Philippe Block, Matthias Rippmann and Tom Van Mele Block Research Group/ETH Zurich

with Ochsendorf DeJong & Block

Engineering and the Escobedo Group,
Armadillo Vault,
‘Beyond Bending’,
Venice Architecture Biennale,
2016

Compres
Asse
Bottom-Up
Performance
for a New Form
of Construction

104
Comprising 399 individually cut limestone pieces,
unreinforced, assembled without mortar, and proportionally
half as thin as an eggshell, the Armadillo Vault’s funicular
geometry allowed it to stand in pure compression.

sive
mblies

105
From Inuit igloos to Roman
arches to Gothic cathedrals,
builders have long used friction
and balance to make structures
hold together. The Block Research
Group at ETH Zurich is involved in
ongoing research that investigates
In distributed structures such as the Roman arch, components
work together collectively to create a stable whole. Remove
one component and the entire structure collapses. Each part
is essential to the achievement of something greater – truly
the sum of its parts. This form of bottom-up performance
presents opportunities beyond traditional hierarchical
structural systems to develop new forms of construction and
to introduce alternatives to steel, concrete or timber.
The ongoing work by the Block Research Group at ETH
Zurich revisits historical references and technologies to
demonstrate that paradigm-shifting innovations can be

historical techniques and fuses
them with the latest technologies,
including robotics and 3D printing,
to establish new methods
of architectural assembly.
Group founder Philippe Block,
co-director Tom Van Mele
and team member Matthias
Rippmann explain.
achieved with distributed structures such as discrete-element
assemblies by favouring compressive flows during and
after assembly. It shows that the logic of compression-only
geometry provides the opportunity to minimise or even
totally eliminate falsework, simplify connection details,
use weak materials, and fully embrace novel fabrication
technologies such as 3D printing to significantly reduce the
energy embodied in constructions.
As an extreme example of these principles, the
Armadillo Vault, part of the ‘Beyond Bending’ exhibition
by the Block Research Group with Ochsendorf DeJong &
Block Engineering and The Escobedo Group at the Venice
Architecture Biennale in 2016, defies the commonly assumed
limitations of masonry and stone engineering and, by
extension, the geometric limitations associated with discrete-
element structures.1 However, realising the shell required
extensive falsework. To fully exploit the potential of discrete
structural systems in pure compression and to clarify
opportunities beyond their literal application in masonry,
construction logics, sequencing and optimisation therefore
need to be addressed.

Block Research Group, Surprising discrete-element assemblies can

Discrete-element be designed by controlling the location and
assemblies, orientation of the interfaces between the
Institute of elements; for example, an unreinforced,
Technology in ‘vaulted’ box standing only due to
Architecture, compressive and frictional contact forces.
ETH Zurich,
2015

106
Reducing Falsework John Fitchen,
System of ropes and counterweights,
Discrete elements such as bricks or stone blocks can be 1981
assembled into stable structures without mechanical
Gothic builders reduced the need for falsework by
connections or ‘glue’ at the interfaces, not only through using a system of ropes and counterweights. From
the formation of arches, but also by using friction and/ John Fitchen, The Construction of Gothic Cathedrals:
A Study in Medieval Vault Erection, University of
or corbelling or balancing. When fully embracing all of Chicago Press, 1981.
these structural actions, even a box can become a ‘vaulted’,
unreinforced discrete assembly.2 Furthermore, in combination
with informed construction logics, falsework for these
kinds of assemblies can be reduced or even eliminated.
An igloo, for example, can be built without a supporting
structure by cutting the ice blocks so that they can be placed
in a spiralling sequence. Masonry domes can also be built
without falsework by working in stable sections; with every
completed ring of bricks, the structure is stable, and during
construction of the ring the mortar’s adhesion prevents the
individual bricks from sliding.
For geometries that cannot be built using a spiralling
or circular logic, Gothic builders developed systems using
ropes, counterweights and pulleys to assemble and construct
vaults with minimal supports, effectively cantilevering out in
space, providing temporary reaction forces with the ropes.3
Similar approaches could theoretically be extended to the
construction of discrete, ‘freeform’ shell structures, using
only a finite number of hooks and anchor points.4 Although
this solution is perhaps a bit optimistic and/or academic,
the relevance of such research lies in finding strategies and
optimisation algorithms to assemble discrete structures with
the minimum amount of support or, even better, with only a
few ‘helping hands’.
Taking this literally, the Block Research Group, in
collaboration with the Autonomous Systems and Robotic
Systems Labs at ETH Zurich, is investigating how complex
discrete-element structures and aggregations can be
assembled using only two robotic arms. These provide
intermediate support where needed to maintain stability at
each stage of the build until the assembly is completed. The
objective of these robotic, 3D-puzzle-building exercises is
to discover surprising new masonry forms and to develop
efficient ways to build them with only temporary supports.
In addition, the obtained knowledge can be used to optimise
the construction sequence of, for example, large-scale
shell roofs such that they can be safely installed from large
pieces without falsework and using only a limited number of
cranes on site.
The cupola of the Sports Palace in Tbilisi, Georgia, for
example, was erected in 1961 by the alternating placement of
precast modules with custom, stepped-element geometries
according to a specifically designed assembly sequence. The
structure, with a span of over 75 metres (246 feet), could Autonomous Systems Lab,
therefore be constructed without scaffolding or falsework Robotic Systems Lab and
the Block Research Group,
using only two cranes placed inside the building.5 Although the Robotic Discrete
cupola has a simple domical shape, it serves as an inspiration Assemblies, National
Centre of Competence in
for how smart construction logics could be applied to more Research – Digital
complex architectural forms to optimise the erection process. Fabrication,
ETH Zurich,
If discrete-element assemblies are designed to have only 2016
compressive and frictional contact forces at the interfaces
Robotic assembly of a discrete model
between the discrete parts, the assembly process can structure using two collaborative
be further simplified by designing the interfaces or even robotic arms to temporarily support
and position block elements until a new
the entire parts so that they facilitate building in stable equilibrated configuration is formed.

107
sections with little or no temporary support required. They Embracing New Fabrication Technologies
can be designed, for example, to be self-registering to The significant potential material savings achievable through
simplify placement and alignment of the discrete elements. the logic of compression is demonstrated in an unreinforced
Furthermore, their geometry and/or that of their parts can concrete funicular floor developed by the Block Research
be tailored to prevent local sliding failure and to guarantee Group. With a 2-centimetre (0.8-inch) thick stiffened shell, the
stability in intermediate construction states, without the need floor required 70 per cent less material than a conventional
for mortar or other forms of ‘assembly glue’. floor slab and thus resulted in a weight reduction on the
beams, columns and foundation.7 Cavities between the shell
Controlling Force Flow and the stiffeners can also be used to embed low-energy
Following the geometry and logic of compressions, to heating and cooling, media and other services in places
design and discretise structures results in low stresses and that would typically be filled up by material (in conventional
therefore allows for the use of less, and even weak, material: systems).8 Therefore, by integrating functions into the floor
more specifically, materials that take (humble amounts of) rather than layering them on top, the height of the floor can
compression, but no tension or bending, such as stone, brick, be reduced significantly. In certain contexts this results in
unreinforced concrete, adobe, compressed soil and recycled one building level gained for free every three to four floors.9
waste. It also enables the removal of (steel) reinforcements, However, the prefabrication of this optimised structural
which are subject to corrosion and/or fire damage, and geometry is expensive, requiring the making of double-sided
therefore contribute to the detriment of many structures. This moulds and therefore limiting the application to a repeated-
presents opportunities in developing or generally resource- unit or modular system.
constrained environments where high-performance materials
are often unavailable.
By ‘pre-cracking’ these structures to create hinges that
determine the location of thrust lines in all load cases,
their behaviour can be dictated further to avoid bending at
all times. This principle was used, for example, by Robert
Maillart when designing the Salginatobel Bridge (1930) in
Schiers, Switzerland, as a three-hinged arch. Otherwise, the
state of the structure is indeterminate and per definition
unknown to the designer. In a manner of speaking, the
structure will decide how it stands and will develop cracks
accordingly in zones of tension. This is exemplified by
the large radial cracks in the Pantheon in Rome,6 or in the
microcracks that develop in beams subjected to bending to
activate the tensile reinforcements.

Block Research Group,

Robert Maillart,
Salginatobel Bridge, By ‘pre-cracking’ these Unreinforced concrete floor,
Institute of Technology in
Schiers,
Switzerland, structures to create hinges Architecture,
ETH Zurich,
1930
that determine the location 2013

The bridge was designed as a

three-hinged arch to determine of thrust lines in all load Cross-sectional cut of the unreinforced concrete floor
system with a thickness of only 2 centimetres (0.8
the location of thrust lines in all
loading cases, and thus control cases, their behaviour can inches) for spans up to 6 metres (19.7 feet).

the compressive force flow.

Redrawn by the authors/Block be dictated further to avoid
Research Group.
bending at all times.

108
 In comparison, powder-based 3D printing has several
advantages: it is bespoke; it does not require a mould,
making it possible to print cantilevers, undercuts and so on;
and it is highly precise, with a resolution literally that of a
grain of sand. However, this method also brings limitations.
It is challenging to integrate reinforcement, and the current
maximum print size is 4 x 2 x 1 metres (approximately 13
x 7 x 3 feet). Furthermore, the printing materials are weak,
with acceptable compressive strength but negligible bending
capacity. As discussed above, these apparent constraints can
be avoided through the use of funicular geometry and by
designing pre-cracked structural systems with discrete parts.
Block Research Group, Ribbed
3D-printed floor, Institute
of Technology in Architecture,
ETH Zurich, 2016
The unreinforced, structural floor consists
of five discrete elements with externalised
tension ties. The rib pattern and discretisation
layout are aligned with the ‘force flow’.
Male–female interlocking features on the
interfaces guarantee proper alignment between
neighbouring elements.
Further Potential
The concepts presented here are thus a perfect match for new
fabrication technologies such as 3D printing, since complex
structural components shaped by the local force flow and
sophisticated, stereotomic interfaces can be printed to the
highest precision. Additionally, and with the same effort, the
integration of other functions and media is possible, and
material can be carefully placed for room and vibro-acoustical
performance and optimisation.10
If we are able to make 3D-printing materials safer and
more eco-friendly, the results could lead to a significant
reduction in the carbon footprint of our buildings and a
potential paradigm shift in the construction industry. Floors
would become much lighter and more compact, include
integrated features, demonstrate higher comfort, and even be
more aesthetic and longer lasting.
Research on the design and development of discrete-
element assemblies acting predominantly in compression
also creates possibilities for the development of self-
supporting, stay-in-place formworks, for example for
concrete surfaces and spatial structures without the need
for scaffolding (and therefore foundations) to support the
wet concrete.
Employing a ‘masonry model’ as the underlying
structural principle thus not only provides the opportunity
to reduce or even totally eliminate falsework, even for non-
funicular final geometry, but also to optimise construction
processes in general, and to discover structural applications
for new technologies. 1
Notes
1. See Philippe Block et al, ‘Armadillo Vault: An Extreme Discrete Stone
Shell’, DETAIL, 10, 2016, pp 940–42; Matthias Rippmann et al, ‘The
Armadillo Vault: Computational Design and Digital Fabrication of a
Freeform Stone Shell’, Advances in Architectural Geometry, 2016, pp
344–63; and Philippe Block, Matthias Rippmann and Tom Van Mele,
‘Structural Stone Surfaces: New Compression Shells Inspired by the
Past’, in Achim Menges, 2 Material Synthesis: Fusing the Physical and
the Computational, September/October (no 5), 2015, pp 74–9.
2. Ursula Frick, Tom Van Mele and Philippe Block, ‘Decomposing Three-
dimensional Shapes into Self-supporting Discrete Element Assemblies’,
in Mette Ramsgaard Thomsen et al, Modelling Behaviour: Design
Modelling Symposium 2015, Springer International (Cham), 2015, pp
187–201.
3. John Fitchen, The Construction of Gothic Cathedrals: A Study of
Medieval Vault Erection, University of Chicago Press (Chicago), 1981.
4. Mario Deuss et al, ‘Assembling Self-Supporting Structures’, ACM
Transactions on Graphics: Proceedings of ACM SIGGRAPH Asia 2014, 33
(6), 2014, pp 214:1–224:10.
5. DI Kadzhaya, ‘Precast Spherical Cupola Roof for Sport Palace in Tbilisi
and its Erection by Overhang Method’, in Symposium on Problems of
Interdependence of Design and Construction of Large-Span Shells for
Industrial and Civil Buildings, IASS (Leningrad), 1966.
6. Jennifer Zessin, Wanda Lau and John Ochsendorf, ‘Equilibrium
of Cracked Masonry Domes’, Proceedings of the Institution of Civil
Engineers – Engineering and Computational Mechanics, 163 (3),
September 2010, pp 135–45.
7. Andrew Liew et al, ‘Design, Fabrication and Testing of a Prototype,
Thin-vaulted, Unreinforced Concrete Floor’, Engineering Structures, 137,
2017, pp 323–35.
8. Gearóid P Lydon et al, ‘Coupling Energy Systems with Lightweight
Structures for a Net Plus Energy Building’, Applied Energy, 189, 2017, pp
310–26.
9. Arno Schlueter et al, ‘3for2: Realizing Spatial, Material, and Energy
Savings Through Integrated Design’, CTBUH Journal, II, 2016, pp 40–5.
10. Tomás Méndez Echenagucia, Bert Roozen and Philippe Block,
‘Minimization of Sound Radiation in Doubly Curved Shell Structures
by Means of Stiffness’, in Ken’ichi Kawaguchi, Makoto Ohsaki and Toru
Takeuchi (eds), Proceedings of the 2016 IASS Symposium (Tokyo), 2016.
Text © 2017 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Images: pp 104–5 © Iwan Baan; pp
106, 107(b), 108–9 © Block Research Group, Institute of Technology in
Architecture, ETH Zurich; p 107(t) © University of Chicago Press, used
with permission
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