VISION

Dr.MINI.K
PROFESSOR&HEAD
DEPT OF PHYSIOLOGY
GMC MANGERY
FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY
 ORBIT

 EXTRAOCULAR MUSCLES

 CONJUNCTIVA

 LACRIMAL GLAND----TEARS
The bony orbits are quadrangular

truncated pyramids situated between the

anterior cranial fossa above and maxillary

sinus below.Seven bones take part in its

formation.

ORBIT
EYEBALLS EACH BEING SUSPENDED

BY EXTRAOCULAR MUSCLES AND

FASCIAL SHEATHS IN A

QUADRILATERAL PYRAMID SHAPED

BONY CAVITY CALLED ORBIT

 EYELIDS
 EYE BROWS
 CONJUNCTIVA and
 LACRIMAL APPARATUS collectively called
appendages of the eye

Appendages of the eye

 Dimensions of adult Eyeball
Anteroposterior diameter 24mm
Transverse diameter 23.5mm
Vertical Diameter 23mm
Circumference 75mm
Volume 6.5ml
Weight 7gm

THE EYE BALL

1)The outer fibrous coat
Anterior 1/6th of fibrous coat is transparent
and is called CORNEA
Posterior 5/6th is opeque and is called
SCLEERA.
Junction of Cornea and Sclera is called
limbus

COATS OF THE EYEBALL

2.Middle vascular coat;Also known as uveal
tract. From anterior to posterior can be
divided in to three parts
a)IRIS

b)Ciliary body

c)Choroid
 Iris :Iris is a coloured ,circular diaphragm

with a central aperture of 3-4 mm size.This

is pupil.The pupil regulates the light

reaching the retina.The pupil constricts

and dilates by the contraction of sphincter

pupillae and dilator pupillae muscles of
the
iris respectively.
 Ciliary body ;It is the middle part of the
uveal tract.In cut section,it is triangular in
shape with base forwards.Anteriorly,the
iris is attached to about the middle of the
base of ciliary body.Posteriorly the ciliary
body becomes continuous with the
choroid.Ciliary body is devided in to two
parts.
Anterior—Pars plicata
Posterior---Pars plana
 Ciliary body contains a non striated

muscle supplied by parasympathetic

fibers.This is called ciliary muscle.This

muscle take part in the process of

accommodation of the eye.

 There are about 70-80 finger like
projections from pars plicata part of the
ciliary body.These are called ciliary
processes and are the site of aquous
humour production.-a watery fluid which
maintains the intraocular pressure of the
eyeball.
 Choroid--It is a dark brown highly
vascular

layer situated in between sclera and

retina.It

supplies nutrition to the outer layers of

retina.The inflammations of choroid involves

the underlying retina also.

 Inner nervous coat—Retina ,the innermost

tunic is a thin delecate,transparent

membrane it is concered with the visual

functions.
 Anterior chamber
 Posterior Chamber
 Anterior and posterior chambers
communicate through PUPIL.
 Anterior and posterior chambers contain
Aqueous humour

INTERIOR OF EYEBALL
 Lens is a transparent ,biconvex,
crystalline structure placed between the
Iris and vitreous.
 It is suspended from the ciliary body by
the suspensory ligaments or Zonules of
ZINN.
 It is avascular structure and derives its
nutrition from Aqueous humour.
 Refractive power –15----16D

CRYSTALLINE LENS
 It is an inert transparent jelly like

structure that fills the posterior 4/5 th of

the cavityof eye ball.

It serves the optical function.It

consists of 90% water,some salts,and

mucoproteins

VITREOUS HUMOUR
The two eyebrows are arched structures

placed horizontally over the superciliary

ridge of the frontal bone seperated from

each other by a smooth hairless prominent

area known as glabella.

Extraocular muscles
Appendages and orbit
 EYELIDS are mobile tissue curtains

placed in front of the eyeballs.These act as

shutters protecting the eyes from

injuries and excessive light.These also

helps to spread the tearfilm over the

cornea and conjunctiva.

 Conjunctiva;It is a translucent mucous
membrane which lines the posterior surface
of eyelids and anterior aspect of eyeball up
to limbus.
Conjunctiva consists of following parts
1.Palpebral-On the posterior surface of the
eyelids
2.Bulbar- Covers anterior part eyeball up to
the limbus.
Fornices—At the junction of palpebral and
bulbar conjuctiva.
PLICA SEMILUNARIS-Pinkish crescentic
folds of
conjuctiva present in the medial canthus
 Lacrimal apparatus comprises the
structures concerned with the
formation(Main lacrimal gland and
accessory lacrimal glands)

and drainage(LACRIMAL PASSAGES;)

puncta,canaliculi,lacrimal sac and

nasolacrimal duct.)of tears.

LACRIMAL APARATUS
 It is the main prerequisite for visual

function.The structures forming refractive

media of the eye from anterior to posterior

Are;TEAR FILM,CORNEA,AQUOUS
HUMOUR,CRYSTALLINE LENS and
VITREOUS HUMOUR

Maintanance of clear
refractive media of the eye
 It is the fluid covering the cornea and
conjunctiva.Tears are composed of 98%
water and 1.5% sodium chloride,
Antibacterial substances like lysozym,
betalysin and lactoferrin.
 The pericorneal tear film consist of
3LAYERS
 Mucous layer
 Aquous layer
 Lipid layer

1.TEAR FILM
FUNCTIONS OF TEAR FILM
 Keep the cornea and conjenctiva moist
 It provides oxygen to the corneal
epithelium
 It washes away debris and noxious
irritants
 It prevents infection due to presence of
antebacterial substances.
 It facilitates movements of the lids over
the globe
 Cornea forms the main refracting medium

of the eye.It is a transparent watchglass

like

structure.Anterior surface bathed with tears

and endothelial surface bathed in aqueous

humour.

2.CORNEA
LAYERS OF CORNEA
 Epithelium-Stratified squamous
 Bowman’s membrane
 Stroma(substantia propria)-It forms the
90% of corneal thickness.Collagen fibrils
arranged in lamellae embedded in ground
substance.It consists of ACID
MUCOPOLYSACCHARIDES,CHONDROITIN
SULPHATE,KERATIN SULPHATE,In between
the lamellae keratocytes,
wandering leucocytes and macrophages
are scattered.
Descemets membrane-Secreted by
endothelium and forms the basement
membrane.

 Endothelium-Consist of a single layer of

flattened polygonal cells.

 Avascularity of cornea
 Absence of pigment in the cornea
 Demyelinated nerve supply
 Regular arrangement,nonkeratinisation
and homogenisity of refractive index of
corneal epithelium
 Peculiar arrangement of stromal lamellae
 Paucity of cells in the stroma and regular
arrangement of endothelium.
FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR
CORNEAL TRANSPARENCY
1.Anatomical factors
2.Relative dehydration of stroma
Stromal
swellingpressure(60mmHg)excerted by
glycosaminoglycans)
Epithelium act as barrier which is
impermeable to water.
Endothelial active pump system pumps fluid
and electrolytes from the stroma to the
aquous.It includes Na+K+ATPase.
Special inter cellular junctions in the
endothelium act as barrier.
Optimum intraocular pressure to control
fluid transport in the cornea.
 Source of Nutrition—Peripheral cornea
receives it’s nutrients via the blood stream
of
perilimbal plexus.Central cornea is
avascular and nutrients enter either by
simple diffusion or active transport through
aquous humour.Oxygen is derived directly
from air through tear film.
METABOLISM-Mainly of glucose.65% of
metabolism via glycolysis and remaider by
way of Krebs cycle and HMP shunt.
 It is a clear watery fluid filling the
anterior chamber(0.25 ml)and posterior
chamber(0.06ml) of the eye ball.
 Functions---Maintain a proper intraocular
pressure
Provides substrates and remove
metabolites from the avascular cornea
and lens.

AQUEOUS HUMOUR
 Constituents of Normal aqueous humour
 Water—99%

 Proteins---0.04%

Na+,K+,Cl-,Glucose,Lactic acid,
Aminoacids,Inocitol
Rate of production---2.3ml/mt
Mechanism---Diffusion,Ultrafiltration and
secretion(active transport)
 Ultrafiltration-The filtrate accumulates
behind the non-pigment epithelium of
ciliary process
 Secretion-Tight junctions between cells of
pigment epithelium creates blood aqueous
barrier.Active transport occures by Na+K+
ATPase pump and Carbonic anhydrase
enzyme system.
 Diffusion is responsible for movement of
water into posterior chamber by osmotic
effect
 DIURNAL VARIATION
 VASOPRESSIN& AND ADYNYL CYCLASE
HAVE A ROLE IN ACTIVE TRANSPORT
OF Sodium
 BPin Ciliary capillaries
 Plasma osmotic pressure
 LEVEL OF INTRAOCULAR PRESSURE

Control of aquous formation

 Aqueous humour flows from posterior
chamber into the anterior chamber
through PUPIL against some physiological
resistance.From anterior chamber the
aqueous drained out by 2 ROUTES
 1.Trabecular out flow
 2.Uveoscleral outflow

DRAINAGE OF AQUEOUS
HUMOUR
 90 % of total aqueous drained out via
this route.
 Aqueous outflow system includes the

trabecular meshwork ,canal of Schlemm,

collector channels ,aqueous veins and

episcleral veins.

Trabecular outflow
1.Trabecular meshwork----It is a seive-
likestructure through which aqueoushumour
leaves the eye.It consists of three portions.

Uveal meshwork

Corneoscleral meshwork and

Juxtacanalicular meshwork
2.Canal of Schlemm—This is an endothelial
lined oval channel present
circumferentially in the scleral sulcus.The
Endothelial cells of its inner wall are
irregular spindle-shaped and contain giant
vacuoles.The outer wall of the canal is
lined by smooth flat cells and contains the
openings of collector channels.
Free flow of aqueous occurs from trabecular
meshwork up to inner wall of SCHLEM’S
canal which appears to provide some
resistance to outflow.
 Vacuolation theory—It is the most
accepted view.According to it transcellular
spaces exist in the endothelial cells
forming inner wall of Schlemm’s
canal.These open as a system of
VACUOLES and pores,prymarily in
response to pressure and transport the
aqueous from juxtacanalicular connective
tissue to Schlemm’s canal.
Mechanism of aqueous
transport across inner wall of
Schlemm’canal
 3.Collector channels—These, also called

intrascleral aqueous vessels are about

25-35 in number and leave the Schlemm’s
canal at oblique angles to terminate in to
episcleral veins in laminated fashion.These

intra-sceral aqueous vessels can be divided

in to two systems
The larger vessels(aqueous veins) run a

short intrascleral course and terminate

directly into episcleral veins(direct system)

Many smaller collector channels form an

intra scleral plexus before eventually

going in to episcleral veins (indirect

system).
 From Schlemm’s canal the aqueous is

transported via external collector channels

in to the episcleral veins by direct and

indirect systems.A pressure gradient

between intra ocular pressure and intra
scleral venous pressure
(about 10mm of HG)is responsible
for unidirectional flow of aqueous.
It is responsible for about 10% of total
aquous outflow.Aqueous passes across

the ciliary body into the suprachoroidal

space and is drained by the venous

circulation in the ciliarybody,choroid and
sclera.

2.Uveoscleral outflow
 The IOP refers to the pressure excerted
by intraocular fluids on the coats of the
eyeball.
 Normal value---10 to21 mm Hg
 Normal level of IOP maintained by
equilibrium between the formation and
outflow of the aqueous humour.

Maintanance of intraocular
pressure
FACTORS INFLUENCING IOP
1.Rate of aqueous formation
2.Resistance to aqueous outflow
3.Increased episcleral venous pressure
4.Dilatation of pupil
5.General Factors like-----Heridity
Age,sex,diurnal variation,Postural
variation,Blood pressure,Osmotic pressure
of blood and general anaesthetics
GLAUCOMA-IOP is raised resulting in a

damage optic nerve head and irreversible

visual field defect.

TYPES;Congenital and developmental
;Prymary:Without any cause
above40 years
Secondary;Increased IOT
secondary to any other ocular
causes
Anatomy:Diameter -9 to10 mm
Thickness -3.5mm at birth
-5mm (at extreme age)
LAYERS
1.Lens capsule
2.Anterior epithelium
3.Lens fibers
4.Suspensory ligaments of LENS

CRYSTALLINE LENS
 Avascularity
 Tightly packed nature of lens cells
 Arrangement of lensprotein
 Semipermeable character of lens capsule
 Same index of refraction in all parts of the
lens
 Pump mechanism regulating electrolyte
and water balance in the lens maintain
relative dehydration

FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR

LENS TRANSPARENCY
 Auto-oxidation,high concentration of

reduced glutathione in the lens maintain the

lens proteins in a reduced state and

ensures

the integrity of the cell membrane pump.

 Lens requires energy supply
continuously.Source of nutrient supply to
lens is chemical exchange with aqueous
humour.
 Metabolic pathways of Glucose
-HMP shunt
-Krebs’ citricacid cycle
SORBITOL pathway important in production
of cataract in diabetic and galactosaemic
patients.

LENS-METABOLISM
Any opacity in the lens or its capsule is
called CATARACT.
3 Basic mechanisms which cause cataract
are
1.Damage to the lens capsule that changes
its membranous properties
2.Change in the lens fibre protein synthesis
3.Increased lens hydration

PATHOGENISIS OF CATARACT
1.CORTICAL SENILE CATARACT
Its main biochemical features are
-Decreased levels of total proteins,
aminoacids and potassium associated with
increased concentration of sodium and
marked hydration of the lens followed by
coagulation of proteins

Mechanism of loss of
transparency
2.Nuclear senile cataract----
In it the usual degenerative change is

intensification of the age-related nuclear

sclerosis associated with dehydration and

compaction of the nucleus resulting in a

hard cataract.It is accompanied by a
significant increase in water insoluble
proteins.
 But the total protein content and

distribution of cations are normal. There

may or may not be associated deposition

of pigment urochrome and /or melanin

derived from the amino acids in the lens.

Vitreous humour is an inert,

transparent,colourless jelly-like structure

that fills the posterior 4/5th of the cavity

of eye ball and is about 4ml in volume.

VITREOUS HUMOUR
 Vitreous contain random collagen fibers

interspersed with numerous spheroidal

macromolecules of hyaluronic acid.The

vitreous body divided into 2 parts.

1.Cortex
2.Nucleus
 The vitreous gel mainly serves the optical

function.Also stabilises the shape and

volume of globe and is a pathway for

nutrients to reach the lens and retina.

FUNCTIONS
 Optic disc----It is a well defined, circular
pink coloured disc of 1.5mm diameter.It
has only nerve fiber layer, so it does not
excite any visual response.

It produces blind spot in the field of vision.

Macula leutea(YELLOW SPOT)---It is a

comparatively dark area situated at the
posterior pole temporal to the optic disc.
Its central depressed area 1.5 mm in
diameter is called FOVEA CENTRALIS.it is
the most sensitive part of RETINA
 RETINA
 The retina extends anteriorly almost to
the ciliary body.It is organized in 10
LAYERS.
It is the innermost TUNIC of the eyeball
and is a thin transparent membrane.
Retina exibits 3 distinct areas grossly
Optic disc
Macula lutea
Peripheral retina
 Optic disc-It is a well defined,circular pink

coloured disc of 1.5mm diameter.It has

only nerve fibre layer, so it does not excite

any visual response .It produces blind spot

in the field of vision.

 Macula lutea(Yellow spot)—It is a

comparatively dark area situated at the

posterior pole temporal to the optic disc.Its
central depressed area 1.5mm in
diameteris
called fovea centralis.It is the most
sensitive
part of the retina.
ORA SERRATA—It is the anterior serrated
margin where the retina ends.
 MICROSCOPIC PICTURE
Retina consists of ten layers, which from
with out inwards are

1.Layer of pigment epithelium---It is a

single layer of hexagonal cellls containing
melanin pigments.
 FUNCTIONS
1) ABSORBS STRAY LIGHT AND REDUCES
LIGHT SCATTER
2)PHAGOCYTOSE THE ENDS OF THE OUTER
SEGMENTS OF RODS WHICH ARE
CONTINUOUSLY SHED
3.RECONVERT THE METABOLISED
PHOTOPIGMENTS IN TO A FORM THAT
CAN BE REUSED AFTER IT IS
TRANSPORTED BACK TO
PHOTORECEPTORS
4.TIGHT JUNCTION BETWEEN THE CELLS
FORM OUTER BLOOD –RETINAL BARRIER
Functions
2.LAYER OF RODS AND CONES
It consist of the outer segments of the
photoreceptors(Rods and cones).
Photoreceptors are the end orgens of
vision.
2.LAYER OF RODS AND CONES
It consist of the outer segments of the
photoreceptors(Rods and cones).
Photoreceptors are the end orgens of
vision.
3.External limiting membrane---It is not a

separate membrane. Numerous

connections made between Muller cells and

inner segments of photoreceptors give the

appearance of a continuous membrane

under light microscopy.
4.Outer nuclear layer; This layer contains
the nuclei of rods and cones.

5.Outer plexiform layer—This layer contains

presynaptic and post synaptic elements of
synapses that exist between the
photoreceptors,bipolar cells and horizontal
cells.
6.Inner nuclear layer---It contains the
cellbodies and nuclei of bipolar
cells,amacrine cells and horizontal cells
7.Inner plexiform layer---It is the layer of
synapse between bipolar cells,ganglion
cells and amacrine cells.
8.Ganglion cell layer—It consists of
ganglioncells which are the output cells of
the retina.They transmit visual
information to the brain
9.Nerve fiber layer– It consists of the axons
of ganglion cells which pass through
lamina cribrosa to form the optic
nerve.These fibers remain unmyelinated in
the retina,but become myelinated in the
optic nerve.
10.Inner limiting membrane---It is formed
by projections of the mullers cells and
seperates the retina from vitreous
 Foveal regeon has the highest visual
resolution.
 RODS ARE ABSENT ,CONE DENSITY
MAXIMAM
 Foveal cones have unusually long and thin
outer segments.This Shape allows a high
packing density.

STRUCTURAL CHARECTORISTIC OF
FOVEA CENTRALIS
 All inner layers of retina are pushed aside

in this area.This arrangement allows light to

reach the cones without having to pass

through the inner layers of retina,and there

by reduces distortion of the image.Visual

ACUITY is MAXIMUM at this POINT.
 The most central part of fovea is devoid of
even capillaries, while the rest of fovea
contains fine capillaries but no large
vessels which encircle this area.
 There is no convergence of efferents of
foveal cone.Each foveal cone relays to
single ganglion cell.Hence there is
disproportionate large representation of
the fovea in visual cortex
 RODS AND CONES
 Rods contain photosensitive pigment present
in
The disks of the RODs called
RHODOPSIN(VISUAL PURPLE) . It is
OPSIN-
SCOTOPSIN+RETININE 1(The aldehyde of Vit
A)
 Cones contain photosensitive pigment
resembling RHODOPSIN called IODOPSIN
which is Opsin --- photopsin+retenin-1

PHOTORECEPTORS
 Photo sensitive compounds in the RODs

are made up of Opsin called scotopsin and

retinene 1 the aldehyde of Vit.A1

Rods are extremely sensitive to light and
are

the receptors for night vision also called

SCOTOPIC vision
 According to absorption spectrum of

Rhodopsin peak sensitivity to light lies with

in 493-505 nm.It absorbs prymarily

YELLOW wave length of light.It transmits

violet and red to appear PURPLE by

transmitted light.
 The cones have a much higher

THRESHHOLD but greater ACUITY and is

responsible for VISION in bright light.

Called PHOTOPIC VISION.

Also responsible for COLOUR VISION.

 There are 3 Kinds of cones in primates.
 Cone pigments are responding to specific
wave lengths giving rise to colour vision.
 The peak absorbance wave lengths of
cones for
Blue---435nm
Green---535 nm and
Red----580 nm
DUPLICITY THEORY
2 kinds of inputs to CNS FROM eye

working maximally under different

conditions of illumination is called

duplicity theory
 MELANOPSIN ----Small number of
photoreceptors contain melanopsin
rather than RHODOPSIN OR cone
pigments.
They project to suprachiasmatic nuclei and
lateral geniculate nuclei controlling
pupillary responses to light.

Circadian photo entertainment and part of

Pupillary reflex are controlled by this
system.
 RODS----AND ----CONES
STRUCTURE
—OUTER SEGMENT

---INNER SEGMENT INCLUDING

NUCLEAR REGEON

---SYNAPTIC ZONE
 Outer segments are modified
cilia
and made of regular stacks of
flattened saccules or disks
composed of membrane.

 These sacules and disks contain

the photosensitive compounds
that react to light initiating action
potentials in the visual pathways.
 Unlike ROD the inner segment of cone
become directly continuous with its
Nucleus and lie in the outer nuclear LAYER
 The cone outer segment is conical in
shape, much shorter than that of rod and
contains Iodopsin.It’s opsin part is called
PHOTOPSIN
 The lamellar discs are narrower than rods
which are infoldings of plasma
membrane.
Each cone cell is 40—80 Micrometer long.It

is largest at the fovea(80micrometers) and

shortest at the periphery(40micrometer).

 In cones the saccules are formed in the
outer segments by infoldings of the cell
membrane

 In rods the disks are seperated from the

cell membrane
 Renewal of cones is a diffuse process

,occur at multiple sites.

 Rods outer segments renewed from inner

edge of the segment.Older disks are

phagocytosed from outer lip by cells of

pigment epithelium
 Rods are predominent in the extrafoveal
portions of RETINA.
 Cones predominate in fovea
 Extrafoveal portions there is a good deal
of convergence.
 Flat bipolar cells make synaptic contact
with several cones
 Rod bipolar cells make synaptic contact
with several rods
 There are approximately 6 million cones
and

120 million rods in each human eye.

Only1.2 million nerve fibers in each optic

nerve

So overall convergence of receptors through

bipolar cells on ganglion cells is about

105:1
 FROM THIS POINT THERE IS
DIVERGENCE------ There are twice the
fibers in geniculocalcarine tracts as in the
optic nerves.

In visual cortex the number of neurons

concerned with vision is 1000 TIMES the

number of fibers in the optic nerve.

 SYNAPTIC ZONE---
In the case of ROD it forms rod spherule

and for cone it is the cone foot.It lie in the

Outer plexiform layer.Horizontal cells

connect receptor cells to the other receptor

cells in the outer plexiform layer.
 The RODs and CONEs which are next to
the CHOROID synapse with bipolar cells

Bipolar cells synapse with ganglion cells

The axons of the ganglion cells converge

and leave the eye as the optic nerve.

 Amacrine cells connect ganglion cells to

one another in the inner plexiform layer.

The receptor layer of retina rests on the

pigment epithelium next to choroid ,light

rays

must pass through the ganglion and bipolar

cell layers to reach the RODsand CONES
 The neural elements of RETINA are bound

together by glial cells called Muller cells.

The processes of Mullers cells form internal

Limiting membrane on the inner surface of

RETINA and external limiting membrane in

the RECEPTOR ZONE.

 RETINAL DETACHMENT---Pigment layer

detached from choroid.The retinal vessels

supply the bipolar and ganglion cells.

But receptors are nourished mostly from

capillary plexus in the choroid.So retinal

detachment is damaging to RECEPTOR
CELLS.
PHOTO RECEPTOR
MECHANISM
 ACTION OF LIGHT ON PHOTOSENSITIVE
SUBSTANCES IN THE RODS AND CONES
GENERATE ACTION POTENTIALS IN THE
RETINA.
 WHEN LIGHT IS ABSORBED BY THESE
SUBSTANCES, THEIR STRUCTURE
CHANGES AND TRIGGERS A SEQUANCE
OF EVENTS THAT INITIATES NEURAL
ACTIVITY.

ELECTRICAL RESOPNSES
 Receptor potentials of the photoreceptors and
electrical responses of other neural elements
are local graded potentials.
It is only in the ganglion cells that all or none
action potentials transmitted over appreciable
distances are generated.
Responses of the rods cones and horizontal
cells are hyperpolarising
responses of bipolar cells---Hyperpolarising or
depolarising
Amacrine cells—Depolarisig potentials &spike
that
result in generator potentials
Cone receptor potentials have sharp onset
and offset.
 Rod receptor potential has a sharp onset
and a slow offset.
 Amplitude of receptor potentials compared
to Stimulus intensity

In the case of rods responses are

proportionate to stimulus intensity at level
of illumination that are below threshold for
cones.The rods are much more sensitive.
RECEPTOR POTENTIALS
Cone responses are proportionate
to stimulus intensity at high levels
of illumination when the rod
responses are maximal and can
not change.This is why cones
generate good responses to change
in light intensity above background
but do not represent absolute
illumination well whereas rods detect
absolute illumination well.
 Visual pigments are those substances
which have the property of absorbing
light.
 These include
RHODOPSIN

CONE PIGMENT

VISUAL PIGMENTS
 It is the photo sensitive visual pigment
present in the discs of ROD OUTER
SEGMENTS
 It consists of a protein OPSIN(SCOTOPSIN)
and a CAROTENOID called RETINAL or
retenine1
 Molecular weight----40000
 Absorption spectrum of RHODOPSIN has a
peak sensitivity with limits493---505nm.It
absorbs primarily yellow wave length of light
transmitting VIOLET &RED to appear purple

RHODOPSIN(VISUAL PURPLE)
CONE PIGMENTS
3 Kinds of cones in primates.
Cone pigments differ from RHODOPSIN
in that they respond to specific
WAVELENGTHS of light giving rise to
Colourvision.
These differences are in OPSIN portion
of the molecule where as the chromophore
11-cis-retinal remains the same.
The peak absorbance wave -length of the
blue, green and red sensitive cones lie
at about 440,535 and 565nm respectively.
 Light induced changes or photochemical
changes trigger a sequence of events that
cause PHOTO TRANSDUCTION .The photo-
-chemical changes occurring in the rods
and cones are similar,but they have been
studied in detail in the RODs and is
described as
 Rhodopsin bleaching
 Rhodopsin regeneration
 Visual cycle

Light-induced changes
 Rhodopsin
Light energy

BATHMO RHODOPSIN
OPSIN

LUMIRHODOPSIN

11 CIS- RETINAL
ISOMERASE METAHRODOPSIN-1

RHODOPSIN REGENERATION
ALL TRANS Metarhodopsin-ii
RETINAL
 ISOMERASE
11 Cis- retinal All trans RETINAL

NADH
NADH

NAD
NAD
Isomerase

11CIS RETINOL All TRANS-RETINOL(VIT A)

 The light absorbed by the Rhodopsin

converts its 11-cis-retinal into

all –trans-retenal.

This light induced isomerization occurs

through formation of many intermediates

which exist for a transient period.

RHODOPSIN BLEACHING
 Isomerization of all trans-retinal back to
11 cis retinal is catalised by the enzyme
retinal isomerase.Energy for regeneration
is supplied by metabolic pool of
photoreceptor outer segment.In the outer
segment 11 cis retinal reunites with the
opsin to form rhodopsin.
 Bleaching occurs under the influence of
light.
 Regeneration process is independent of
light proceeding equally well in light and
darkness.
 Amount of rhodopsin in the rods varies
inversely with incident light.
Conversion of light energy in to nerve
impulse involving a cascade of
biochemical reactions.
1.Activation of rhodopsin to form
metarhodopsin 11
2.Activation of transducin—The activated
rhodopsin activate many molecules of
transducin.Transducin gets replaced by
GTP and the α subunit seperates

PHOTOTRANSDUCTION
 Rhodopsin
Light energy
( minutes)

Bathmorhodopsin(ns)

opsin
LUMIRHODOPSIN (μs )

Metarhodopsin I( ms)
scotopsin
Metarhodopsin1I(s)

11-CIS RETINAL isomerase ALL TRANS RETINAL

NADH NADH alcohol
dehydrogenase
NAD NAD
11-CIS-RETINAL ALL TRANS-RETINOL
isomerase (vitaminA)
Light induced changes in rhodopsin
3.Conversion of cGMP to GMP leading to
reduction in the concentration of cGMP
within the photoreceptor
4.Production of receptor potential
In dark the Na+ channels in the cell
membrane of outer segment of
photoreceptor are kept open by cGMP.
This is responsible for DARK CURRENT
(influx of Na+) which is responsible for
state of depolarisation of the receptor
cell.Intracellular Na+ conc.is kept at a
steady state by sodium pump located in
the inner segment.
5.When light strikes the photoreceptor the
amount of cGMPin the photoreceptor is
reduced,and some of the Na+ channels
are closed.This result in a hyperpolarising
receptor potential.

6.Hyper polarisation(Local graded potential)

leads to Decreased release of synaptic
transmitter and produces response in
bipolar cells and other neural elements.
 The receptor potential generated in the
photoreceptors is trasmitted by electrotonic
conduction.(direct flow of electric current,not
AP) to other cells of RETINA viz horizontal
cells,amacrine cells and ganglion cell.

 GANGLION CELLS transmit the visual signels

by means of ACTION POTENTIAL to the
neurons of lateral geniculate body and the
later to the primary visual cortex.

Processing and transmission of

visual impulse in retina
 ROLE OF VITAMIN A IN THE FORMATION
OF RHODOPSIN
Vitamin A is present both in the
cytoplasm of RODS and in the pigment
layer of RETINA.Vitamin A is normally
avilable always to form new retinal when
needed.When there is excess retinal in the
retina the excess is converted back to
Vit A, thus reducing the amount of light-
sensitive pigment in the retina .
 When rod is exposed to light the rod
becomes hyperpolarised.When rhodopsin
decomposes,it decreases the membrane
conductance for Na+ions in the outer
segment of the rod.This causes
hyperpolarization of the entire rod
membrane.

Excitation of the ROD when

rhodopsin is activated
 It occurs in any person with severe
vitamin A DEFICIENCY.The reason for this
is that not enough quantities of Vitamin A
is then avilable to form adequate
quantities of retinal.There fore the
amount of rhodopsin that can be formed
becomes severely depressed.This
condition is called night blindness because
the amount of light avilable at night is too
little to permit adequate vision,although in
daylight the cones can be still excited
despite reduction of their colour
NIGHT BLINDNESS
pigments as well.
 The cones have a much higher

THRESHHOLD but greater ACUITY and is

responsible for VISION in bright light.

Called PHOTOPIC VISION.

Also responsible for COLOUR VISION.

MECHANISM OF VISION
 It convey the impulses generated in the

retina to the occipital region of ceribral

cortex where they produce SENSATION

OF VISION

OPTIC NERVE AND

CONNECTIONS
 CORNEA---Refractive index(1.37)
 AQUEOUS HUMOUR—1.33
 LENS----1.42
 VITREOUS HUMOUR—1.33
Total diopteric power of the eye---+60D.
In this+44D is contributed by cornea and
+16D by lens.

Refracting structures in the eye

 Studied by LISTING and GUASS
 For homocentric lens system there are
3pairs of cardinal points
---2 Principal foci
----2 principal points
----2 nodal points
All situated on the principal axis of the
system

SCHEMATIC EYE
 Total diopteric power +58D of which

cornea contributes + 43D and lens +15D

 The principal foci F1 and F2 lie 15.7mm in

front of and 24.4mm behind the cornea.

CARDINAL DATA
 The principal points P1 and P2 lie in the

anterior chamber 1.35mm and1.60mm

behind the anterior surface of cornea

 The nodal points N1and N2 lie in the

posterior part of lens 7.08mm and 7.33mm
behind the anterior surface of cornea
respectively.
 Simplified by listing.Has a single
principal point(P) and single nodal
point(N) lying midway between
 2 Principal points and
 2 nodal points respectively.
This is called LISTING’S REDUCED EYE

REDUCED EYE
 Total diopteric power----+60 D
 The principal point lies 1.5 mm behind the
anterior surface of cornea
 The nodal point is situated 7.2mm behind
the anterior surface of cornea.
 The anterior focal point is 15.7mm in front
of the anterior surface of the CORNEA

DATA OF REDUCED EYE

 The posterior focal point (on the retina) is
24.4 mm behind the anterior surface of
cornea.

 Anterior focal length

is17.2mm(15.7+1.5)and

 posterior focal length is 22.9mm(24.4-

1.5)
The eye has 3 principal axes
1.The optical axis is the line passing
through the Center of cornea(P)
Centre of lens(N)
And meets the retina(R) on the nasal
side of the fovea

AXES OF THE EYE

2.The visual axis—is the line joining the
fiixation point(o),Nodal point (N) and the

Fovea(F).

 3.The fixation axis is the line joining the

Fixation point(o) and center of rotation(c).

 In an emmetropic eye parallel rays of light
coming from infinity are brought to focus
on the retina.’with accommodation at
rest.
 Our eyes have been provided with a
unique mechanism by which we can focus
the diverging rays coming from a near
object in the retina.This mechanism is
called ACCOMMODATION.
 In it there occurs increase in the power of
the crystalline LENS
ACCOMMODATION
ACCOMMODATION
 The distant point at which small objects
can be seen clearly is called FAR point.

 The nearest point at which small objects

can be seen clearly is called NEAR POINT.

 The RANGE OF ACCOMMODATION --The

distance between the near point and the
FAR point is called the RANGE OF
ACCOMMODATION
 AMPLITUDE OF ACCOMMODATION
 The difference between the diopteric
power needed to focus at near point and
to focus at far pointis called AMPLITUDE
OF ACCOMMODATION.
 FAR POINT and NEAR POINT of the eye
vary with the static refraction of the
EYE.In hypermetropic eye far point is
virtual and lies in front of the eye.
 In an emmetropic eye far point is at
infinity and near point varies with age.
 It is about 7cm at the age 10 years
 25cm at the age of 40 years
 33cm at the age of 45years.
 Thus the amount that the eye can alter its
refraction is greatest in childhood and
slowly decreases until it is lost in middle
age.
RELAXATIN THEORY: This theory is first
proposed by
THOMAS YOUNG
Elaberated by HELMHOLZ in 1885
Importance given to the lens capsule was
emphasized by Fincham

Mechanism of accomodation--
Theories
 When the eye is at rest the malleable

substance of young lens is compressed in

its capsule by tension of the ZONULE.

 The surfaces of the compressed lens are

less curved and these change the diopteric

power in lens.
 Zonules are kept under tension by a pull

executed on them by the elastic choroid.

However, recently it is being assumed that

zonules are kept under tension by the

relaxation of fibers of the ciliary muscle.

 Contraction of the ciliary muscle causes
the
ciliary ring to shorten and move forward
the equator of the lens.It also pulls the
choroid forward.As a result the zonules are
relaxed,the tension on the capsule is
relieved and the lens attains a more
Spherical shape.
 .As the refractive index of lens(1.39) is

more than the refractive index of aqueous

and vitreous,increase in convexity of the

lens increases its diopteric power and thus

allows the near objects to be focused

clearly on the retina.

1.Slackening of the Zonules—Zonules are

normally tense and keep the lens flat.They

slaken during accommdation due to

contraction of ciliary muscle.

Ocular changes in
accommodation
 2.Changes in the curvature of lens surface

At rest the radius of curvature of the

anterior surface of the lens is 11mm and

that of posterior surface is 6mm.In

accommodation the curvature of posterior

surface remains almost same.
During strong accommodation it’s radius of

curvature becomes about 6 mm in the

periphery and 3mm in the central part

which bulges more because the anterior

capsule is thinner here as compared to the

peripheral part.
 The central part of the anterior surface

bulges more because the anterior capsule

is thinner here as compared to the

peripheral part.The posterior capsule is the

thinnest region and so the posterior surface
has a greater curvature even in the
unaccommodated lens..
 3. Anterior pole of the lens moves forward

Carrying the iris with it ,resulting in

shallowing of the anterior chamber in the

center.
4.Axial thickness - of lens is increased

owing to forward movement of the

anterior pole(posterior pole remaining
fixed)

5.Changes in the tension of lens capsule

have also been studied.During
accommodation the anterior capsule
becomes slack.
6.Lens sinks down---Because the
accommdated lens is held less firmly by its
zonular attachment,it is influenced by the
force of gravity and tends to sink within
the globe.

7.Changes within the lens substance– In

addition to the changes in curvature of
lens,the changes in the lens substance
also create a change in the refractive
power of lens.
8.Pupillary constriction and convergence of

eyes.In addition to the changes in the lens

and zonular system the pupil constricts and

the eyes converge,almost

simultaneously.These changes occur

to achieve clear vision for near objects.

 9. The ora serrata moves forward about
. 05mm with each diopter of accommdation.
1.Spherical aberrations ---Spherical
aberrations occur owing to the fact that

spherical lens refracts peripheral rays more

strongly than paraxial rays which in the

case of a convex lens brings the more

peripheral rays to focus closer to the lens.
OPTICAL ABBERATINS OF THE
EYE
 The factors which contribute in
diminishing the spherical aberations of
human eye are

 Peculiar curvature of cornea ie flatter

periphery than the centre

Peculiar structure of the crystalline lens in

which the central portions have a greater
density and are arranged in layers of
greater curvature than the peripheral
portion
 Iris blocks the peripheral rays to enter

the eye and in ordinary circumstances

Refraction of only paraxial rays of light

takes place.
 Chromatic abberations result owing to the
fact that the index of refraction of any
transparent medium varies with the
wavelength of incident light.

 In human eye which optically acts as a

convex lens blue light is focussed slightly
in front of the red.In otherwords the
emmetropic eye is hypermetropic for red.

CHROMATIC ABERRATIONS
 Myopic for blue and green rays.
 Emmetropia can be defined as a state of

refraction when the parallel rays of light

coming from infinity are focussed at the

sensitive layer of retina with the

accommodation being at rest

Emmetropia
 Ametropia(A condition of refractive error)
is defined as a state of refraction,when
the parallel rays of light coming from
infinity are focused behind the retina in
one or both the meridia.

The ametropia includes myopia hyper

metropia and astigmatism.

Ametropia
 Hypermetropia (HYPEROPIA)or(LONG
SIGHTED NESS)
 It is the refractive state of the eye where
in parallel rays of light coming from
infinity are focussed behind the retina
with accommodation being at rest.

HYPERMETROPIA
1.Axial hyper metropia---axial shortening of

eyeball.
ABOUT Imm shortening of anteroposterior

diameter of eye results in 3DIOPTERS OF

hypermetropia.

Mechanism of production
 Curvatural hypermetropia is the condition

in which the curvature of cornea,lens or

both is flatter than the normal.

About 1 mm increase in the radius

of curvature results in 6 diopters of
hyper metropia.

Index hypermetrpia ;occurs due to change

in refractive index of the lens in old age.
Eg Diabetes under treatment
 Positional hypermetropia
 Absence of crystalline lens-Either

congenitally or aquired(following surgical

removal or posterior dislocation) leading

to aphakia
Features---FAR SIGHTEDNESS
-REECEEDING OF NEAR
POINT
-ASTHENOPIC Symptoms(headache,eye
ache ,tieredness,discomfort in reading.
Accommodative divergent squint.
 Optical correction;

CONVEX LENSES(PLUS LENS)

 MYOPIA; It is a refractive error in which

parallel rays of light coming from infinity

are focussed in front of RETINA when

accommodation is at rest.
 Mechanism of production---

Axial myopia

Curvatural myopia

Positional myopia

Index myopia
 Accommodation; in uncorrected myopia is

not developed normally,since they need

not accommodate to see the near objects

clearly.
 For this reason they may suffer from

convergence insufficiency.,exophoria and

early presbyopia as they grow older.

Optical correction

CONCAVE (MINUS) LENSES

 Astigmatism is a type of refractive errror
Where in the refraction varies in the
different
meridia.Therefore convergent rays of light
entering the eye cannot converge to a point
focus,but form focal lines.2TYPES
Regular
Irregular

Astigmatism
REGULAR ASTIGMATISM
Refractive power changes uniformly from
one meridian to another.
IRREGULAR ASTIGMATISM;
Irregular changes of refractive power in

different meridia.There are multiple meridia

which admit no geometrical analysis

Presbyopia(Eye sight of old age)-It is not
an error of refraction.It is a physiological
insufficiency of accommodation, leading to
failing of near vision.

Upto age of 40 years we can read book by

keeping at about 25 cm.comfortably.

After the age of 40 NEAR POINT OF

ACCOMMODATION RECEDES beyond the

normal reading range.

PRESBYOPIA
 Decresed elasticity and plasticity of the

crystalline lens(age related sclerosis

 Age related decrease in the power of

Ciliary muscles

Pathophysiolgy of presbyopia
 Symptoms
 Difficulty of near VISION to start with in
evening later even in good light
 Asthenopic symptoms due to fatigue of
the ciliary muscles after reading or near
work.
 TREATMENT
Convex glasses for near work
 Role of different cells in the
processing of retinal Image
 Concept of receptive field
 The receptive field is defined as the
influence area of a sensory neuron.It is
circular in configuration.The light falling in
the receptive field hyperpolarises the cell.
 In the dark,ie when the photoreceptor is
depolarized a neurotrasmitter (glutamate)
is released from its terminal.When
hyperpolarised ,the photoreceptor will
release less neurotransmitter.
 HORIZONTAL CELLS have very large
receptive field in comparison to the
photoreceptor cell. A Horizontal cell
transmits signels horizontally in the outer
plexiform layer from rods and cones to
the bipolar cells.Their main function is to
enhance the visual contrast by causing
lateral inhibition ie they play a role in
processing of spatial information.
BIPOLAR CELLS
There are two types of bipolar
cells,one type inhibited by
glutamate are depolarised
while other (excited by glutamate)
are hyperpolarized when the
photoreceptors are excited.
Thus the two different
types of bipolar cells
Provide opposing EXCITATORY and
INHIBITRY signels in the
VISUAL PATHWAY.
 Receptive field of the bipolar cell is also
circular ,but shows a center surround
antagonism.In the case of centre
depolarising cell(on cell),the light striking
the centre of receptive field activates and
the light striking the surround inhibits
bipolar cell output.The reverse occurs in
the center hyperpolarising cell(off cell).
 The size of the centre of the bipolar cell
receptive field is determined by the reach
of it’s dentrites that of much larger
surround is determined by the spread of
interconnected horizontal ell
 This provides reciprocal relationship
between the depolarizing and bipolar cells
is that it provides a second mechanism for
lateral inhibition.(spacial information
processing).
 In addition,this reciprocal relationship
allows half of the bipolar cells to transmit
positive signels and the other half to
transmit negative signels ;both have a
useful role in
 Transmitting visual information to brain.
 AMACRINE CELL
Amacrine cells receive information at the
synapse of bipolar cell axon with ganglion cell
dendrite and use this information for temporal
processing.They receive input from different
combinations of on-centre and off centre bipolar
cells.
The receptive fields of amacrine cells are
mixture of on centre and off centre regeon
Amacrine cells produce transient
depolarising potentials and spikes at the
onset and offset of visual stimuli.Amacrine
cells are the first cells in the visual pathway to
generate the impulse
 GANGLION CELLS :The electrical
response of bipolar cells
(local graded potential) after modification
by the
amacrine cells
is transmitted to the ganglion cells which in
turn transmit their signals by means of
Action potential to brain
RECEPTIVE FIELD OF GANGLION CELLS
 They also has got a centre surround
antagonism.
 Functionally the ganglion cells are of 2
types
 M ganglion cells(also called large ganglion
cells or Y cells)are concerned with
movement and stereopsis.
 P ganglion cells (also called small ganglion
cells or X cells are concerned with
shape,colour and texture of the image