CHAPTER-2

STRESSES IN SOIL

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Structural loads are supported on soil through foundations. The loads produce stresses and resulting
strains. Deformation in vertical direction occurring due to vertical stresses is called settlement. Stresses
which produce excessive deformations are termed as failure stresses. Stresses also develop due to weight
the soil layer above any point, known as geostatic stress or over burden pressure. Magnitude of geostatic
stress at a point is affected by groundwater table fluctuation. Intensity of stress is not uniform but varies from
point to point. For the design of structures such as retaining walls, sheet piles for braced excavations and
waterfront structures and some types of pile foundations, stresses acting in the horizontal direction are more
important.

The knowledge of stress distribution along a soil cross-section is important to analyze the problems
such as,

1. Settlement of foundations
2. Stability (bearing capacity) of foundations
3. Stability of slopes
4. Stability of retaining structures

2.2 TYPES OF STRESSES

Soil mass is a skeleton of solid particles enclosing voids. Voids may contain water (saturated soil), air (dry
soil) or both (partially saturated soil). When stress is applied, volume of soil reduces due to rearrangement of
solid particles. Volume reduction brings particles close, forces acting at inter-particle contacts increase.
Forces acting between the particles remain unchanged if the rearrangement of particles does not occur. In
fully saturated soil, reduction in volume is possible only, when some of the pore water escapes. Water within
the voids can also withstand stresses by an increase in pressure when the soil is fully saturated. In a
saturated soil mass, the following three types of stresses are generally considered while dealing with soil
engineering problems.

2.2.1 Total stress

The stress developed at any point in a soil mass due to the total weight of the soil lying above that point is
known as the total stress. For the soil mass shown in Fig. 2.1, the total stress at section XX is written as
follows;
σ = b D +satZ (2.1)
GS

D b G.S
G.W.T

sat
Z

X X
Fig. 2.1 Uniform soil with water table at depth D

The expression for the total stress at section XX for the soil layers shown in Fig.2.2 is as follows

σ = wD + sat.1Z1 + sat.2Z2 (2.2)

 WL

D γw
X GS

Z1 γsat 1

Z2 γsat 2

X X
Fig. 2.2 Two soil layers with water level above the surface

2.2.2 Neutral stress (pore water pressure)

It is the pressure of water filling the voids between the solid particles. It is termed as neutral stress since it
acts equally in all directions. It is important to keep in mind that the neutral stress reduces the inter-particle
stress and this condition has an adverse effect on the strength of soil.

The neutral stress or hydrostatic pressure at section XX for Fig.2.1 & 2.2 respectively is given below;

u = wZ (2.3)
u = wD + wZ1 + wZ2 (2.4)

2.2.3 Effective stress

It is the portion of the total stress which is carried by the solid particles at their points of contact (Fig. 2.3). It
is the sum of vertical components of the forces developed at the points of contact between the soil particles
divided the cross-sectional area of the soil mass.

X
X

Fig. 2.3 Stresses distributed through points of contact

It is the effective stress due to which frictional resistance against particle movement such as rolling, slipping,
sliding, etc., develops. If the effective stress is zero, the soil mass is in a critical (unstable) condition.
Effective stress is expressed as follows;
/
σ =σ–u (2.5)

The effective stress at section XX for Fig. 2.1, is therefore calculated as given below;
/
σ = b D + satZ – wZ (2.6)
/
σ = b D + Z(sat - w) (2.7)
= b D + subZ (2.8)
 /
Where, sub or  is the submerged or buoyant unit weight of the soil.

Consider Fig. 2.1,

 If water table rises to ground surface, the effective stress will be equal to “sub(Z+D)”,

 If water table lowers down to XX, then the effective stress will be equal to “b(Z+D)”.

 Hence it can be said that the lowering of water table causes an increase in the effective stress,
because b > sub,

 The effective stress at section XX for Fig. 2.2 is as follows;

/
σ = wD + sat.1Z1 + sat.2Z2 - wD - wZ1 - wZ2 (2.9)
= Z1(sat.1 - w) + Z2(sat.2 - w) (2.10)
= sub.1Z1+ sub.2Z2 (2.11)

 Equation 2.11 shows that effective stress is independent of depth of water above the ground
surface. Since the effetive stress equation does not contain the term ‘D’ (i.e., depth of water above
ground surface).

2.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF EFFECTIVE STRESS

Whenever a load is applied to a soil stratum, major principal stresses on horizontal planes within the soil
layer increase. For sustained load, soil settles and consolidates, reaching a new state of equilibrium. The
changes in effective stress produce this effect. Changes in total stress, with effective stress unchanged, do
not cause the soil to consolidate. Whatever the depth of water ‘D’ (Fig. 2.2), the effective stress at XX
remains constant. If water level falls below ground level, effective stress will increase and consolidation will
occur. The changes in effective stresses may be brought about by;

1. Increases in applied loading,

2. Lowering of the ground water table,
3. Reduction in the neutral stresses due to other reasons.

The frictional component of the shear strength (σ tan φ), is also sensitive only to changes in effective stress,
so the designer must always consider the effective stresses, and not the total stresses, when working with
saturated soils.

2.4 RESPONSE OF EFFECTIVE STRESS TO CHANGES IN TOTAL STRESS

Consider a fully saturated soil mass subjected to an increase in total vertical stress, assuming that the lateral
strain is zero, and the volume change is entirely due to deformation of the soil in the vertical direction. This
condition may be assumed in practice when the lateral extent of the area is large compared with the
thickness of the soil layer.

Initially (before the increase of total stress) the pore water pressure is constant and is equal to the
hydrostatic pressure depending upon the position of the water table. This initial value is called the static pore
water pressure (us). When the total vertical stress is increased, the solid particles immediately try to get
closer together. However, if the soil is laterally confined, the particle rearrangement, and the resulting
increase in the inter-particle stresses is not possible unless some of the pore water escapes. Since the pore
water is resisting the particle rearrangement, the pore water pressure is increased above the static value
immediately after the increase in total stress. This increase in pore water pressure will be equal to the
increase in total vertical stress, i.e. the increase in total vertical stress is carried entirely by the pore water.

The increase in pore water pressure causes a pressure gradient, resulting in a transient flow of pore water
towards a free-draining boundary of the soil layer. The drainage will continue until the pore water pressure
again becomes equal to the static pore water pressure. The component of pore water pressure above the
static value is known as the excess pore water pressure (ue). The position of the water table however, may
change during the drainage process. In such cases the excess pore water pressure should be expressed
with reference to the static value governed by the new water table position. At any time during drainage the
overall pore water pressure (u) is given by the following equation
 u = u s + ue (2.13)

GL

Total stress
σ
A σ
Saturated clay

Time

Effective stress
σ/
Excess pore

ue
pressure

Time
Time

eo
Void ratio

Settlement
ef

to Time tf Time

Fig.2.4 Variation of excess pore pressure, effective stress, void ratio & settlement due to applied stress

The decrease in excess pore water pressure due to drainage is known as dissipation and when this is
completed (i.e. when ue = 0) the soil is said to be in the drained condition. Before the complete dissipation of
the excess pore water pressure, the soil is said to be in the undrained condition. The term ‘drained’ does not
mean that all water has left the soil pores. It simply means that the stress-induced excess pore water
pressure has dissipated. The soil remains fully saturated throughout the process of drainage of water and
dissipation of excess pore water pressure.

As the drainage of water from the pores takes place the soil particles get closer resulting in an increase in
the inter-particle stresses. In other words, dissipation of the excess pore water pressure causes an increase
in the effective stress accompanied by a corresponding reduction in volume. When dissipation of excess
pore water pressure is completed, the increase of total vertical stress will be carried entirely by the solid
particles. For soils of low permeability, a considerably long time is required for drainage to take place,
resulting in gradual transfer of increase in total vertical stress from neutral stress (pore water pressure) to
the effective stress (inter-particle stress). The whole process is known as consolidation.

Let σ is the increase in the total vertical stress due a load applied on a saturated soil. The short-term effect
of applied stress σ is the increase in pore water pressure (us) to a new value of (us +ue). It should be noted
that immediately after application of stress, ue = σ. Before the application of stress change σ, the total
stress is expressed as under,
/
σ = σ + us (2.14)

The short-term effect of stress increase can be expressed:

/ /
σ + σ = σ + (us + ue) = σ + (us + σ) since, ue = σ (2.15)

Where, ue = σ is the initial ‘excess hydrostatic pressure’.

When a new equilibrium is eventually reached, with the completion of drainage, the transfer from neutral
stress to effective stress gives the equation:
/
σ + σ = (σ + σ) + us (2.16)
With the return of the normal hydrostatic or neutral pressure us, the excess hydrostatic pressure of Eq. 2.15
is said to have dissipated.

When a decrease in total vertical stress takes place in a soil there will be a tendency for the soil skeleton to
expand, although to a limited extent, especially in soils containing an appreciable proportion of clay mineral
particles. As a result the pore water pressure will be reduced and the excess pore water pressure will be
negative. The pore water pressure will gradually increase to the static value, flow taking place into the soil,
accompanied by a corresponding reduction in effective stress and increase in volume. This process is
known as swelling.

2.5 STRESSES DUE TO APPLIED LOADING

Whenever loads are applied to soil, additional stresses are induced in the soil. These stresses are
distributed throughout the soil mass. The distribution of stress depends on the following properties.

1- Modulus of elasticity or the stress-strain behaviour

2- Poisson’s ratio
3- Stratification

For analysis of engineering problem, intensity of stress at different points within the influence zone is
required. Methods to determine subsurface stresses are mostly based on the theory of elasticity. Stress-
strain behaviour of soil is very complex, simplifying assumptions are generally made in the analysis to obtain
the stresses, and the stresses thus computed are approximate ones. Fortunately, the results are good
enough for the soil problems commonly encountered in practice. Different methods to determine the
stresses in soil due to applied foundation loads are as follows;

1. Approximate Method
2. Boussinesq’s Method
3. Westergaard’s Method
4. Newmark,s Influence Chart

2.6 APPROXIMATE METHOD

The approximate method is based on the idea that the soil area affected by loading gradually increases with
depth. The stress at footing level is simply, the applied load divided by the footing area. Since the soil area
affected by the loading increases with depth, the stress at any depth below footing level is determined by
dividing the applied load by the soil area at that depth. To understand how the area increases with depth,
consider the brick masonry shown in Figs.2.5 to 2.7.

It is clear from the figures that the bricks with dark color are bearing the load. The dotted line is indicating
how the brick area affected by the loading is increasing with depth. The angle of spread of the area depends
on the size and shape of the bricks. The angle of spread α varies depending upon the size and shape of the
bricks as shown in Figs.2.5 to 2.7.

α
α

Fig.2.5 Fig.2.6
 α

Fig.2.7

The soil particles are interconnected or bonded together which causes the soil area affected by the loading
to increase with depth. The actual increase of the soil area or distribution of load with depth is complex and
depends on the soil properties such as size and shape etc. Considering the angle of spread of the soil area
as α shown in Fig.2.8, the stress at depth z is given as follows;
P (2.17)
Z 
B  2 Z tan  L  2 Z tan  
o o
It is reasonable to assume α values ranging from 30 to 45 for different soils. To make the calculation
simpler, it is better to assume that the soil area affected by loading spreads with 2:1 slope as shown in the
Fig.2.9. Accordingly, stress at depth z is given by equation.2.18.
P (2.18)
Z 
B  Z L  Z 
Where; ϭZ is the stress at depth Z
P is the applied load
B is the footing width
L is the footing length
Z is the depth at which stress is required

Z 2
α Z
1

Z tanα B Z tanα Z/2 B Z/2

Comparison of the equationsFig.2.8
2.17 and 2.18 indicates that the application of equation
Fig.2.9 2.18 is quite simple.
Although the method is not accurate, yet is sometimes used by the engineers to estimate the stress for
preliminary design.

Considering practical application of the method, Let q be the intensity of applied pressure at footing level
due to column load placed on a rectangular footing (size B x L) as shown in Fig.2.10. The soil area affected
by the loading at depth z (considering 2:1 variation) has increased to (B+Z) x (L+Z). The stress z at depth Z
will be calculated as follows;

Applied pressure due to column load = q

Applied column load = P = q(B x L)

P
Stress at depth Z =  Z 
B  Z L  Z 
qBL
Z 
B  Z L  Z 
 q

B L
2z

Note: In this method, applied column load

P is used in the equation. If the pressure 1
Intensity q is directly given then it should be z
first converted to load by multiplying with the
L+Z
footing area and then used in the equation.
B+Z

Fig.2.10

2.7 BOUSSINESQ’S METHOD

Boussinesq’s presented his method for stress distribution in 1885. It is based on the theory of elasticity. It is
used to estimate the stress in soil due to a point load applied at the ground surface. The soil mass is a
complex material, therefore Boussinesq’s made the following simplifying assumptions to develop his
method;

2.7.1 Assumptions of the Boussinesq’s equation

1 2 3
1- The soil mass is an elastic, homogeneous , isotropic and semi- infinite medium which extends
infinitely in all directions from a level surface.
2- The soil is weightless.
3- The soil is not subjected to any other stress before the application of point load.
4- The stress distribution due to point load is independent of the type of soil.
5- The law of linear stress distribution is valid.
6- There exists a continuity of stress.
7- The change in soil volume due to loading is neglected.
8- The stress distribution is symmetrical with respect to z-axis.

1- Homogeneous- same material properties (e.g. e, m,, structure, etc.) through the soil mass

2- Isotropic- same elastic properties in all directions

3- Semi-infinite- a medium bounded on one side with a known boundary. In case of soil, ground surface is
the known boundary and the extent of soil below the ground surface is not known.

In applying Boussinesq’s theory to soil, consider a load-soil system shown in the figures 2.11 & 2.12, below.
The plane (abcd) in Fig.2.11 represents the ground surface. The radial distance of point A from the axis of
the load is r, and the depth below the ground surface is z.

Distribution of stress within the soil mass due to applied loading is shown by polar stress vectors R. The
effect of the load travels in all direction through the inter-particle contacts. The effect of load ‘P’ applied at
the ground surface ‘xx’, spread in all the directions within the underlying soil mass, in terms of polar stresses
‘R’ as shown in Fig. 2.12.
 P y
x

a
b d
x
z c

y R
x

r σz
y

A
z

Fig.2.11 Sketch showing the stress at point A

x x

β
z R

σz

σr A
r
Fig.2.12 Distribution of stress vectors R within the soil

The magnitude of stress for all the polar vectors and along any polar vector is variable and at any point is a
function of depth ‘z’ and radial distance ‘r’ from the applied load. At any point, ‘σz’ is vertical component and
‘σr’ is radial component of the polar stress.

According to Boussinesq’s, stress ‘σz’ at depth ‘z’ and radial distance ‘r’ from the line of action of load ‘P’ is
as given below.
3 pz 3 p (2.19)
z   kb
2 r  z
2

2 5/ 2 z2
Where, P is the applied loading, Z is the depth where stress is required, r is the radial distance
and kb is Boussinesq’s stress coefficient and is given below

3 0.478
kb  5
 5 (2.20)
2 2
 r  2  r  2
2 1  2  1  2 
 z   z 
 kb can be determined from the given values of r/z from the Eq.2.20. When the point ‘A’ lies on the
z-axis i.e., r = 0 and; kb = 0.478, and ‘σz’ for such a condition has a maximum value.

2.7.2 Important Aspects of the Boussinesq’s Equation

1. The vertical stress does not depend on the modulus of elasticity (E) and the poisson’s ratio (). It
only depends on the magnitude of load and the coordinates (r, z).
2. At the ground surface (z = 0), the vertical stress just below the load is theoretically infinite.
However, in an actual case the load spreads over a small but finite area and, therefore, only finite
stress develops.
3. The vertical stress (z) decreases rapidly with an increase in r/z ratio. Theoretically, the vertical
stress would be zero only at an infinite distance from the load point. But actually the vertical stress
becomes extremely small and is neglected, when r/z = 5 or more.
4. In actual practice, foundation loads are never applied on the ground surface and nor they are point
load. However, Boussinesq’s equation can be conservatively applied for loads at shallow depths,
provided the depth z is measured from the point of application of the load.
5. The field observations reveal that the actual stresses are generally smaller than the theoretical
values calculated by Boussinesq’s equation, especially at shallow depths. Thus, the Boussinesq’s
equation gives conservative values and is commonly used in soil engineering problems.

2.7.3 Limitations of Boussinesq’s Equation

1. The equation was initially developed for determination of stress in elastic solids. Its application to
soils may be questionable, as the soils are not purely elastic. However, experience indicates that
the results obtained are satisfactory.
2. The application of Boussinesq’s equation can be justified when there is a stress increase (a loading
case, which is in soil). The real requirement of the equation is not that the soil be elastic (i.e. fully
recoverable), but is should have a constant ratio between stress and strain, which is almost true for
load ranges applied to the soil. For the unloading case, when there is a stress decrease the relation
between stress and strain is not linear and, therefore, the equation is not strictly applicable.
Therefore if the stresses induced in soil are small, in comparison with shear strength, the soil
behaves somewhat elastically and the Boussinesq,s equation can be used.
3. For practical cases, the Boussinesq’s equation can be safely used for homogeneous deposits of
clay, man-made fills and for limited thickness of uniform sand deposits. In deep sand deposits, the
modulus of elasticity increases with increase in depth and, therefore, Boussinesq’s equation will not
give satisfactory results.
4. The point loads applied below ground surface induce somewhat smaller stresses than those
caused by surface loads, and, therefore, the Boussinesq’s equation is not reliably applicable.
However, the equation is frequently used for shallow footings, in which z is measured below the
base of the footing.

2.8 VERTICAL STRESS UNDER CENTER OF UNIFORMLY LOADED CIRCULAR AREA

Boussinesq's method for point load can be applied to develop expression for the vertical stress under the
center of a uniformly loaded flexible circular area.

Let ‘q’ be the pressure intensity on circular area of radius ‘R’.

Total load on the elementary area dA = dp = q (r d.) dr (2.22)

Where,
dA = length x width of elementary area = (dr) (r d)

Vertical stress, dz, for point ‘A’ at a depth ‘z’, due dp can be obtained using Bousinesq’s Eq.

3( qr dr d ) z3
d z  (2.23)
2 ( r 2  z 2 )5 / 2
 dp

dA

dz

Fig.2.13 Vertical stress below the center of a uniformly loaded flexible circular area

The increase of stress at A due to the entire loaded area can be found by integrating Eq.2.23.

  2 rR 3q z 3r
 z   d z    dr d (2.24)
 0 r 0 2 (r 2  z 2 ) 5 / 2
Integrating and simplifying yields the following;

z  1 
 1  2 3/ 2 
(2.25)
q  [( R / z )  1] 
The variation of z/q with z/R. is given in table.2.1, and also shown in Fig.2.14 below. The value of z
decreases rapidly with depth; and, at z = 5R, it is about 6% of q.

z /q Table.2.1 Variation of z/q with z/R

Variation of z/q with z/R

z/R z/q

0.00 1.00
0.02 0.9999
0.05 0.9998
0.10 0.9990
0.20 0.9925
0.40 0.9488
0.50 0.9106
0.80 0.7562
1.00 0.6465
1.50 0.4240
2.00 0.2845
2.50 0.1996
3.00 0.1436
4.00 0.0869
5.00 0.0571
Fig.2.14 Variation of z/q with z/R
2.9 VERTICAL STRESS DUE TO A RECTANGULAR LOADED AREA
Boussinesq's Theory can be used to find vertical stress under a rectangular loaded area. The area (L x B)
at the ground surface is subjected to an applied pressure = q.
Consider a small elementary area dA = dx dy
The load on the area dA = dp = q dx dy

dp

dA

Fig.2.15 vertical stress below the corner of a uniformly loaded flexible rectangular area

The Vertical stress, dz, for point ‘A’ below the corner of the rectangular area at a depth ‘z’, due dp can be
2 2 2
obtained by replacing P by dp and r by x + y in the Bousinesq’s Eq. Thus;

3q dx dy z 3
d z  (2.26)
2 (x 2  y 2  z 2 ) 5 / 2
The increase of stress z at A due to the entire loaded area can now be determined by integrating the
above equation.

B L 3qz 3 ( dx dy)
 z   d z     qI 3 (2.27)
y 0 x 0 2 ( x 2  y 2  z 2 ) 5 / 2
 2mm m 2  n 2  1  m 2  n 2  2   2 2 
1 1  2mm m  n  1 
I3   2 
 2 
  tan  (2.28)
4 2 2 2 2
 m  n  m n  1  m  n  1   m 2  n 2  m 2 n 2  1 
 

B L
Where I3 is known as influence factor and m  and n
z z
Calculation of I3 using the above equation is very laborious. An influence chart has been developed to
quickly determine the value of influence factor for the given footing properties. The chart is shown on next
page in Fig.2.16.
The stress at any point below a rectangular loaded area can be determined by using Eq.2.27 or more
conveniently by using the Fig.2.16.
 Fig.2.16 Influence chart showing variation of I3 with m and n
2.10 Application of the Method
Let the stress at point A located at a depth z below a loaded area (B x L) is required. The loaded area can
be divided into four rectangles as shown in Fig.2.17. The point A is the corner common to all four rectangles.
The stress at depth z below point A, due to each rectangular area (using their corresponding B and L
values) can be calculated by using the equation 2.28 and the Fig.2.16.
The total stress increase due to the entire loaded area can now be given as.

p = q [I3(1) + I3(2) + I3(3) + I3(4)] (2.29)

Where I3(1), I3(2), I3(3), and I3(4) are the values of I3 for rectangles 1, 2, 3 and 4, respectively.

L1 L3

B1 1 3 B3

B ●A
B2 2 4 B4
L2 L4
L
Fig.2.17 increase of stress at any point below a rectangular loaded flexible area

2.11 ISOBAR or PRESSURE BULB

Within a soil mass subjected to foundation loading, a line joining points of equal stress is known as an isobar
or pressure bulb. Many isobars of specified stress intensity (such as isobars for 0.9σo, 0.7σo, 0.5σo, 0.3σo,
0.2σo etc.) can be drawn. The stress at footing level where footing is in contact with the soil is known as
contact stress and is written as σo. Any equation for determination of stress can be used to draw the isobars.

In the equation the value of stress ϭz for which isobar is required is kept constant, and putting different
values of the radial distance r, corresponding values of the depth z are calculated by the equation. This
gives a set of coordinates for r and z, which are then plotted on a graph to get the isobar of that particular
stress.

GS

ϭo

0.5ϭo

0.4ϭo

Fig.2.18 Isobars for stress intensities of 0.5σo, 0.4σo

The Fig.2.19 shows isobars for a uniformly loaded square area. Note that the isobars are valid for a vertical
plane drawn through line a-a as shown on the top of the Fig.2.19. Fig.2.20 is a non dimensional plot of ϭz/q
below the center of a rectangular loaded area with L/B = 1, 1.5, 2, and ∞, which has been calculated by
using Eq.2.27.
 ϭz/q

ϭz/q

ϭz/q

Fig.2.19 Isobars under a uniformly Fig.2.20 Stress increase under

loaded square area center of a uniformly
loaded rectangular area

2.12 VERTICAL STRESS DUE TO STRIP LOAD

Based on the theory of elasticity, the vertical stress increase due to a line load (e.g., railway track will be
considered two parallel line loads) of intensity q per unit length placed on the surface of a soil mass is
expressed as follows;
2qz 3 (2.29)
z 
 x 2  z 2 
2

The Eq.2.29 can be used to determine the vertical stress at a point due to a flexible strip load of width B as
shown in Fig.2.21. Let q be the load per unit area of the strip as shown in Fig.2.21.

q
z    sin  cos  2 


Fig.2.21 vertical stress due to a flexible strip load

Consider an elementary strip of width dr. The load per unit length of this strip will be equal to q x dr. This
elementary strip can be considered as a line load and putting the value in Eq.2.29, the stress at A can be
written as follows;
 2q  dr z 3
d z  (2.30)
 2
 x  r   z 
2 2

The total stress at point A due to the entire strip load of width B can be determined by integration with limits
of r from –B/2 to +B/2.

2q  
B /2
z3
 z   d z     x  r 2  z 2 dr
B / 2   
2


Integrating and simplifying we get;

q
z    sin  cos  2  (2.31)

Angle β and δ are explained in the Fig.2.21

Table.2.2 Variation of σz/q with 2z/B and 2x/B

2x/B 2z/B ϭz/q 2x/B 2z/B ϭz/q

00 1.0000 0.25 0.0177
0.5 0.9594 0.50 0.0892
1.0 0.8183 1.00 0.2488
1.5 0.6678 1.5
1.50 0.2704
2.0 0.5508 2.00 0.2876
00 2.5 0.4617 2.50 0.2851
3.0 0.3954
3.5 0.3457 0.25 0.0027
4.0 0.3050 0.50 0.0194
1.00 0.0776
2.0 1.50 0.1458
00 1.0000 2.00 0.1847
0.25 0.9787 2.50 0.2045
0.50 0.9028 0.50 .0068
0.5 1.00 0.7352 1.00 0.0357
1.50 0.6078 1.50 0.0771
2.5
2.00 0.5107 2.00 0.1139
2.50 0.4372 2.50 0.1409

0.25 0.4996 0.50 0.0026

0.50 0.4969 1.00 0.0171
1.00 0.4797 1.50 0.0427
1.50 0.4480 3.0 2.00 0.0705
1.0 2.00 0.4095 2.50 0.0952
2.50 0.3701 3.00 0.1139

Fig.2.22 Isobars under a strip load

Table.2.2 shows the variation of ϭz/q with 2z/B for 2x/B values of 0.0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, and 3.0. Table.2.2
and Eq.2.31 can be used for calculation of vertical stress at a point due to a flexible strip load.

2.13 SIGNIFECANCE OF PRESSURE BULB

Pressure bulb (isobar) has great importance in foundation engineering. When two structures are
built close to each other their pressure bulbs overlap as shown in Fig.2.23. The intensity of stress in the
shaded area is twice that of the individual structure. For stability of the foundation and structures, the
combined stress intensity in the shaded area should be less than the allowable bearing capacity of the soil in
the shaded area. However it is important to check the intensity of the overlapping pressure bulbs. It needs
not to worry about the stability, when the overlapping pressure bulbs are of 0.5ϭo or lower intensity otherwise
foundation design has to be revised.

GS

Fig.2.23 Overlap of isobars of adjacent buildings

Two footings of different size having the same intensity of contact stress (applied pressure) are
shown in Fig.2.24. A weak layer is lying at some depth below the footing level. The isobar of 0.2ϭo stress
(influence zone) for small size footing lies above the weak layer and the footing is reasonably stable, while
isobar of the same stress intensity for large size footing is intercepting the weak layer and the stability is in
doubt and needs a further detailed analysis.

GS

0.2ϭo

Weak soil layer

Fig.2.24 Isobars of small and large size footings

A weak soil pocket lying within the influence zone as shown in Fig.2.25 may affect the stability of
the foundation. Isobar can be used to check the stability. Draw isobars of different stress intensities around
the pocket. If the bearing capacity of the weak soil pocket is higher than the isobar passing through the
pocket then the weak soil will be safe against shear failure. For example, if the bearing capacity of the
pocket shown in figure 2.25 is more than 0.4ϭo the soil is safe against shear failure.
 GS

ϭo

Weak soil
0.5ϭo pocket

0.4ϭo
Fig.2.25 Isobars and location of weak soil pocket
If a building is founded on a number of parallel strip footings each applying a contact pressure of
/
o, then considering an equivalent strip footing, the contact pressure  o due to combined affect of all
footings is given as follows;
n o B
 /o  (2.32)
Btotal
/
Where,  o = Contact pressure on equivalent strip
o = Contact pressure on single strip
n = Number of strip footings
B = Width of single strip
Btotal = Total width from end to end of outer strips

Isobars of single strip footings and equivalent strip footing are shown in Fig.2.26. Because of the
loads on all strips, the isobar reaches much deeper than a single strip footing.

Btotal

0.5z 0.5z 0.5z 0.5z

/
0.5 z

Fig.2.26 Isobars of individual and equivalent strip footing

2.14 WESTERGAARD'S METHOD

Boussinesq’s equation was developed for homogenous soil. Sedimentary soil deposits are
generally stratified and anisotropic. They commonly have alternating layers of sandy and silt/clay soil. For
such conditions Westergaard’s (1938) presented an equation for the determination of subsurface stresses.

Fig.2.27 shows an assumed soil model for development of the equation and a real soil model for
application of the equation.
 P P

(a) μ = Poisson’s ratio of soil (b) μ = Poisson’s ratio of clay

between rigid layers between sand layers
Fig.2.27 (a) Assumed soil model for development of equation (b) Real soil model

Considering the above soil model Westergaard presented the following equation;

p 1  2   / 2  2  
z  (2.33)

2z 2 1  2   / 2  2    r / z  
2 3/ 2

p a
z  (2.34)

2z 2 a  r / z  
2 3/ 2

Where,
z = vertical stress at depth z
p = concentrated load
 = Poisson's ratio (ratio of the strain in a direction normal to an applied stress to the strain parallel
to the applied stress)
z = depth
r = horizontal distance from point of application of p to point at which z is desired
a = (1-2)/(2-2)

If Poisson's ratio is taken to be zero, Eq.2.33 changes to

p
z  (2.35)

z 1  2r / z 2
2
 3/ 2

In most practical problems of geotechnical engineering, Boussinesq's solution is preferred over

Westergaard's solution. For that reason, further development of stress calculation under various types of
loading will use Boussinesq's solution.

2.15 NEWMARK’S INFLUENCE CHART METHOD

The Boussinesq’s and the Westergaard’s theories for stress distribution in soil have been developed for
point load applied at the ground surface. Actually foundation loads are never point loads rather they are
always distributed loads. This makes the use of the Boussinesq’s or the Westergaard’s equations for the
determination of stresses in soil underneath the foundation, somewhat impractical.

The vertical stress under an applied load, uniformly distributed on an area of foundation can be determined
by using Newmark’s influence chart. The chart in principle is based on Boussinesq’s equation and has been
developed for the determination of vertical stress under the centre of a circular loaded area.

For a uniformly loaded circular footing, the Boussinesq’s equation may be used considering a small point
load dp applied on an infinitely small area dA of the footing. Vertical stress dϭZ at depth z due to this small
load dp is determined by using Boussinesq’s equation and then integrated over the entire area to determine
the total stress ϭZ. Consider a circular footing subjected to loading as shown in Fig.2.28.
 P

Applied contact
dp pressure ϭo

dr
a r
dθ
b
dA R

ab = r dθ z

dϭZ
O
Fig.2.28 Circular footing subjected to a contact pressure

Let the circular footing area is A, the radius of the area is R, and ϭo is the contact pressure due to applied
load P on the foundation.
A
The total load P can be written as, P   od A
0

In order to determine the stress increase at point O, which is located at a depth z below the center of the
circular area, consider an elementary area dA, within the loaded area as shown in Fig.2.28.

The load on this elementary area dA can be written as, dP = ϭo dA = ϭo (r dθ dr)

The load dP can be considered as a point load. The stress at point O caused by this load can be
determined by using Boussinesq’s equation.

3d P
d Z  (2.36)

2z 1  r / z 
2

2 5/ 2

Putting the value of dP in the above equation

3 o rd d r 
d Z  (2.37)

2z 2 1  r / z  
2 5/ 2

Thus the total stress caused by the entire loaded area A can be obtained by integration of the above
equation,
2 R 5/2
3 rd d  1 
d Z    o 2 r  2
(2.38)
0 0
2z 1  r / z  
2 R
3 z3 (2.39)
d Z  o   r rd  d r
 z2 
5/ 2
2 0 0
2

After integration and simplifying we get as follows

 3/ 2
  1  
 Z   o 1    
2 
(2.40)
  1  R / z   
3/ 2
z   1  
 1   
2   (2.41)
 o   1  R / z   

The above equation can be rewritten as follows:
2 / 3 1/ 2
R   z  
  1    1 (2.42)
z   o  

Substituting various values of  z / o into the above equation, corresponding values of R/z can be
obtained. Table.2.3 shows the calculated values of R/z for varying values of  z /  o = 0, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4,
0.5 up to 1.0.
Table.2.3 Values of R/z for various values of  z / o

 z / o 0.00 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0

R/z 0.00 0.2698 0.4005 0.5181 0.6370 0.7664 0.9174 1.1097 1.3871 1.9084 ∞

Using non-dimensional values of ratio ‘R/z’ shown in the above table, concentric circles having radii equal to
R/z can be drawn. This is shown in Fig.2.29 below.

Fig.2.29 Newmark’s Influence Chart for computing stresses

Note that the length AB in the Fig.2.29 is taken as a unit. The first circle is a point having a radius equal to
zero. Similarly the second circle has a radius of 0.2598 times AB and the third circle has a radius of 0.4005
times the AB and so on. The last circle has a radius of infinity. These circles have been divided by suitable
number of equally spaced radial lines to form orthogonal mesh. This is referred as the Newmark’s chart. The
number meshes in the chart are equal to the number of circles multiplied by the number of radial lines. The
influence value (IV) of this chart is equal to;

1
Influence.Value  IV 
number.of .meshes.on.the.chart
 1
Influence.Value  IV 
number.of .circles  number.of .rays

For the Influence chart shown in the Fig.2.29, Influence value, IV= 1/10x20 = 1/200 = 0.005

Each mesh or influence unit contribute the same influence to the vertical stress. In the above chart each
such mesh loaded with a contact pressure of ϭo contributes a stress magnitude of 0.005ϭo to the total
vertical stress ϭz.

The concept that each mesh loaded with a uniform foundation contact stress, contributes the same
magnitude of stress is explained as follows;

The Fig.2.30 shows meshes confined between two consecutive rays emanating from the center of the
influence chart. The figure clearly shows that as the radial distance increases the mesh area increases and
therefore it is clear that dp3 > dp2 > dp1 (since dp = ϭo dA, as dA increases dp also increases). According to
Boussinesq’s equation the stress at any given depth increases with increase of load and decreases with
increase of radial distance. The analysis have shown that the rate of increase of stress due to increase of
the load from dp1 to dp2 and dp3 equals the rate of decrease of stress due to increase of radial distance form
r1 to r2 and r3. Therefore each mesh loaded by a uniform contact stress ϭo but with varying load dp and
varying distance r exerts the same magnitude of stress at a point below the center of the chart at given
depth z.
r3
dp3
r2 dp2
r1 dp1

dϭZ
r

Fig.2.30 Explanation that each loaded mesh contributes the same value of stress

The influence chart may be used to compute the stress in a soil beneath a footing or pattern of footings or
out side a footing at any depth. It is only necessary to draw the footing pattern to the scale of z = length AB
on the chart.

Following is the step by step procedure using Newmark’s influence chart for determination of vertical stress
under a footing of any shape.

1. Decide the depth z below the footing at which stress is to be determined.

 2. Adopt a scale z = AB (this is unit length on the Newmark’s influence chart). Thus if z = 15-ft. the
length AB will be considered as 15-ft., and if any foundation side is 45-ft. long, the length of this line
on the plan will be equal to 3-times the length AB.
3. Draw the plan of the footing based on the scale adopted in step 2.
4. Place the plan drawn in step 3 on the Newmark’s influence chart such that the point under which
the stress is to be determined coincides with the center of the chart.
5. Count the number of meshes of the chart that fall inside the plan let it be equal to n.
6. Calculate the stress at the required depth by the equation: Ϭz = (IV)(n)(ϭo)

Where; IV is the influence value

n is the number of meshes covered by the footing area
ϭo is the contact stress

The same sketch (plan) may be used to determine stress at other points at the same depth by shifting the
sketch until the desired point coincides with the chart’s center and counting the meshes. If, however, stress
at some other depth is required, a new sketch must be drawn to such a scale that distance AB on Fig.2.29,
equals the depth at which the stress is desired.

2.16 PROBLEMS
2
Prob.2.1 A footing 2m by 3m is subjected to a uniform pressure of 200 kN/m . The footing is placed at
the ground surface. Determine the vertical stress increment due to the applied pressure at (a) 1m, (b) 3m,
and (c) 5m below the centre of the footing using influence factor method.
2 2 2
(Ans. a-97.5 kN/m , b-39.0 kN/m c-20.89 kN/m )
2
Prob.2.2 A circular footing placed at the ground surface is carrying a uniform load of 4500 lb/ft . The
radius of the footing is 12 ft. Determine vertical stress increment due to this uniform load (a) at a point 18ft
below the center of the footing and (b) at a point 18ft below the ground surface at a horizontal distance of 6ft
from the center of the footing. (Ans. a- 1908 psf, b-1683 psf)
Prob.2.3 A circular footing 3m in diameter is placed at the ground surface on a soil having a unit weight
3 2
16.38 kN/m . The footing applies a uniformly distributed load of 250 kN/m on the soil. Determine (a) the
vertical stress increment due to the uniform load, and (b) the total vertical pressure at a depth of 3m under
2 2
the center of the circular area. (Ans.a-49.0 kN/m , b-98.14 kN/m )
2
Prob.2.4 A rectangular footing 8ft by 12ft carrying a uniformly distributed load of 6000 lb/ft is placed at
the ground surface. Determine the vertical stress increment due to the applied load at a depth of 15ft below
the corner of the rectangular loaded area? (Ans. 696 psf)
2
Prob.2.5 A square footing 12ft by 12ft in size carrying a uniform load of 5000 lb/ft is placed at the
ground surface. Find the vertical stress increment due to the load at a depth of 25ft below the center of the
loaded area. (Ans. 696.0 psf)
Prob.2.6 Two point loads 100 kN and 150 kN at distance of 4m apart are applied at ground surface.
Determine the vertical stress at a depth of 2m and 4m midway between the loads. Use a-Boussinesq’s, and
2 2 2 2
b-Westergaard’s equations for  = 0. (Ans.a-9.77 kN/m , 5.37 kN/m b-6.42 kN/m , 3.42 kN/m )
Prob.2.7 A square footing 2m by 2m is placed 1.8m below the ground surface and carries a load of
3
1000 kN. The density of soil is 16.8 kN/m . Determine the net vertical stress increment due to the uniform
2
load at a depth of 4m below the center of the footing. (Ans. 125.4 kN/m )
Prob.2.8 A strip footing 1.5m wide is placed at the ground surface on a soil with a density of 19.60
3
kN/m . The load on the footing is 365 kN/m of wall length. Determine the vertical stress increment and the
2 2
total pressure at a point 3m below the center of the strip footing. (Ans.a-17.52 kN/m , b-76.47 kN/m )
2
Prob.2.9 The L-shaped area shown in figure carries a 2000 lb/ft uniform load. Find the vertical stress
increment due to the structure load at a depth of 24ft (a) below corner A, and (b) below corner E. (correct it
Ans. a- 632 psf, b-350 psf)
15ft.
10ft.
20ft. 18ft.
A
10ft.
 2
Prob.2.10 The square footing shown in the figure below is subjected to uniform pressure of 25000 lb/ft .
Find the vertical stress increment due to the applied load at a depth of 12ft (a) below point B, and (b) below
point A. (Ans. a- 1400 psf, b-4100 psf)
B

4ft.
8ft.
2ft.
4ft.

8ft. A 2ft.

3
Prob.2.11 Moist sand having a unit weight of 18.60 kN/m is to be excavated to a depth of 5m to
accommodate a raft foundation 58m long by 38m wide. Find the reduction in vertical pressure, due to
removal of the sand from the excavated area, at one corner of the building at a depth 15 m below the
2
original ground surface. (Ans. 23.04 kN/m )
3
Prob.2.12 A compacted soil fill 10ft deep having a unit weight of 118 lb/ft is placed to raise the level of a
construction site. A 20ft by 15ft foundation is to be built at the top of the fill and is to support a total structure
load of 1500 kips. Find the net stress increase that will result 6ft below the original ground surface directly
2
beneath the center of the foundation. (Ans. 3.18 kip/ft )
Prob.2.13 A concentrated load of 200 kN acts on a foundation constructed at a depth of 2m below ground
surface. Find the vertical stress along the axis of the load at a depth of 10m and at a radial distance of 16ft
at the same depth by (a) Boussinesq, and (b) Westergaard formulae for  = 0. Neglect the depth of the
2 2 2 2
foundation. (Ans.a-0.955 kN/m , 0.547 kN/m b-0.637 kN/m , 0.347 kN/m )
Prob.2.14 A concentrated load of 150 kN is applied at a depth of 1.5m below the ground surface.
Determine the vertical stress at depths of 2m, 3m and 5m below the ground surface along the load axis
using a-Boussinesq’s, and b-Westergaard’s equation for  = 0.
2 2 2 2 2 2
(Ans.a-286.5 kN/m , 31.83 kN/m , 5.85 kN/m b-200.0 kN/m , 21.22 kN/m , 3.90 kN/m )