhibit a trend
of decreasing δ18O with alteration achieved such by inter-
action with meteoric water (Taylor, 1968; Taylor, 1974).
Comer, J.B., Inkenbrandt, P.C., Krahulec, K.A., and Pinnell, M.L.
35
The small change of 1 to 2‰ in δ18O from fresher to more
altered rhyolite samples indicates that fluid interaction
occurred at low water-rock ratios. Using the equations of
Taylor (1977) for open system exchange of oxygen and
hydrogen isotopes, the calculated water-rock ratios are
about ~0.03 by weight. Of particular note, a sequence of
altered rhyolite samples taken at ~50 cm intervals from
the margin of a pebble dike outward showed a consist-
ent increase in δ18O away from the dike (figure 14). This
observation, of more altered, lower δ18O rhyolite occur-
ring closer to pebble dike margins, strongly suggests that
pebble dikes contained and were flow paths for fluids
capable of argillic alteration, silicification, and lower
δ18O.
δD also appears to be lowered by alteration. All measured
δD values are exceptionally low when compared to hydro-
gen isotope compositions of fresh igneous rocks around
the world. Altered rocks with δD values below the range
for typical igneous rocks (-50 to -85‰ δD) have usually
experienced post-crystallization exchange with heated
meteoric water, during which secondary OH-bearing min-
erals are produced. The presence of OH-bearing minerals
results in the lowering of the overall δD value (Sheppard
and Taylor, 1974; Taylor, 1974). The exceptionally low
δD values of these rhyolite and pebble dike samples can
be partially attributed to the presence of smectite and
kaolinite, as shown by XRD. Even the δD value of the
freshest rhyolite analyzed (EUREKA-WJJ-13), at -135‰,
falls significantly outside the range of unaltered igneous
rock, and thereby suggests that it has interacted signifi-
cantly with meteoric water. Alternatively, δD depletion
could be attributed to eruptive degassing (figure 15),
which lowers δD over time during an eruptive sequence if
a discrete vapor phase escapes (Taylor and others, 1983).
We consider this less likely because the lower δ18O values
found in the lower δD rhyolites are not predicted by the
degassing hypothesis.
Some deuterium depletion might also be explained by
the location of the Tintic mining district. The δD value
of modern groundwater of meteoric origin in the region
is significantly depleted in deuterium (average of -112‰
per Norman and others (1991) and Hamaker and Har-
ris (2007)). Prolonged interaction of igneous rocks with
depleted groundwater of this sort would certainly lower δD
values below their typical range. The δD values of middle
Cenozoic-age igneous rocks (and associated calculated
waters) in the western United States have been shown
to be geographically correlated with modern groundwater
composition (Sheppard and others, 1969). Although the
Packard Quartz Latite was emplaced during the Eocene,
groundwater during the time of emplacement was appar-
ently isotopically similar to present-day groundwater. This
idea is supported by the analysis of Tintic district fluid
inclusions by Norman and others (1991), which provides
an estimate of -105 to -120‰ δD for mineralization-
age fluids. Middle Cenozoic groundwater was probably
this depleted because of the high elevation of the pro-
posed Great Basin altiplano (Best and others, 2009) and
the negative correlation between altitude and the δD of
meteoric water.
36 The Nature and Origin of Pebble Dikes and Associated Alteration: Tintic Mining District (Ag-Pb-Zn-Au), Utah
The overall isotopic trend of lower δ18O and δD values
in Tintic district rocks altered by pebble dikes suggests
the participation of meteoric water in pebble dike forma-
tion (Taylor, 1968; Taylor, 1974), or more specifically, of
groundwater produced though meteoric water recharge.
Given a fluid temperature estimate for this groundwater
of 100° to 170°C, the oxygen and hydrogen isotope com-
positions of water in equilibrium with rhyolite and pebble
dikes were calculated from analytical results at 100°C
(figure 15). Calculations and fractionation factors used
are summarized in Johnson (2014). Calculated water for
the fresher rhyolite samples ranges from -9.2 to -9.9‰
δ18O and -114 to -115‰ δD while more altered rhyo-
lite samples range from -8.6 to -9.8‰ δ18O and -111
to -124‰ δD. Calculated water for pebble dike samples
ranges from –7.0 to -9.2‰ δ18O and -102 to -111‰ δD.
On the whole, calculated waters plot near but to the right
of present-day regional groundwater, which ranges from
-13 to -16‰ δ18O and -96 to -121‰ δD (Norman and
others, 1991; Hamaker and Harris, 2007), indicating
that the fluid that participated in pebble dike formation
likely originated as meteoric water. The rightward shift
away from the meteoric water line is probably the result
of the meteoric water experiencing isotopic exchange
with rocks at elevated temperatures and low water-rock
ratios (Taylor, 1974) prior to participation in pebble
dike formation. Such shifts are common in geothermal
fluids and hot springs. For example, the water at Steam-
boat Springs, Colorado, has δD and δ18O values (Sharp,
2007) very similar to those calculated for the waters in
the pebble dikes and is shifted to the right compared
to local precipitation. Calculated water values plot far
from the magmatic water field, indicating the unlikely
participation of magmatic water in the formation of the
pebble dikes in the East Tintic subdistrict. Increasing the
temperature of calculation to 150 or 170°C moves calcu-
lated values further to the right of the meteoric water line
in the direction of the actual measured values. Although
isotopic evidence indicates the participation of warm
groundwater in pebble dike formation, the limit of host
rock alteration to the nearest few centimeters from the
pebble dike/host rock contact and the presence of only
partially reequilibrated dolomite clasts in the dikes sug-
gests that fluid presence in pebble dikes was relatively
short-lived.
Model for the Formation Pebble Dikes
Any model created to describe the formation of peb-
ble dikes in the East Tintic subdistrict should take into
account the new observations and interpretations pre-
sented in this study. Some of the more important include:
(1) the participation of the porphyry of North Lily as a
heat source, (2) the involvement of heated groundwater
in the mobilization of pebble dike material and hydro-
thermal alteration, and (3) the influence of the regional
fault system in pebble dike orientation. With these con-
straints, pebble dike formation probably followed these
steps (figure 17):
1. Following ~2.5 m.y. of preceding rhyolite,
monzonite, and latite magmatism, groundwater
hosted in fractures in the Tintic Quartzite was
UGA Publication 45 (2016)—Resources and Geology of Utah’s West Desert
heated by the intruding porphyry of North
Lily until it approached the boiling point
at hydrostatic pressure (190°C at 150 m).
During heating, the water experienced isotopic
exchange with surrounding rocks, which pulled
the isotopic composition of the water off of the
meteoric water line.
2. New and pre-existing northeast-trending
fractures and faults that were aligned
favorably with the Eocene stress field opened
to accommodate the rising andesitic magma.
When any one of these fractures opened to the
surface (or to any area of overall lower pressure),
confining pressure on the superheated water
dropped, allowing it to flash into steam. Multiple
explosions likely occurred in an area of about
6 km2, producing several generations of pebble
dikes.
3. The large volume expansion related to this phase
change created more fractures and brecciated
the surrounding rock (Morgan and others,
2009). Brecciated rock material was fluidized
and carried upward along fractures and faults
in the escaping stream of decompressing and
expanding fluid. Quartzite clasts were rounded
into pebbles during transport, probably in large
part by thermal spalling. The fluidized mixture
traversed fractures in Paleozoic sedimentary
rocks and continued along newly formed
fractures in the overlying Packard Quartz Latite.
4. As the fluid left the system, transported material
became cemented in place, filling fractures
far above its point of origin. Wall rocks directly
adjacent to pebble dikes were altered by the low
temperature fluids emanating from the pebble
dikes to clay-rich argillic assemblages and minor
jasperoid. Soluble elements were leached out of
the rhyolite and silica was locally introduced.
5. If the explosive events that created pebble dikes
reached the surface, fluidized breccia may have
erupted to create hydrothermal explosion craters
or trench-like features bordered by rings or
mounds of accumulated loose breccia (Morgan
and others, 2009).
6. Magma followed up through the breccia in some
places creating pebble carapaces on dikes and
sills. Eruption of lava followed and formed the
Laguna Springs Volcanic Group which partially
buried the older Packard Quartz Latite.
In summary, pebble dikes were formed by the mobiliza-
tion of breccia in the explosive escape of groundwater
that had been heated by the porphyry of North Lily. Using
the correlation of the porphyry of North Lily to the Lagu-
na Springs Volcanic Group, pebble dike formation can be
estimated to have occurred at 33.29 ± 0.09 Ma, about
500,000 y after the intrusion of the monzonitic Silver
City stock.
Johnson, D.M. and Christiansen, E.H. 37

A 0 500 m CONCLUSION
In order to better understand the origin of the pebble dikes
W in the East Tintic subdistrict, this study focused on these pri-
mary questions: (1) What is the nature of pebble dikes in the
Packard Quartz Latite East Tintic subdistrict? (2) Are these pebble dikes related to
E a specific intrusive body? (3) How are host rocks altered near
Undifferentiated Paleozoic
pebble dikes? (4) What is the character and origin of the fluid
sedimentary rocks involved in the emplacement of pebble dikes? and (5) Is there
any connection between pebble dike formation and ore-gener-
STAN
DAR
D ating processes in the Tintic mining district?
TINTIC HRUST
T
ation In response to question (1), pebble dikes are tabular bodies
Form
Ophir Groundwater of intrusive breccia (Wright and Bowes, 1963) dominated by
Tintic Quartzite rounded fragments of quartzite, carbonate, shale, and igne-
ous rock which are enclosed in a fine-grained clastic matrix.
Also, pebble dikes are mostly hosted in the Packard Quartz
Porphyry of North Lily
Latite, are bounded by sharp contacts with host rocks, and are
typically bordered by significant brecciation in host rocks. To
answer question (2), pebble dikes share many relationships
with the porphyry of North Lily, a new intrusive unit identified
B and named in this study. These relationships include a strong
spatial association, a similar northeastern strike in both peb-
ble dikes and North Lily dikes, and the inclusion of North
Lily clasts in pebble dikes and the inclusion of pebble dike
material in North Lily dikes. With these observations, we con-
clude that pebble dikes are related to the porphyry of North
Lily. In regard to question (3), argillization and silicification
of rhyolite host rocks accompanied pebble dike formation. In
most cases, the emplacement of a pebble dike resulted in the
loss of CaO, Na2O, MgO, and Fe2O3 from the rhyolite host,
with the simultaneous creation of smectite and kaolinite clay
and minor jasperoid. Both δ18O and δD are lower in altered
host rocks than they are in equivalent fresh host rocks. All
alteration associated with pebble dikes is very low grade. In
Brecciation caused by
fluid expansion response to question (4), stable isotope analysis of altered
rhyolite host rocks and pebble dike clasts determined that
pebble dikes formed in the presence of heated groundwater
that had experienced isotopic exchange with host rocks. This

Figure 17. Model of pebble dike formation. All labels defined

C in frame A apply to subsequent frames. Pebble dike size and
the thickness of the Tintic Quartzite are greatly exaggerated for
Possible hydrothermal illustrative purposes. A – Fracture-hosted groundwater is heated
explosion crater by the rising porphyry of North Lily. Pre-existing fractures and
Pebble dike
faults (oblique-slip denoted by the combination of strike-slip
and normal fault symbology) begin to reopen to accommodate
the rise of magma. Water temperature rises to near the boiling
Alteration surrounds point. B – When favorably oriented pre-existing fractures open to
pebble dike the surface, confining pressure on the hot water drops, allowing
it to flash into steam as it explosively expands. Surrounding rock
is brecciated during this phase change. C – Brecciated rock
is carried up the now open fractures and rounded as the hot
fluid expands and escapes to the surface. The hot fluid causes
alteration in the surrounding rock. Additional brecciation occurs
in the host rocks along pebble dike walls. Breccia material may
have escaped to the surface, forming a hydrothermal explosion
crater similar to those described in Morgan and others (2009).
Any evidence of such has since eroded away. Although shown
separately in this model, the events shown in frames B and C
likely occur simultaneously.

Comer, J.B., Inkenbrandt, P.C., Krahulec, K.A., and Pinnell, M.L.

38 The Nature and Origin of Pebble Dikes and Associated Alteration: Tintic Mining District (Ag-Pb-Zn-Au), Utah
water likely fell as rain or snow at high altitude over the
Tintic region during the Eocene to Oligocene and was
subsequently incorporated into the groundwater system.
Heating of this water during the intrusion of the porphyry
of North Lily, to a temperature range of 100° to 170°C,
resulted in the hydrothermal fluid that created pebble
dikes.
Finally, to answer question (5), pebble dikes may have
been important to the ore-generating processes in the
Tintic mining district. In the midst of mostly imperme-
able rocks, pebble dikes could have served as conduits
for the transmission of ore fluids from the stocks to
more reactive rocks, provided that pebble dike forma-
tion occurred prior to mineralization. Pebble dikes were
formed by and were pathways for hydrothermal fluids.
This is seen in the systematic decrease of the concen-
trations of CaO, Na2O, and other mobile elements and
stable isotope ratios in host rocks near the pebble dikes
(figure 14), a trend that would only be possible if hydro-
thermal fluids were using pebble dikes as pathways. On
the other hand, these hydrothermal fluids were shown
to be phreatic, low temperature, and not magmatic, and
therefore likely incapable of transporting ore. In addi-
tion, the dikes we examined have low concentrations of
ore metals (figure 13). Pebble dikes in our study area are
mostly barren (Farmin, 1934; Kildale, 1938; Morris and
Lovering, 1979). Regarding the relationship of pebble
dikes to ore, Lindgren and Laughlin (1919) placed the
pebble dikes in the pre-ore stage of the Tintic’s Ag-Pb-
Zn-Au deposits, as did Farmin (1934) and Morris and
Lovering (1979). Lovering (1949) found that some peb-
ble dikes are mineralized by late barren stage solutions
and only locally contain ore. Morris and Lovering (1979,
p. 81) state that some pebble dikes contain shoots of ore,
especially at depths of 300 to 450 m, and even mention
mineralized pebble dikes in the Burgin, Eureka Standard,
and Apex Standard No. 2 mines. Unfortunately, the dikes
we studied are far above that level of mineralization and
the low temperature fluids that permeated our dikes may
be the cooler, distal manifestations of ore transport pro-
cesses. Despite the absence of ore, the close association
of pebble dikes to replacement ore bodies and jasperoid
masses in the North Lily and Copper Leaf mines indi-
cates that near-surface-level pebble dikes can at least be
utilized as guides to the Tintic mining district’s valuable
Ag-Pb-Zn-Au resources in the North Lily region (Kildale,
1938; Morris and Lovering, 1979).
The process of using pebble dikes as guides to ore in
the North Lily region was explored by an Andover Mining
Corporation joint venture with Rio Tinto’s Kennecott Utah
Copper Corporation, which attempted to identify a buried
porphyry Cu target at Big Hill, only ~1 km southwest of
the main pebble dike swarm (figure 3). This area was
chosen as a potential target because it has similar Pb-Zn
mineralization to the strong Pb and Zn-rich halo of the
Bingham Canyon porphyry Cu deposit. Six ‘high-priority’
targets, identified by aeromagnetic, induced polarization,
and magnetotelluric surveys in conjunction with geo-
chemical sampling, were explored using rotary drilling
UGA Publication 45 (2016)—Resources and Geology of Utah’s West Desert
in the summer of 2011 (Andover Mining Corp., 2011;
Boden and others, 2013). Drilling ventures were guided
by pebble dikes, which were used as “vectors to potential
porphyry mineralization” (Andover Mining Corp., 2011,
p. 9). The utilization of pebble dikes in exploration tech-
niques indicates the recognition of their potential role
as guides to Tintic mineralization. As discussed by Sil-
litoe (1985), pebble dike features are commonly found
in association with porphyry Cu-Mo deposits. With this
association in mind, it is possible to hypothesize that
the pebble dikes of the Tintic mining district occupy the
Pb and Zn-rich fringes of a yet undiscovered porphyry
Cu system. Unfortunately, the full results of the explora-
tion venture have been delayed by the 2014 bankruptcy
filing of the Andover Mining Corporation. Given further
research, pebble dikes have the potential to be identified
as worthwhile indicators of, and guides to, deep porphy-
ry-type mineralization, especially when they are found in
association with the Pb-Zn replacement bodies typical to
the distal portions of many porphyry-type deposits.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank Stephen Nelson, Michael Dorais, David Tingey,
and Kevin Rey for their guidance and assistance in the
laboratory. We thank Ilya Bindeman for providing D and
O isotope analyses. We thank the BYU geology field camp
students of 2013 who collected some of the samples
used in this work. Finally, we thank Ken Krahulec and
Jeff Keith, whose careful reviews made this paper signifi-
cantly better.
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Comer, J.B., Inkenbrandt, P.C., Krahulec, K.A., and Pinnell, M.L.

42 The Nature and Origin of Pebble Dikes and Associated Alteration: Tintic Mining District (Ag-Pb-Zn-Au), Utah

UGA Publication 45 (2016)—Resources and Geology of Utah’s West Desert