LABORATORY MANUAL POWER SYSTEM ANALYSI. LABORATORY (AUTONOMOUS) R cganshane % WV i >, < Truvo COMPILED & PREPARED BY Sushmita Sarkar, Assistant Professor DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING RV COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING * BANGALORE-560059Instructions to students 1. All the programs are developed in MATLAB/Simulink and MiPOWER and ETAP software package. 2. The students are instructed to go through the algorithm, understand the logic and the corresponding Matlab code, before coming to the lab class and answer the oral questions asked by the teacher in charge. The students are instructed to write the programs in the data shi in the manual before coming to the lab class. along with input given 4. The students are instructed to write algorithm/flowcharts on the L.H.S of the record book along with input and corresponding output. Program and the relevant theory can be written on RH.S, 5. Ifa student is absent to a class he/she has to come prepared for the regular program instead of the missed program. A maximum of two of the missed programs can be completed in the repetition class. 6. A student can miss only one class under genuine circumstances SeeeeneeeeeeenesCONTENTS Expt. | Week Description Page No. No. Formation of Y-BUS (Matlab) a) Formation of Y-BUS with off-nominal tums ratio by 4 1 1 | direct method b) Formation of Y-BUS using singular transformation (i) with half line charging admittance 5 ii) with mutual coupling 8 2 Load Flow Analysis 2 a) LFA by Gauss-Siedel method using MATLAB 10 3 ) Determination of Bus currents, Bus power and Line | 13 flows using MATLAB 4 3 ©) LFA by GS, NR and FDLF methods using MiPower 16 software package 3 4 4) LFA by GS, NR and FDLF methods using ETAP 17 software package 6 5 Short Circuit Studies (software package) Short circuit studies using MiPower software package 18 7 6 ‘Transient Stability Studies (MATLAB + software package) a) Transient Stability Studies using MiPower software 19 package 8 7 by Swing Curve using Euler's method in MATLAB 21 9 ) Swing Curve using Runge Kutta method in MATLAB 23 10 8 Economic Operation (MATLAB) a) Economic operation without transmission losses and 26 with generator limits b) Economic operation with transmission losses 27 1 9 ‘ALFC Operation (Simulink) a) Step Response of ALFC for variable R and D 30 ») Transient response of first order approximation of 3 ALEC 612 10 | Fault scenario Simulation (Virtual Lab) 4 a) Fault scenario simulation in a feeder b) Fault scenario simulation in a Transformer/ bus 13 11 | Modeling of PY Module using MATLAB/Simulink ©) Modeling with constant I, and Ix 6 d) Modeling with constant I, & variable Is ¢) Modeling of actual PV module.Formation of Y bus EXPERIMENT 1 a) Formation of Y bus with off-nominal turns ratio by direct method Algorithm: 1, Read the no. of buses(nbus) and no. of lines (nline) 2. Read from bus no, to bus no, line impedance and half line charging admittance(hle) and off- nominal turns ratio(a) of each line 3. Convert line impedance to admittance(y) of each line 4, Repeat step i to iii for K=1 to nline i, P= from bus no, q-to bus no. ii, Sety=yia iii, Diagonal elements: Ypp = Ypp + y + hle+((I-a)/ayty Yqq= Yqq + y + hlet(a-1)*y iv, Off diagonal elements: Ypq=Ypq-y ‘Yap = Ypq 5. Display Y bus 6. Stop % pa 2 hle(yi2) a D=[5 4 0.02+0.061 0.031 0.9 51 0.08+0.241 0.0251 1.0 41 0.06+0.18i 0.021 1.0 42 0.06+0.181 0.021 1.0 43 0.0440.12i 0.01Si_ 1.0 12 0.01+0.031 0.011 0.8 23 0.080.241 0.0251 1.0 |; =D); t=D(-.2); yoLiZ; nbus=max(max(fb),max(tb)); Y=zeros(nbus); nline=length(fb); for k-Lnline, p=fb(k);q=tb(k); yik)=y(ky/a(k); Y(pP)-Y(.p)+y(k)+hle(k)+(1-a(k)a(k)*y(k); Y(a,q)-¥ (a.9)+y(k)+hle(k)+(atk)-1)*ye);Y(p.q)=¥(p,q)-y(kK); Y(qP)=Y(p.q)s end Ybus-Y Exercise: 1, Repeat the exercise for the same data with transformers replaced by transmission lines 2. Modify the program without half line charging admittances. 3. Determine Y-bus for the following data Line No. | Between Line Half line buses | impedance | — charging admittance T T4_[ 0.085037 | 0.007 2 1-6 0,123+j0.518} 0.010 3 23 0.723 +j1.05 0.0 4 2-5 | 0,282 +j0.64 i) 5 43. | 0.0+j0.133 0.0 6 4-6 |0.097+j0.407] 0.0076 7 6-5 | 0.0+ j0.3 0.0 4,Determine Ybus in data given in the program if shunt capacitor of admittance 0.008 is ‘connected at bus no 3 5.Modify Ybus if an identical parallel line is added between 2-3. b) Formation of Ybus Using Singular Transformation Method with Half Line Charging (Or Shunt) Admittance Algorithm: Read no. of buses( nbus) and no. of lines( nline). Initialize shunt admittance matrix to zeros. Repeat step no i. to step no iv for I=1 to nline. i, Read line data ice, frombusno, tobus no, Zseries, half line charging. ii, Shunt admittance [from bus|=shunt admittance [from bus]+half line charging. iii, Shunt admittance [to bus]=shunt admittance [to bus}+half line charging. iv. Series admittance [I]=L/series impedance [1]. 4. Form the incidence matrix A (i) Initialize all the elements of matrix A of size [(nbus + nline) x nbus] to zeros Al (ii) Form A =AA Where AL is identity matrix of size (nbus x nbus)% AA isa matrix of size (nline x nbus) and elements of AA = [aij] Where aij = 0 if i* branch is not incident on j* bus. aij = 1 if branch is incident to and oriented away from j" bus. aij = -1 if i® branch is incident to and oriented away from j® bus. Form Yprimitive matrix Initialize all elements of matrix Ypr of size (nbus+nline x nbustnline) to zeros Form Ypr = Where Y is a matrix of size (nbus x nbus) with diagonal elements y= total shunt admittance at bus i and all other elements being zeros. yy is a matrix of size (nbus x nline) with all elements being zeros. y’ is matrix of size (nline x nline) with diagonal elements of y’ =¥series of line i=|(Zseries of Jine i, yy" Is matrix of size (nline x nbus) with all elements being zeros. Display A matrix & Ypr matrix. Form Transpose of matrix A i.e., A’ Form A'Y = A? * Ypr. Form Ybus~ A*Y *A and display. Form Zbus = [Ybus}" and display Stop Program: Formation of Yva using singular transformation method without mutual coupling: % D4 Z__ hile(Adm) D=[1 2 0.02+0.061 0.031 1 3. 0.08+0.241 0.025: 2 3 0.06+0.181 0.021 2 4 0,06+0.18i 0.021 2 5 0.040.121 0.015: 3 4 0.01+0.031 0.011 4 5 0.08+0.24 — 0,025i]; f-D(:.1); tb=D(:,2); Z-D(3); hley=D(-.4); yoliZ; nbus=max(max(fb),max(tb)); Y=zeros(nbus); nline=length(fb); nlb=nline+nbus; A=zeros(nlb.nbus); for k=I:nbus AKL;end for k=I:nline A(nbustk,fb(k))=1; A(nbus+k,tb(k))}=-1; end sh=zeros(nbu for k=I:nline sh(fb(k))=sh(fb(k)) rhley(k); sh(tb(k))=sh(tb(k))+hley(k); end ypr=zeros(ntb,nlb); for k=1:nbus ypr(k,k)-sh(k); end for k=I:nline ypr(nbusk,nbus+k)=y(k); end format short; Ybus=A"*ypr*A Exer 1. Can this method be used with transformers? Justify 2. Determine Ybus for data of exercise 2 in first program and compare results with that obtained by direct method. 3. Determine Ybus for the following data Line R x hie 12 [0.05 O15 0.0025, 13 for 03 0.03 23 ~‘(ois 0.45 0.05 24 ‘[o.10 030 0.0 34 (0.05 0.15 0.0125¢) Formation of Ybus Using Singular Transformation Method with Mutual Coupling. Algorithm: 1, Read no. of buses( nbus) and no. of lines (nline). 2. Road line data i.e., Frombus no, tobus no, Zseries, mutual line no, Zmutual at all lines. 3. Form bus incidence matrix A (i) Initialize all the elements of A of size (nline x nline) to zeros Gi) Form A = [aij] Where aij = 0 if i* branch is not incident on j* bus. aij ~ 1 if branch ig incident to and oriented away from j* bus. aij ~ -1 if * branch is incidentto and oriented away from j* bus. 4. Form Zprimitive matrix, Zpr (i) Initialize all the elements of Zpr of size (nline x nline) to zeros (ii) The diagonal elements of Zpr are assigned with respective Zseries i.e., Zpr (i, i) = Zseries of i* line iii) The off diagonal element is zero if the line i has no mutual coupling with line j (iv) The off diagonal element Zpr (jj) = Zmutua ifthe line {has mutual coupling with ine j Form Y primitive matrix Ypr = [Zpr]* Display A matrix & Ypr matrix, Form Transpose of matrix A i.e., AT. Form ATY = AT *Ypr. Form Ybus = ATY * A and display. 0. Form Zbus =[Ybus}' and display. 1. Stop 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 1 We % formation of ybus using singular transformation method with mutual coupling & without line charging: % pq Z — mno_ mutual impedance D{0 1 061 0 0 0 2 051 1 oui 2 3 «OSI 0 0 0 1 04 1 0.21 13 02 0 0; 251)5 g-D(:,2); Z=D(:,3); mno=D(:,4); zme=D(:,5); nbus=max(max(p),max(q)); Y=zeros(nbus); nline=length(p); A=zeros(nline,nbus);for k=1:nline, if(q(k)—0) Atkp)=15 elseifip(k)==0) Aka) end if(p(k)~=0 & a(k)~=0) Ak p)=1; Alk.q(k)F-1; end end zpr=zeros(nline,nline); for k=1:nline zpr(k,k)=Z(k); if(mno(k)) zpr(k,mno(k))=zme(k); zpr(mno(k),k)=zme(k); end end yprinv(zpr); format short; ‘Ybus=A”*ypr*A Exercise: 1. Form the Ybus for the data given. 2. Data =[sino fb th z m zm] Slno-serial no of line ; fo-from bus; tb -to bus; z — line impedance, m — the sl no of line to which it is coupled; zm — mutual impedance data -[] 1 2j06 -- 21 3505 1 jou 33 4j05-- 41 204 1 j02 52 4j02 - -]Load Flow Analysis (Matlab + software package) EXPERIMENT 2 a) Load Flow Analysis by Gauss-Siedel method for both PQ and PV buses using Matlab Algorithm: Read Ybus, number of buses (nbus) (Assume bus 1 as slack bus) No. of PQ buses (N,,), No. of PV buses (N,,) Voltage at slack bus (V,) Real power (P) and reactive power (Q) at all pq buses Real power (P) and specified voltage (V,,) and Qlimits (Quu and Qu.) at PV buses. Convergence criteria (€). Set iteration count k = 1. Caleulate voltages at all the pa buses (p= 2,0 Nay * 1), ying, hy feat Et Sea | wll U To calculate voltages at all the py Buses é = Npq +2 to nbus) anil) = Ltn Find $° ho» where, ” QC, sith Qog and Quy treat the bus pas pv bus and calculate cet iny Lagt wll Wea ot J where, V, = |Volatan angle 8, corresponding to previous iteration iret bus pgs pa bus and if QC, < Qu S8t Q, = Quan else Set Q= Qo Lier, Lar! | andfind mil‘ “JL where, V, = Vp corresponding to previous iteration, — Display voltages at all buses and QC, at py buses ~ Fe-Vet ay= ay ri Determine the largest absolute value of - I, > | If|AV lon < ace go to next step otherwise set k=k + 1 and go to step no. 3. Stop Program: ybus-[-9i Si 4i Si 914i 4i 418i); % Bus Type V Ang Guw Guvax Law Luvar Quin Que busdata=[1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 102 0 08 0 60 0 O1 08 2121 1.0 08bus=busdata(:,1); type=busdata(:,2); V=busdata(:,3); th=busdata(:,4); GMW>=busdata(:,5); GMVAR=busdata(:.6); LMW=busdata(:,7); LMVAR=busdata(:,8); isdata(:,9); yusdata(:,10); nbus-max(bus); P=GMW-LMW; Q-GMVAR-LMVAR; Vprev-V; toler=1; kel; while(toler>0.001) for p=2:nbus sumyv=0; for q=1:nbus ifp=q sumyv=sumyv+ybus(p,q)*V(q); end end if type(p)—=2 Q(p)=-imag(conj(V(p))*(sumyv+ybus(p,p)*V(p))); if(Q(p)>Qmax(p)||Q(p)tcl) pmax=pmax3; % If time is greater than fault clearing time, use post-fault maximum power end Di-omega0; 21D2=(power-pmax*sin(delta0))/M; delp=delta0+D1*delta_t; % Intermediate values of delta and omega omegp=omega0+D2*delta_t; Dip=omegp; D2p=(power-pmax*sin(delp))/M; delta0=delta0+(D1+D1p)/2*delta_t; omega0=omegad+ (D2+D2py/2*delta_t; delta=delta0*1 80/pi; % Convert to delta to degrees ‘omega=omega0; y-[t D1 D2 Dip D2p }; % to display values of time and derivatives =[t pmax delta omega]; ylelyLy} zi=[zl;z]; plot(t,delta,"') hold on end disp(y1) disp(z1) Data Pmax1=1.714 pu Pmax2=0.63 pu Pmax3=1.333 pu Power transferred =0.8 pu Fault clearing time =0.125 sees Frequeney-50 Hz Exercise 1.Simulate for sustained fault and determine critical clearing time graphically 21EXPERIMENT 9 ¢) Solution of Swing curve using Runge-Kutta method Runge-Kutta_method for solution of swing equation for an SMIB system This program is to solve the swing equation using Range-Kutta method. Detailed equations are given in chapter 9. In this program, we assume that the fault occurs at t=0 secs. The data consists of the maximum power transfers pre-fault, during fault and post-fault, along with system data. Sustained fault is simply simulated by giving a large fault clearing time. Values of power are in pu. Algorithm 1.Read maximum power before fault, during fault and post fault 2.Read the power transferred and the clearing time 3.Read H and frequency 4. Calculate initial value of 6, Initial is zero. 5. The two first order differential equations to be solved to obtain solution for the swing equation are: dp Ay Pm Pry sind Starting from initial value 6, @», t and a step size of At the formulae are as follows ky= (oo +s) At 21Pn, —Prex sin (5, +43) | Jg=| ———_____|ar IL M U + 1[k 42k 42k +k ] o Bly ss i} g= till +20 +20 +1 Program clear 21li 2 al pmax 1=input(‘enter the maximum power before faultin’); pmax2=input(‘enter the maximum power during fault\n’); pmax3-input(‘enter the maximum power after fault\n’); power=input(‘enter the value of power transferredin’) ;put(‘enter elearing time\n’) Heinput(enter value of interial constant Hin’) freq=input(enterfrequency\n’) delta0=asin(power! pmax!); omega0=0.0: pmax=pmax2; yl-O; z1={]; for t=0.0:delta_t:0.5 if(ttel) pmax=pmax3; end k1=omega0*delta_t; % Calculate the coefficients l1=(power-pmax*sin(delta0))/M*delta_t k2=(omega0+11/2)*delta_t; 12=(power-pmax*sin(delta0+k1/2))/M*delta_t; k3=(omega0+12/2)*delta_t; 13=(power-pmax*sin(delta0+k2/2)/M*delta_t; k4=(omega0+13)*delta_t 14~(power-pmax*sin(delta0+k3))/M*delta_t; delta0=delta0+(k1+2*K2+2"K3+k4)/6; omega0~omega0+(I1+2*12+2*13+14)/6; delta=delta0*180/pi; omega=omega0; yo[t kl 11 k2 12 k3 13 k4 14 J; z=[t pmax delta omega]; yl=[yl:y]; z1=[z1;z]; plot(t,delta,"*-r') hold on. end disp(y) dispzl) Hi(pi* freq); delta_t 05; Data Pmax!=1.714 pu 21Pmax2=0,63 pu Pmax3=1.333 pu Power transferred =0.8 pu Fault clearing time =0.125 sees Frequency=50 Hz Exercise 1. Execute the program for step size of 0.001 s. 2. Simulate a sustained fault 3. Determine critical clearing time from direct simulation 21awa Economic Load Dispatch (Matlab) EXPERIMENT 10 a) Economic load dispatch without losses and generator limits included This program is for economic dispatch without losses with generator limits included. The input is given through a file eco_wol_genlit_in, The cost function is given by F=a+bPote P? . Cost coeffecients are read in a matrix in the order c,, b,, a,for each generator in a line Algorithm Read cost coefficients, Power demand, Initial lambda and generator limits from file. Start iteration count = 1 Calculate generator powers using a Pa "der Check for violations of any generator limits. If any limit is violated peg generation at the limit. Calculate AP =P» — (sum of Po.) IfAP is less than tolerance stop. Else Calculate change in 2 in any iteration using APC) Ler Update A"!= 2 + AN? Increment iteration count and go to step 3. Program clear; diary(wer.xt) yl-(l [cost_coeff,PD,Ini_lam,gen_lim]=eco_wol_genlit_in; %Read input from file Delp=100; nlength(cost_coefft:,1)): %Get number of generators lam=Ini_lam; Ylnitial value of Lambda while(abs(Delp)>0.001) iter=iter+1; %Update iteration count for i=l:n P(i)=(lam-cost_coetli2))/(2*cost_coeMMi.1)); %Compute PGi end for i=l:n if (P(i)gen_lim(i,2)) 21P(i)=gen_lim(i,2); end end Protal=sum(P); %Total generation Delp=PD-Ptotal; %Demand - Generation sigma_a=sum(1./(2.*cost_coefi(:,1))); lam=lam+Delp/sigma_a; %Update Lambda y-[iter P Ptotal Delp lam]; ylelyLy} end disp(y1) diary(‘wer.txt') Data file function[cost_coeff,PD,Ini_lam,gen_lim]=eco_wol_genlit_in(); cost_coeff=[0.004 7.2 350 0.0025 7.3 500 0.003 6.74 600); PD=450; Ini_lam=6.0; gen_lim=[125 300 125 300 125 300]; end Excercise Repeat the problem with different values of initial 2 and compare results. Run the program for PD=300 and PD=650. Modify program to display cost of generation. Modify program to compare cost of optimal generation with cost of equal generation, Beye b) Economic Operation with Transmission Losses This program is for economic dispatch with losses. The input is given through a file eco_wol_input. The cost function is given by F=a+bP,+c:Py* . Cost coefficients are read in a matrix with c, b, a, for each generator in a line . The loss (B) coefficients are also read as part of data. The off-diagonal elements of B matrix are neglected. Algorithm 1) Start with an initial estimate 2° 2) Solve for Pd’ Bi herrea 213) Solve for P," (Loss) using P, = [Pe][B][Pol" (dP \) 4) Compute Lae) tor atti, using (ap \ © +68 tal) =. vu \a) : +A) 2€54,) 5) Compute AP® using () AP( y= Pot Pr -aake 6) Compute ar, USE ) APO) ¢ AA > (dP Y Zeal wi da J 7) Mr) = Ar) + AM) 8) Gotostep2 till AP* < € Program clear; diary(‘wer.txt’) yl=[]; [cost_coef,PD,b_coeflam]=eco_wl_in; %Read input from file iter-0; %lteration count = Delp=100; n-length(cost_coef:1)); %Get number of generators b_coefb_coef./100 % Convert B coefficients to MW" while(abs(Delp)>0.001) iter=iter+1; %Update iteration count i_coefti)+am*b_coet{i,i)); PQ)=PICiy/P2Ai); end Ploss =P*b_coef*P'; for i=in 21ml (i)=ci_coef{i)+b_coefli,i)*bi_coef{i); m2(i)=2*(ci_coef{i)+1am*b_coefti,i))*(ci_coef{i) Ham*b_coef(i,i)); m(i)=m1 ()/m2(i); end 21Delp=PD+Ploss-sum(P); Dellam=Delp/sum(m); lam=lam+Dellam; %Update Lambda Protal=sum(P); y-liter P_ Ptotal Delp lam]; yl-lyliyl: end disp(y1) disp(Demand’) Data file funetion{cost_coeff,PD,b- cost_coeff=[0.008 7.0 200 0,009 6.3 180 0.007 6.8 140); ef,lam] PD=500; b_coef=[0.0218 0.0 0.0; 0.0 0.0228 0.0; 0.0 0.0 0.0179:] lam=8; Exe 1. Obtain optimal schedule for the following data: The fuel cost of two plants is given by F1=200+10.333Po,+0,00889P,° Rs/h F2=240+10.833Pc:+0.00741Po# Rs/h Determine the economic schedule to meet a demand of 150MW, corresponding cost and loss. The transmission loss is given by, Ploss=0.001 Po; +0.002 Pos*. 21ALFC Operation (Simulink) EXPERIMENT 11 a) To obtain the step response of an isolated ALFC unit with the following parameters: Ty, = 0.38, Ty = 0.2s, M = 10s (or H=5), D= 10, R = 0.05 For a unit-step decrease in P,, plot the step response and comment on the effect of change in D and R, respectively, if other parameters remain uncha Model: for the given parameters, PAL) eels +20 ‘The steady state frequency deviation for step change in input is, Aw(s)=_=APL =_1.0 _=4.762 x 107 pu=0.23 Hz pela “G* ) The Simulink model for the transfer function is shown below po —Lee] To workspace ‘Step Ao A Scope 7 7 7 f = zsr7 Oss + W5+T8 | to Subtract 1 Governor Turbine Subtract Gen+load Gain=/R 21The step response for D=1 and D=0.5 is as shown below oor St response a 0.08 erat * sons 005 08 Le 3 ‘ 5 6 7 ‘Te (see) The step response for R=5% and R=4% is as shown below Step response Time (sec) b) Transient response of first order approximation of ALFC An isolated control area consists of a SOOMW generator with an inertia constant of H= 5s, with the following parameters: KPS = 100, TPS = 20s, R = 5%, f = 50Hz, TG = 0.45s, TTR = 0.5s. Create the block diagram of the system on simulink and obtain the response of the approximate first order system neglecting the turbine and governor dynamics for a load reduction of 0.1pu. Obtain the step response with the turbine and governor dynamies cosnidered. 21Model The block diagram and the first order approximations are shown in figures (a) and (b) below. AP{s) APS) APril = 1 1 dy 100 | fs) 7 ”| 0.458 14055 | apis) 14205 4 | 5 @ APS) = 6) 100_ | Af(s) Pil) S 1+205 1 5 (b) ‘The transfer function is, Kye sTo)(1+sT (22.5 s+95 s+100) yoo —4P.() Naa rae ye Salas rIAT F209 FAI) The approximate transfer function is obtained by neglecting the turbine and governor dynamics. Itis given by 100 TO) Pees 510 The steady state frequency deviation of the system using the first-order approximation for a reduction in load of 0.1pu is given by, =Him s (= 0.1) x_100 lims 4f(s =10=0.476 Hz 0 ae s (20s+21) 21 The complete dynamic response including the generator and turbine dynami the MATLAB commands given below s is obtained using sys = tf([22.5 95 100], [4.5 19.23 20.95 21]) plot(step(sys)/-10) 21o ° 005 nad “on plete dynamic 1 018 ~02 02 -03 025 aa 4 035 5 04 a -06 05, -07 ‘040 a) a) 45060 With the first order model, the response is exponentially decaying, since we have only one time constant, In both cases, the steady state frequency deviation is -0.476Hz 21Fault scenario simulation(Virtual lab) EXPERIM! a) Fault scenario simulation in a feeder Link: https://sa-nitk. vlabs.ac.in/exp/simulation-feeder/procedure.html Whenever fault happens in a feeder, the circuit breaker placed in the feeder trips due to high fault current, This will alter the loading conditions in the substation, Whenever fault occurs, Alarm will be generated indicating tripping of circuit breaker. Simulate the following conditions: Study the pre-fault condition, Create the Fault on feeder 1 and feeder 2. Observe the breaker position and generated Alarm. Observe the output i.e, current, voltage and power of both the feeders. SAAN Fault scenario simulation in a feeder 7 of =e we zRO THEORY PROCEDURE SELEEVALUATION EINMNIOT ASSIGNMENT REFERENCE VIDEO QUIZ Simulator FAULT IN FEEDER 21b) Fault scenario simulation in a Transformer /Bus Link: https://sa-nitk. vlabs.ac, in/exp/simulation-transformer/procedure.htm| The occurrence of fault in a Transformer or Bus makes the corresponding circuit breaker to open and depending on configuration, the power to feeder load vari Simulate the following conditions: Study the pre-fault condition, Create the Fault on Transformer 1, Transformer 2 and on 33 KV Bus. Observe the respective breaker position. Observe the output i.e, current, voltage and power of all the 3 meters SA8K8 Fault scenario simulation in a Transformer /Bus 7 ¢ Fie = #0 THEORY PROCEDURE SELEEVALUATION [RIMMMUMIOIN ASSIGNMENT REEERENCE VIDEO OUZ —EEEDRACK Simulator FAULT IN TRANSFORMER/BUS 21Modeling of PV module using Simulink EXPERIMENT 13 Model a PV module to plot the I-V and P-V curves for the following three cases: a) with constant I, and I, b) with constant I, and variable [,. ©) with constant I, and variable I,, (Actual PV module model) Main Circuit a) With Constant I, and Ise aH bn8ea Re=023 olin Tou=377B6eI0 Ryn 43665 ohm Ea 1028 slphe= 0403 Kin138e2ae EL. LDer = béel9 Xoo Teen 288K 21b) With Constant I, c) Actual PV Module c ‘nig (E)sceeerctn) densa Ren0.28 alan LynS77ieet0 Ra sascesohm, San ase mune heels ae Nae Tam 208K, Modelling of Actual PV module 1 % p= hanbee |e 1 bef : t Fete euseet9 tale) 21LAB Question Bank Question-1 1. Give the algorithm for determination of bus admittance matrix by direct method. 2. Determine Bus Admittance matrix by direct method for a power system with following data Line No, Line impedance | Half line Off charging | nominal admittance | tap ratio T 14 0.08 + j0.37 0.007 1.0 2 1-6 0.1234j0.518 | 0.010 10 3 23 0.723 + j1.05 0.0 1.09 4 25 0.282 10.64 0.0 10 5 43 0.0 + j0.133 0.0 10 6 46 | 0097+ j0.407 0.0 0.985 7 65 0.0 +j03 0.0 10 Comment on the nature of the Ybus. b, Ifa shunt capacitor of susceptance 0.3 pu is added to the above system at bus no 3, how are the elements modified”. ¢. Ifline no 3 is removed, which elements need to be modified? How are they modified? Question-2 1. Give algorithm to determine bus admittance matrix using singular transformation. 2. Obtain Ybus using singular transformation for the following data. Line R x hile 12 0.05 O15 0.0025 13 On 03 0.03 23 0.15 0.45 0.05 24 0.10 030 00 34 0.05 0.15 0.0125 3. Determine the bus impedance matrix from Ybus. 21Question-3 1. A) Using singular transformation technique, determine Ybus for the given test system using MATLAB Element Seif-Impedance Mutual Impedance No. T 120) 06 = 5 2 13 05, 120) Or 3 3-4 05 5 : 4 122) 04 120) Oz 5 24 02, : : Consider bus 1 as reference bus B) Determine line flows and line losses, using MATLAB, for system with following data Line Bus P Code Q Line Parameters No. Rpu Xpu B?2 pu 3 4 0.02 0.06 (0.03 2 3 T 0.08 0.24 0.025 3 4 7 0.06 O18 0.02 4 4 2 0.06 0.18 (0.02 5 4 3 0.04 0.12 0.015 é 1 2 0.01 0.08 0.01 7 2 3 0.08 0.24 0.025 VIF 1+ 03} V2= 1.01-0.5) V3- 1.05-0.3) V4= 101-05) VS= 1.0.0.0} Question-4 1 For the given system form the Ybus. Draw the one ine diagram of the sys From To x Type 2 7 0.25 1 3 2 0.10 2 4 2 on 2 3 T 0.25 3 3 4 Ol 4 21Question-5 2. Using the available software pak given below, using GS method. Draw the flow chart for the GS method of power flow solution. cage, determine the voltage at all the buses for the data Line data Line No. ] Bus Code Tine parameters P Q R pu X pu B/2 pu T 5 4 0.02 0.06 0.08 2 5 1 0.08 0.24 0.025 3 a I 0.06 0.18 0.02 4 4 2 0.06 0.18 0.02 5 4 3 0.04 0.12 0.015 6 I 2 0.01 0.03 0.01 7 2 3 0.08 0.24 0.025 Bus data Bus | Bus Voltages Generation Load Type No of bus Magnitude | Phase [Real] Reactive [Real] Reactive Angle T : : 0 0 0.45 O15 PQ 2 = 5 0 0 oa 0.05 PQ 3 = 5 0 0 06 0.1 PQ 4 10476 [- of 0.2 O.1 PV, 3 1.06 00 5 : 5 5 slack a) Comment on effect of acceleration factor on the solution. b) If Q limits on bus 4 are imposed such that Qmin = 0.0 pu what is effect on solution? ©) What is the total loss in the system? d) Whatare the line flows? Question-6 1. Load flow analysis using Gauss-Siedel method for both PQ and PV buses, using Matlab. The system has three lines connected between 1-2,1-3 and 2-3. Each line ha and Qmax= 0.5 pu, ries impedance of 0.024j0.08 pu, total shunt admittance of j0.02 pu. The specified quantities of the buses are tabulated below on 100MVA base. Obtain the Bus Voltages. 21Bus | RealLoad | Reactive | Realpower | Reactive Voltage demand —_ | load demand | Gen power Gen —_| Specification Po @ Pe Q T | apa Tpu Unspecified | Unspecified | 1.04 O'slack 2 0 0 05 7 PQ bus 3 [spe O.6pu 0 Ca TOKPVY 2, Inthe above system, the scheduled real power at bus 3 is changed to 1.0pu. Determine the new bus voltages and comment on the results. Question-7 Draw the flow chart for the NR method of power flow solution, 2. Using the available software package, determine the voltage at all the buses for the data given below, using NR method. Line data Line No. | Bus Code Line parameters P Q Rpu Xpu Bi2 pu T 3 4 0.02 0.06 0.08 2 5 1 0.08 0.24 0.025 3 4 I 0.06 0.18 0.02 4 4 2 0.06 0.18 0.02 5 4 3 0.04 0.12 0.015 6 1 z 0.01 0.03 0.01 7 2 3 0.08 0.24 0.025 Bus data Bus | Bus Voltages Generation Load Type No of bus Magnitude | Phase Real Reactive | Real Reactive Angle T 5 5 0 0 045 O15 PQ 2 - - 0 oO 0.4 0.05 PQ 3 = 5 0 0 06) O41 PQ 4 1.0476 - 0.4 - 0.2 OL PV 5 1.06 00, - : : - slack 3. Compare the results with FDLF method. 4. If Q limits on bus 4 are imposed such that Qmin = 0.0 pu and Qmax= 0.5 pu, what is effect on solution? 5. What is the total loss in the system? 6. What are the line flows? 21ion-8 1. For the figure below draw the sequence networks 2. Draw the connections of the sequence networks for a single line to ground fault at bus number 4. 3. Using MiPower, simulate the SLG fault at (i) bus no 4 (fi) bus no 3, Compare the fault currents in the two cases. 4. Analyze the results of the simulation study in terms of sequence currents, line currents and line voltages. 5. Compare the fault currents for SLG and 3-phase symmetrical fault at bus no 3. im QU XX “WU pod l\zoKv bom X= te-\pe Question-9 1. The cost functions of three plants in Rs/h is given by FI= 350 + 7.2 Post 0.004 Pe F2= $00 + 7.3 Port 0.0025 P gt F3= 600 + 6.74 Past 0.003 Pg? The generation is in MW in the above functions. The generator limits are the same for all the plants and given by 125< PG <300 MW Write a program in MATLAB to determine the optimal economic dispatch for a demand of (i) 450 MW (ii) 600 MW using an initial 2 of 6 2. Repeat the problem with another initial value of 4. Comment on the result, 3. Compare the cost of optimal dispatch with that when the demand is shared equally between the plants. Question-10 1. Write a program in MATLAB to obtain optimal economic schedule for the following data: The fuel cost of two plants is given by F1=200+10.333Por#0.00889PRs/h F2=240+10.833P:#0.00741Pc'Rs/h 21The demandis 150MW. The transmission loss is given by Piu=0.001P °40.002P ox? 2. What is the schedule if loss is neglected? 3, Repeat question 1, fora demand of 200MW. Question-11 1. Write the swing equation as two first order differential equations. 2. Give equations for solving the above using modified Euler’s method 3. Write a program in MATLAB to solve the swing equation using Modified Euler’s method with following data. Pmax1=1.714 pu Pmax2=0.63 pu Pmax3=1.333 pu Power transferred =0.8 pu H-5.2 Fault clearing time =0.125 secs Frequeney-50 Hz. 4, Draw the swing curve for two different step Question-12 1. Write the swing equation as two first order differential equations. 2. Give equations for solving the above using RK 4° order method 3. Write a program in MATLAB to solve the swing equation using RK 4° order method with following data. PmaxI=1.714 pu Pmax2=0.63 pu Pmax3=1.333 pu Power transferred =0.8 pu H=5.2 Fault clearing time =0.125 sees Frequency=50 Hz 4, Draw the swing curve for two different step sizes, 21VIVA VOICE 1. What is single line diagram? ‘A single line diagram is a diagrammatic representation of power system in which the components are represented by their symbols and the interconnection between them are shown by a single straight line. 2. What are the components of a power system? The components of a power system are Generators, Power transformers, Transmission lines, ind Loads Substation transformers, Distribution transformers 3. Define per unit value, The per unit value of any quantity is defined as the ratio of actual value of the quantity to base — value of the quantity. Per unit = Actual value / Base value 4, What is the need for base value? The components or various sections of power system may operate at different voltage and power levels, It will be convenient for analysis of power system if the voltage, power, current and impedance ratings of components of power system are expressed with a common value called base value. Hence for analysis purpose a base value is chosen for voltage, power, current and impedance. 5. Write the equation for converting the p.u, impedance expressed in one base to another. Zyv.new = Zp-thoia) * (kV oof KVyota) * (MVAvnew/ MV Asta) 6. What are the advantages of per unit computations? ‘+ manufacturers usually specify the impedance of a device or machine in per unit on the basi + The p.u. values of widely different rating machines lie within a narrow range of the name plate details. eventhough the ohmic values has a very large range. * The p.u. impedance of circuit element connected by a transformer expressed on a proper base will be same if it is referred to either side of a trans * The p.u. impedance of a 3-phase transformer is independent of the type winding connection. former. 7. What are the approximations made in impedance diagram? * The neutral reactances are neglected, * The shunt branches in equivalent circuit of induction motor are neglected. 8, What are the approximations made in reactance diagram? 21+ The neutral reactance are neglected. # The shunt branches in equivalent circuit of induction motor are neglected. stances are neglected, * Allstatic loads and induction motor are neglected. * The capacitances of the transmission lines are neglected. © Theres e the equations for transforming base kV on LV side to HV side and viceversa. Base KV on HT side = Base kV on LT side * (HT voltage rating / LT voltage rating) Base kV on LT side = Base kV on HT side * (LT voltage rating / HT voltage rating) 10. What is a bus? The meeting point of various components in a power system is called a bus. The bus is a conductor made of copper or aluminum having negligible resistance .At some of the buses power is being injected into the network, whereas at other buses it is being tapped by the system loads. 11, What is bus admittance matrix? The matrix consisting of the self and mutual admittance of the network of a power system is alled bus admittance matrix. 12. Name the diagonal and off-diagonal elements of bus admittance matrix. ‘The diagonal elements of bus admittance matrix are called self admittances of the matrix and off-diagonal elements are called mutual admittances of the buses. 13, Methods available for forming bus admittance matrix ‘© Direct inspection method. ‘© Singular transformation method (Primitive network) 14, Write the equation to find the elements of new bus admittance matrix after eliminating n® row and column in a n*n matrix. Yik=Yik-Y, 15, What is bus impedance matrix? The matrix consisting of driving point impedances and transfer impedanc a power system is called bus impedance matrix. of the network of 16. Name the diagonal and off-diagonal elements of bus impedance matrix. The diagonal elements of bus impedance matrix are called driving point impedances of the buses and off-diagonal elements are called transfer impedances of the buses. 17. What are the methods available for forming bus impedances matrix? (1)Form the bus admittances matrix and then take its inverse to get bus impedance matrix. (2)Directly form the bus impedance matrix from the reactance diagram. This method utilizes the techniques of modification of existing bus impedance matrix due to addition of new bus. 2118. Write the four ways of adding an impedance to an existing system so as to modify bus impedance matrix. Case 1:Adding a branch impedance Z, from a new bus P to the reference bus. Case 2:Adding a branch impedance Z, from a new bus P to the existing bus q. Case 3:Adding a branch impedance Z, from a existing bus q to the reference bus. Case 4:Adding a branch impedance Z, between two existing bus h and q. 19. What is off-nominal transformer ratio? When the voltage or turns ratio of a transformer is not used to decide the ratio of base kV then its voltage or turns ratio is called off-nominal turns ratio. 20. Information’s that are obtained from a load flow study? The information obtained from a load flow study is magnitude and phase angle of voltages, real and reactive power flowing in each line and the line losses. The load flow solution also gives the initial conditions of the system when the transient behavior of the system is to be studied. 21, Need for load flow study? The load flow study of a power system is essential to decide the best operation of existing system and for planning the future expansion of the system. It is also essential for designing a new power system, 22. Quantities associated with each bus in a system? ‘h bus in a power system is associated with four quantities and they are real power (P), reactive power (Q), magnitude of voltage (V), and phase angle of voltage (8). 23. Work involved (or) to be performed by a load flow study? (i). Representation of the system by a single line diagram (i). Determining the impedance diagram using the information in single line diagram (iii), Formulation of network equation (iv). Solution of network equations 24. Iterative methods to solve load flow problems: The load flow equations are non linear algebraic equations and so explicit solution as not possible. The solution of non linear equations can be obtained only by iterative numerical techniques. 25, Methods mainly used for solution of load flow study? ‘The Gauss seidal method, Newton Raphson method and Fast decouple methods. 25. What is Flat voltage start? In iterative method of load flow solution, the initial voltages of all buses except slack bus assumed as 1+j0 p.u. This is referred to as flat voltage start 2126.Different types of buses in a power system "Types of bus ‘Known or specified quantities | Unknown quantities oF {quantities to be determined ‘Slack or Swing or Reference ve PQ bus ‘Generator or Vollage contol RV os or PV bus Load or PQ bus FQ va 27. What is the need for slack bus? The slack bus is needed to account for transmission line losses. In a power system the total power generated will be equal to sum of power consumed by loads and losses. In a power system only the generated power and load power are specified for buses. The slack bus is assumed to generate the power required for losses. Since the losses are unknown the real and reactive power are not specified for slack bus. They are estimated through the solution of line flow equations. 28, What is the effect of acceleration factor in load flow study? In load flow solution by iterative methods, the number of iterations can be reduced if the correction voltage at each bus is multiplied by some constant. The multiplication of the constant will increase the amount of correction to bring the voltage closer to the value it is, approaching. The multipliers that accomplish this improved converged are called acceleration factors. An acceleration factor of 1.6 is normally used in load flow problems. 29. When Generator buses are treated as load bus? If the reactive power constraint of a generator bus violates the specified limits then the generator is treated as load bus. 30. Write the most important mode of operation of power system and mention the major problems encountered with it. Symmetrical steady state is the most important mode of operation of power system. Three major problems are encountered in this mode of operation. They are, 1) Load flow problem 2) Optimal load scheduling problem 3) Systems control problem 31. Why power flow analysis is made? Power flow analysis is performed to calculate the magnitude and phase angle of voltages at the buses and also the active power and reactive voltamperes flow for the given terminal or bus conditions. The variables associated with each bus or node are, a, Magnitude of voltage |V| b. Phase angle of voltage 3 ©. Active power, P d. Reactive voltamperes, Q 32, What is power flow study or load flow study? 21The study of various methods of solution to power system network is referred to as load study. The solution provides the voltages at various buses, power flowing in Various lines and line losses. 33. What are the different types of buses in a power system? ‘The buses of a power system can be classified into three types based on the quantities being specified for the buses, which are as follows: a. Load bus or PQ bus (P and Q are specified) b. Generator bus or voltage controlled bus or PV bus (P and V are specified) c. Slack bus or swing bus or reference bus (|V| and 8 are specified) 34, Define voltage controlled bus(generator bus/PV bus). A bus is called voltage controlled bus if the magnitude of voltage [V| and real power (P) are specified for it. In a voltage controlled bus, the magnitude of the voltage is not allowed to change. Voltage controlled bus is also called as Generator bus and PV bus. 35. What is PQ bus(load bus)? A bus is called PQ bus or load bus when real and reactive components of power are specified for the bus. In a load bus, the voltage is allowed to vary within permissible limits. 36. What is swing bus(slack bus/reference bus)? A bus is called swing bus when the magnitude and phase of bus voltage are specified for it. ‘The swing bus is the reference bus for load flow solution and it is required for accounting for the line losses. Usually one of the generator bus is selected as the swing bus, 37.How will you account for voltage controlled buses in the load flow algorithm? The acceleration factor is a real quantity and it modifies the magnitude of bus voltage alone Since in voltage controlled bus, the magnitude of bus voltage is not allowed to change, the acceleration factor is not used for voltage controlled bus. 38, Why do we go for iterative methods to solve load flow problems? The load (or power) flow equations are nonlinear algebraic equations and so explicit solution is not possible, The solution of nonlinear equations can be obtained only by iterative numerical techniques. 39. When the generator bus is treated as load bus? What will be the reactive power and bus voltage when the generator bus is treated as load bus? If the reactive power of a generator bus violates the specified limits, then the generator bus is treated as load bus. The reactive power of that particular bus is equated to the limit it has violated and the previous iteration value of bus voltage is used for calculating current iteration value. 40. What are the advantages of Gauss-Seidel method? ‘The advantages of Gauss-Seidel method are, 21a, Calculations are simple and so the programming task is less b. ‘The memory requirement is less c. Useful for small systems. 41. What are the disadvantages of Gauss-Seidel method? ‘The disadvantages of Gauss-Seidel method are, a. Requires large number of iterations to reach convergence. b. Not suitable for large systems. ©. Convergence time increases with size of the system 42. How approximation is performed in Newton-Raphson method? In Newton-Raphson method, the set of non-linear simultaneous (load flow) equations are approximated to a set of linear simultaneous equations using Taylor’s series expansion and the terms are limited to first order approximation, 43. What is Jacobian matrix? How the elements of Jacobian matrix are computed? ‘The matrix formed from the derivates of load flow equations is called Jacobian matrix and it is denoted by J. The elements of Jacobian matrix will change in every iteration. In each iteration, the elements of the Jacobian matrix are obtained by partially differentiating the load flow equations with respect o unknown variable and then evaluating the first derivates using the solution of previous iteration. 44, What are the advantages of Newton-Raphson method? The advantages of Newton-Raphson method are, a. This load flow method is faster, more reliable and he results are accurate, b, Requires less number of iterations for convergence. c. The number of iterations are independent of the size of the system. 4. Suitable for large system. 45, What are the disadvantages of Newton-Raphson method? The disadvantages of Newton-Raphson method are, a, Programming is more complex. b. The memory requirement is more. ¢. Computational time per iteration is higher due to larger number of calculations per iteration. 46. Mention (any) three advantages of N-R method over G-S method? The three advantages of N-R method over G-S method are, a. The N-R method has quadratic convergence characterist than G-S method. b. The number of iterations for convergence is independent of the system in N-R method. and so converges faster 21c. InN-R method, the convergence is not affected by the choice of slack bus, 47.Compare G-S method and N-R methods of load flow solutions. G-S method N-R method 1. The variables are expressed in 1. Variables are expressed in polar co- rectangular co-ordinates. ordinates. 2. Computation time per iteration is | 2. Computation time per iteration is, k more 3. It has quadratic convergence 3. Ithas linear convergence characteristics characteristics. 4,The number of iterations are independent of the size of the system. 4. The number of iterations required . ‘ for convergence increase with size of | 5 TBS choice of slack bus i arbitrary. the system. 5.The choice of slack bus is critical, 48. How the convergence of N-R method is speeded up? The convergence can be speeded up in N-R method by using Fast Decoupled Load Flow (EDLF) algorithm, In FDLF method, the weak coupling between P-5 and Q-V are decoupled and then the equations are further simplified using the knowledge of practical operating conditions of a power system. 49, How the disadvantages of N-R method are overcome? The disadvantage of large memory requirement can be overcome by decoupling the weak coupling between P-5 and Q-V (i.e., using decoupled load flow algorithm). The disadvantage of large computational time per iteration can be reduced by simplifying the decoupled load flow equations. The simplifications are based on the practical operating conditions of a power system. 50, Define primitive network. Primitive network is a set of unconnected elements which provides information re wrding the characteristics of individual elements only. The performance equations of primitive network are given below. V+E=ZI (In Impedance form) I +J= YV (In Admittance form) where V and I are the element voltage and current vectors respectively J and E are source vectors. Zand Y are the primitive Impedance and Admittance matrices respectively 51. Explain bus incidence matrix, For the specific system, we can obtain the following relation (relation between element voltage and bus voltage). V=AVaus where A is the bus incidence matrix, which is a rectangular and singular matrix. Its elements are found as per the following rules, a= 1, if * element is incident to and oriented away from the k® node (bus). 211, if clement is incident to but oriented towards the k® node, = 0, if i clement is not incident to the k* node. 52. What is bus admittance matrix? The matrix consisting of the self and mutual admittance of the power system network is called bus admittance matrix. Its given by the admittance matrix Y in the node basis matrix equation of a power system and itis denoted as Y,,,.. Bus admittance matrix is a symmetrical matrix. 53. Write the equation for the bus admittance matrix. The equation for bus admittance matrix is, where You = Bus admittance matrix of order (nxn ) = Bus voltage matrix of order (1x1) T= Current source matrix of order (n x1) n= Number of independent buses in the system 54, Mention the advantages of bus admittance matrix, Y, i) Data preparation is simple. ii) Formation and modification is easy. iii) Since the bus admittance matrix is sparse matrix(i.e., most of its elements are zero), the computer memory requirements are less. 55, Explain the requirements of planning the operation of a power system. Planning the operation of a power system requires load studies, fault calculations, the design of means for protecting the system against lightning and switching surges and against short circuits, and studies of the stability of the system. 56, Define steady state operating condition. A power system is said to be in a steady state operating condition, if all the measured(or calculated) physical quantities describing the operating condition of the system can be considered constant for the purpose of analysi 57. What is a disturbance and what are the two types of disturbances? Ifa sudden change or sequence of changes occurs in one or more of the system parameters or one or more of its operating quantities, the system is said to have undergone a disturbance from its steady state operating condition. The two types of disturbances in a power system are, i) Large disturbance ii) Small disturbance 58. What is a small disturbance? Give example, If the power system is operating in a steady state condition and it undergoes change, which can be properly analyzed by linearized versions of its dynamic and algebraic equations, a small disturbance is said to have occurred. Example of small disturbance is a change in the gain of the automatic voltage regulator in the excitation system of a large generating unit 59. What is a large disturbance? Give some examples. A large disturbance is one for which the nonlinear equations describing the dynamics of the power system cannot be validly linearized for the purpose of analysis. 21Examples of large disturbances are transmission system faults generating units and line switching, sudden load changes, loss of 60. When is a power system said to be steady-state stable? ‘The power system is steady state stable for a particular steady-state operating condition if, following a small disturbance, it returns to essentially the same steady state condition of operation, 61. When is a power system said to be transiently stable? If the machines of the system are found to remain essentially in synchronism within the first second following a system fault or other large disturbance, the system is considered to be transiently stable. 62. What is transient state of the power system? The state of the system in the first second following a system fault or large disturban; called the transient state of the power system. 63.Define per unit value of any electrical quantity The per unit value of any electrical quantity is defined as the ratio of the actual value of the quantity to its base value expressed as a decimal. Perunitvalue = Actual value Base value 64. What are the quantities whose base values are required to represent the power system by reactance diagram? The base value of voltage, current, power and impedance are required to represent the power system by reactance diagram. Selection of base values for any two of them determines the base values of the remaining two. Usually the base values of voltage and power are chosen in kilovolt and kVA or mVA respectively. The base values of current and impedance are calculated using the chosen bases. 65. What is the need for base values? ‘The components of various sections of power system may operate at different voltage and power levels. It will be convenient for analysis of power system if the voltage, power, current and impedance ratings of power system components are expressed with reference to a common value called base value. Then all the voltages, power, current and impedance ratings of the components are expressed as a percent or per unit of the base value. 66. List the advantages of per unit computations. (1) The per unit impedance referred to either side of a single phase transformer is the same. (2) The per unit impedance referred to either side of a three phase transformer is the same regardless of the three phase connections whether they are Y-Y, A-A or A-Y (3) The chance of confusion between the line and phase quantities in a three phase balanced system is greatly reduced, (4) The manufacturers usually provide the impedance values in per unit. (5) The computational effort in power system is very much reduced with the use of per unit quantities. 2167. What are the factors that affect the transient stability? The transient stability is generally affected by two factors namely, L.Type of fault 2. Location of fault. st the methods of improving the transient stability limit of a power system. Increase of system voltage, use of AVR. 2.Use of high speed excitation s 3. Reduction in system transfer r 4,Use of high speed reclosing breakers, 69. What is meant by stability study? The procedure of determining the stability of a system upon occurrence of a disturbance followed by various switch off and switch on actions is called a stability study. 70. What is meant by short circuit fault? Short circuit faults involve power conductor or conductors-to-ground or short circuit between conductors. These faults are characterized by increase in current and fall in voltage and frequency. 71.What is a reactor? Reactor is a coil, which has high inductive reactance as compared to its resistance and is used to limit the short circuit current during fault conditions. 72. What is meant by a fault? A fault in a circuit is any failure which interrupts with the normal flow of current. The faults are associated with abnormal change in current, voltage and frequency of the power system, ‘The faults may cause damage to the equipments, if it is allowed to persist for a long time. 73.Give the reason for faults in power system? Faults occur in a power system due to insulation failure of equipments, flashover of lines initiated by a lightening stroke, permanent damage to conductors and towers or accidental faulty operations. 74, List the various types of symmetrical and unsymmetrical faults. Symmetrical fault: Three phase fault Unsymmetrical faults: Single line-to-ground fault 2.Line-to-line fault 3.Double line-to-ground fault 75.For a fault at a given location, rank the various faults in the order of severity. In a power system, the most severe fault is three phase fault and less severe fault is open conductor fault. The various faults in the order of decreasing severity are, 1.3 phase fault 2)Double line-to-ground fault 3)Line-to-line fault 214)Single line-to-ground fault 5)Open conductor fault 76. What is meant by fault calculations? The fault condition of a power system can be divided into subtransient, transient, and steady state periods. The currents in the various parts of the system and in the fault locations are different in these periods. The estimation of these currents for various types of faults at various locations in the system is commonly referred to as fault calculations. 77. What is synchronous reactance? ‘The synchronous reactance is the ratio of induced emf and the steady state rms current (i.e,, it is the reactance of a synchronous machine under steady state condition). It is the sum of leakage reactance and the reactance representing armature reaction. It is given by, XaX +X Where, X, = Synchronous reactance X= Leakage reactance X,= Armature reaction reactance. 78.Define subtransient reactance. The subtransient reactance is the ratio of induced emf on no-load and the subtransient symmetrical ms current, (ie, itis the reactance of a synchronous machine under subtransient condition). 79. Define transient reactance The transient reactance is the ratio of induced emf on no-load and the transient symmetrical rss current. (ie.,it is the reactance of synchronous machine under transient condition). 80. What is the significance of subtransient reactance and transient reactance in short circuit studies? ‘The subtransient reactance can be used to estimate the initial value of fault current immediately on the occurrence of the fault, The maximum momentary short circuit current rating of the circuit breaker used for protection or fault clearing should be less than this initial fault current. The transient reactance is used to estimate the transient state fault current, Most of the breakers open their contacts only during this period. Therefore for a circuit breaker used for fault clearing (or protection), its interrupting short circuit current rating should be less than the transient fault current. X, = Direct axis transient reactance =RMS voltage from one terminal to neutral at no load. 81. Write the equation for subtransient and transient internal voltage of the generator. The equation for subtransient internal voltage is, Eg" =Vt+jLXa" 21Transient internal voltage is, Fg'=VitjIL Xd" where E,’ = Subtransient internal voltage of generator = Transient internal voltage of generator V, = Terminal voltage l oad current X,' Direct axis subtransient reactance X¢ =Direct axis transient reactance 82. Write the equation for subtransient and transient internal voltage of the motor. The equation for subtransient internal voltage is, 1-jILX a" Transient internal voltage is, Em'=Vt-jILX d's where E ” = Subtransient internal voltage of generator E” = Transient internal voltage of generator Vi'= Terminal voltage I oad current Xi irect axis subtransient reactance X¢ =Direct axis transient reactance 83, Define doubling effect and DC off-set current. Doubling effect: Ifa symmetrical fault occurs when the voltage wave is going through zero then the maximum momentary short circuit current will be double the value of maximum symmetrical short circuit current, This effect is called doubling effect. DC off-set current: ‘The unidirectional transient component of short circuit current is called DC offset current, 84, Differentiate between subtransient and transient reactance. Subtransient reactance Transient reactance 1) This is the ratio of induced emf and} 1) This is the ratio of induced emf and subtransient current. transient current. 2) Flux created by induced currents in] 2) ‘There is no damper winding and the damper winding is included. hence no flux is created. 3) This is the smallest reactance among] 3) This is larger than the subtransient the reactance values. reactance, 4) This cannot be extrapolated. 4) This can be extrapolated backwards in time 85. What are symmetrical components? 21An unbalanced system of N related vectors can be resolved into N systems of balanced, vectors called symmetrical components. Positive sequence components Negative sequence component Zero sequence components. 86. Write the symmetrical components of three phase system. Ina 3-phase system, the three unbalanced vectors (either current or voltage vectors) can be resolved into three balanced system of vectors. They are, 1) Positive sequence components 2) Negative sequence components 3) Zero sequence components. 87. Define negative sequence and zero sequence components. Negative sequence components consist of three phasors equal in magnitude, displaced from each other by 120° in phase, and having the phase sequence opposite to that of the original phasors. Vi, Vis and Vio are the negative sequence components of V,, V, and v.. Zero sequence components consist of three phasors equal in magnitude and with zero phase displacement from each other, V.., Vi. and V., are the zero sequence components of V,, V. and Ve 88, How do you classify steady state stability limit, Define them. Depending on the nature of the disturbance, the steady state stability limit is classified into, a. Static stability limit refers to steady state stability limit that prevails without the aid of regulating devices. b. Dynamic stability limit refers to steady state stability limit prevailing in an unstable system with the help of regulating devices such as speed governors, voltage regulators, ete. 89, What are the machine problems seen in the stability study. 1. Those having one machine of finite inertia machines swinging with respect to an infinite bus 2. Those having two finite inertia machines swinging with respect to each other. 90. Give the expression for swing equat mn, Explain each term along with their units. Where H = Inertia constant in MJ/MVA. f = Frequency in Hz. M= Inertia constant in p.u. P.= Mechanical power input to the system (neglecting mechanical losses) in p.u.P. = Electrical power output of the system (neglecting electrical losses) in p. 91. What are the assumptions made in solving swing equation? 211) Mechanical power input to the machine remains constant during the period of electromechanical transient of interest. 2) Rotor speed changes are insignificant that had already been ignored in formulating the swing equations. 3) Effect of voltage regulating loop during the transient are ignored. 92. Define swing curve. What is the use of swing curve? The swing curve is the plot or graph between the power angle 6, and time, t. It is usually plotted for a transient state to study the nature of variation in for a sudden large disturbance. From the nature of variations of 8, the stability of a system for any disturbance can be determined. 93. Give the control schemes included in stability control techniques? The control schemes included in the stability control techniques are: a, Excitation systems Turbine valve control c.Single pole operation of circuit breakers Faster fault clearing times 94, What are the systems design strategies aimed at lowering system reactance? The system design strategies aimed at lowering system reactance are: a. Minimum transformer reactance b.Series capacitor compensation of lines c.Additional transmission lines. 95. What are coherent machines? (APR/MAY 2004) Machines which swing together are called coherent machines. When both ws and 6 are expressed in electrical degrees or radians, the swing equations for coherent machines can be combined together even though the rated speeds are different. This is used in stability studies involving many machines. 96. State equal area criterion. (NOV/DEC 2004) Ina two machine system under the usual assumptions of constant input , no damping and constant voltage being transient reactance , the angle between the machines either increases or else, after all disturbances have occurred oscillates with constant amplitude. There is a simple graphical method of determining whether the system comes to rest with respect to cach other. This is known as equal area criterion 97. What are various faults that increase severity of equal area criterion? The various faults that increases severity of equal area criterion are, A Single line to ground fault A Line to line fault ‘A Double line to ground fault A Three phase fault 2198. List the types of disturbances that may occur in a single machine infinite bus bar system of the equal area criterion stability The types of disturbances that may oc Sudden change in mechanical input Effect of clearing time on stability Sudden loss of one of parallel lines Sudden short circuit on one of parallel lines i) Short circuit at one end of line ii) Short circuit away from line ends iii) Reclosure 99, Define critical clearing angle The critical clearing angle Bcc is the maximum allowable change in the power angle 5 before clearing the fault , without loss of synchronism. 100. Define critical clearing time. The critical clearing time , tec can be defined as the maximum time delay that can be allowed to clear a fault without loss of synchronism . The time corresponding to the critical clearing angle is called critical clearing time tec. 101. What are the assumptions that are made inorder to simplify the computational task in stability studies? ‘The assumptions are, + The D.C offset currents and harmonic components are neglected. The currents and voltages are assumed to have fundamental component alone. + The symmetrical components are used for the representation of unbalanced faults, + It is assumed that the machine speed variations will not affect the generated voltage. 102. What is Multimachine stability? Ifa system has any number of machines, then each machine is listed for stability by advancing the angular position, 3 of its internal voltage and noting whether the electric power output of the machine increases (or) decreases. If it increases, i.e if @Pn/@5n>0 then machine n is stable. If every machine is stable, then the system having any number of machine is stab) 103. What is meant by an infinite bus? 21The connection or disconnection of a single small machine on a large system would not affect the magnitude and phase of the voltage and frequency. Such a system of constant voltage and constant frequency regardless of the load is called infinite bus bar system or infinite bus. 104. List the assumptions made in multimachine stability studies. The assumptions made are, + The mechanical power input to cach machine remains constant during the entire period of the swing curve computation + Damping power is negligible + Each machine may be represented by a constant transient reactance in series with a constant transient voltage + The mechanical rotor angle of each machine coincid phase angle of the transient internal voltage. with 3 , the electrical 105, Explain the concept synchronous speed. ‘The mechanical torque Tm and the electrical torque Te are considered positive for synchronous generator. Tm is the resultant shaft torque which tends to accelerate the rotor in the positive 6m direction of rotation . Under steady-state operation of the generator Tm and Te are equal and the accelerating torque Ta is zero. Hence there is no acceleration of deceleration of the rotor, masses and the resultant constant speed is the synchronous speed. 21