Biol Trace Elem Res (2013) 151:187–194
DOI 10.1007/s12011-012-9561-z
Relationship Between Mercury Levels in Hair and Fish
Consumption in a Population Living Near a Hydroelectric
Tropical Dam
José Luis Marrugo-Negrete & Javier Alonso Ruiz-Guzmán &
Sergi Díez
Received: 21 August 2012 / Accepted: 25 November 2012 / Published online: 15 December 2012
# Springer Science+Business Media New York 2012
Abstract In the present study, total mercury (T-Hg) concen-
trations were assessed in human hair samples (n076) and fish
muscle (n033) collected at Urrá dam, upstream Sinú river,
northwestern Colombia. Based on interviews with study partic-
ipants, weekly intakes of total mercury (WIT-Hg) and methyl-
mercury (WIMeHg) by fish consumption were also estimated.
T-Hg concentrations in hair samples ranged from 0.40 to
24.56 μg/g dw. The highest concentrations were recorded in
children (CH) (2–15 years old, n024) with significant differ-
ences (p<0.05) with respect to women of childbearing age
(WCHA) (16–49 years old, n029) and the rest of the popula-
tion (RP) (n023), which were not significantly different. The
highest T-Hg concentrations in muscle tissue were recorded in
the carnivorous fish (0.65-2.25 μg/g wet weight, ww), with
significant differences (p<0.05) compared to non-carnivorous
fish (0.16–0.54 μg/g ww). WIT-Hg recorded the highest values
in CH (2.18–50.41 μg/kg/week), with significant differences (p
<0.05) with respect to WCHA (2.02–23.54 μg/kg/week) and
J. L. Marrugo-Negrete : J. A. Ruiz-Guzmán
Water, Applied and Environmental Chemistry Group, Laboratory
Toxicology and Environmental Management,
University of Córdoba, Montería, Colombia
J. A. Ruiz-Guzmán
e-mail: javierr_ruiz@hotmail.com
S. Díez
Department of Environmental Chemistry, Institute of
Environmental Assessment and Water Research (IDÆA),
Spanish National Research Council (CSIC), Madrid, Spain
e-mail: sergi.diez@idaea.csic.es
J. L. Marrugo-Negrete (*)
Córdoba University, Laboratory Toxicology and Environmental
Management, University of Córdoba, Cra 6 #76-103 Montería,
354 Montería, Colombia
e-mail: jlmarrugon@hotmail.com
RP (1.09–24.71 μg/kg/week), which were not significantly
different. Correlation analysis showed a significant relationship
between weekly fish consumption and hair T-Hg in CH (r0
0.37, p<0.05) and WCHA (r00.44, p<0.05). This association
was also observed with the number of days per week with fish
consumption in CH (r00.37, p<0.05) and WCHA (r00.45, p<
0.05). These results suggest that Hg exposure in people inhabit-
ing the Urrá dam should be carefully monitored, particularly in
vulnerable groups such as CH and WCHA.
Keywords Mercury . Colombia . Children . Health risk .
Weekly intake . Women childbearing age
Introduction
Among non-radioactive metals, mercury (Hg) is the most
toxic. The Hg has potent neurotoxicity to wildlife and
humans, and its main target is the central nervous system
[1]. Since Hg is bioaccumulated in the food web, high Hg
concentrations are found in the highest trophic levels, includ-
ing carnivorous fish [2]. In humans, fish consumption is the
main source of Hg exposure. The discharge of industrial and
mining wastes into aquatic systems and the construction of
hydroelectric dams have led to increases of Hg in fish to levels
that are frequently higher than those considered safe for hu-
man consumption [1, 2]. It is common to find increases of Hg
levels in fish in dams because the Hg released from flooded
soils and decomposing vegetation becomes bio-available for
uptake by fish [3], additionally the dams can function as
mercury traps from atmospheric depositions and runoff from
punctual or diffuse sources, which endangers the health of
human populations that consume these fish.
In humans, the effects of mercury on health have been
evident in the massive intoxications in Minamata, Japan,
188
arising from consumption of contaminated fish in 1956 [4],
and in Iraq in 1971–1972 from the consumption of
fungicide-treated seed grain [5]. Those catastrophic events
generated worldwide investigations of mercury. It is now
known that high exposure to organic methylmercury
(MeHg) the most toxic form, affects sensory, visual, and
auditory functions, as well as the cerebellum’s role in motor
coordination [6]. Human fetuses and infants are especially
susceptible to MeHg because of the high vulnerability of the
developing nervous system to toxicant exposures [7].
Blood and hair Hg concentrations are used as biomarkers
for MeHg in both the adult and fetal brain, although each
provides a somewhat different indication of exposure [8]. In
fact, the concentration in scalp hair is about 250 times the
corresponding concentration in blood [9] and reflects the
average exposure over the growth period of the hair segment
(growth rate is about 1 cm/month), whereas blood gives an
estimate of exposure over the most recent 3–4 months.
Whether hair or blood is a better indicator of fetal brain
exposure has been debated for several years [8, 9], but both
materials provide reliable information.
Although there is evidence that gold mining activity
contaminates freshwater ecosystems and riverside popula-
tions in the north of Colombia [10–14], there are no studies
available on the hair Hg concentrations related to the influ-
ences of dams. Based on knowledge from North America,
Brazil, and northern Europe and given the large releases of
Hg to the environment in Colombia in combination with the
fast development of hydropower, this issue deserves more
attention.
The purpose of this investigation was to measure, for the
first time, the concentration of T-Hg in hair samples of
riverine inhabitants that consume fish from a reservoir
formed by a large hydroelectric dam in Colombia, and to
study relationships between hair Hg concentrations and fish
consumption.
Methods and Materials
Study Area
The Urrá hydroelectric dam is located in northwestern
Colombia, between 8°00′56″N–76°12′45″W and 7°49′51″
N–76°18′55″W (Fig. 1). The dam was filled in the year
2000 with waters from the Sinú River’s 4,600-km-long
basin. It has a flooding capacity of 7,400 ha, a useful
capacity of 1,740 million m3, and an average depth of
23.5 m [15]. The dam’s direct area of influence encompasses
the several rural villages of the municipality of Tierralta,
with an aggregated population approximately 425 families
(around 2,000 inhabitants) [16]. Additionally, the flooding
area of dam includes 417 ha of indigenous land Embera
Marrugo-Negrete et al.
Katío of upper Sinú, which after building the reservoir,
constituted two reservations in their traditional land: Kare-
gaví (Emerald and Sinú rivers) and Iwagadó (along the
Green river) (Fig. 1). The Karegaví reserve has ≈1,549
inhabitants and Iwagadó ≈750 inhabitants [17].
Sampling Methods
In November 2008, 76 residents of the area of influence of
the Urrá dam were randomly contacted and invited to par-
ticipate in the study. All participants were fully informed
about the purposes and limitations of the study and provided
a written consent in Spanish. The study protocol was ap-
proved by the Ethics Committee of Health Department from
University of Córdoba-Colombia. At the time of hair sam-
pling, a questionnaire was administered to the providers of
hair samples (after their consent) to collect information on
their age, weight, gender, and food habits, among other
information.
Samples were taken from the inferior occipital region,
very close to the scalp, the proximal and distal zones of the
samples with respect to the cranium were identified, and the
samples were stored in envelopes properly labeled for trans-
port to the lab [18, 19]. Once in the lab, hair samples were
washed with neutral detergents, rinsed with distilled water,
dried at room temperature [20] and stored in a desiccator
until they were analyzed for T-Hg. The sampling population
was divided into three population groups with the following
features: children (CH) (2–15 years old), women of child-
bearing age (WCHA) (16–49 years old) and rest of the
population (RP), to assess if differences exist between their
T-Hg concentration in hair.
Five different fish species in the Urrá dam that are in-
cluded in the diets of local residents were evaluated. Sam-
ples of these two carnivorous (n 015) and three non-
carnivorous (n018) fish species were collected during a
fishing campaign with local fishermen. The evaluated fish
species in this study represented 70.1 % of the total fish
capture of the dam in the year 2005 [15]. Captured fish were
stored at 4 °C into portable refrigerators while transported to
the laboratory. Fish were then measured and a sample of
their dorsal muscle was taken and stored at −20 °C until T-
Hg analysis.
Mercury Measurements
Atomic absorption spectroscopy in cold vapor was used to
measure T-Hg concentrations in hair and fish samples, fol-
lowing the procedure described by Sadiq et al. [21]. The
analysis was conducted in a Thermo Electron AAS series 4
(Thermo Electron Corporation, United Kingdom). Hair
samples (30–50 mg) and fish samples (500 mg) were
digested with a 2:1v/v mixture of H2SO4/HNO3 at 100–
Relationship Between Mercury Levels in Hair and Fish Consumption 189

Fig. 1 Geographical location 76°20’ W 76°16’ W 76°12’ W 76°08’ W

of the Urrá hydroelectric dam. Sinú River
Adapted from [15] Dam
Road

8°00’ N
7°56’ N
Córdoba

COLOMBIA

7°52’ N
7°48’ N

Green Sinú
River River

N Manso
7°44’ N

Emerald
River
River

0 8 km

110 °C for 2 and 3 h, respectively. The limit of detection Statistical Analysis

(three standard deviations of the mean of 10 blank measure-
ments) was 100 ng/g for hair and 14 ng/g for fish. Certified
reference materials for quality control were used. The mea-
sured T-Hg concentration in the certified material for hair
(CRM-397 from Community Bureau of Reference, certified
value012.3±0.5 μg/g dry weight, dw) was 11.8±0.31 μg/g
dw. For fish, the measured T-Hg concentration in the certi-
fied material (DORM-2 dogfish muscle from National Re-
search Council Canada, certified value04.6±0.26 μg/g dw)
was 4.54±0.05 μg/g dw. The percent recovery for CRM-
397 and DORM-2 was 95.9 and 97.8 %, respectively.
Weekly Intake
The weekly intake of T-Hg (WIT-Hg) was estimated based
This is an exploratory study where T-Hg concentrations were
tested for normality and were not normally distributed based on
the Kolmogorov–Smirnov normality test (p<0.05). Accordingly,
the analyses were conducted by non-parametric tests: Kruskal–
Wallis and Dunn post-KW tests were used to study differences in
hair T-Hg concentrations and fish consumption between popula-
tion groups. A Kolmogorov–Smirnov Test was used to study
differences in T-Hg concentrations between carnivorous and
non-carnivorous fish. The relationships between hair T-Hg and
25
b
20
a b
T-Hg (ug/g dw)

in the equation described in UNEP [6]: WIT-Hg0[(kilogram 15

of weekly fish consumed)×(microgram of T-Hg/kilogram of
fish)]/(kilogram of body weight of exposed people), where
WIT-Hg is the estimated weekly intake of T-Hg per kilo-
gram of body weight of exposed people. Additionally, the
weekly intake of methylmercury (WIMeHg) assuming that
the MeHg corresponds to 85 % of T-Hg concentration
present in fish muscle was estimated. This value was based
on a previous study in other Colombian’s ecosystem with
similar fish species that showed MeHg proportions between
80.5 and 98.1 % of T-Hg in muscle tissue [12]. The WIT-Hg
and WIMeHg were estimated for each population group
(CH, WCHA, and RP) in two consumption scenarios of:
(a) considering all species evaluated and (b) considering
only non-carnivorous.
10
5
0
CH WCHA RP
Fig. 2 T-Hg concentrations in hair samples of riverine inhabitant from
Urrá dam, Colombia. CH children, WCHA women of childbearing age,
RP rest of the population. The lower and upper margins of the box
represent the 25th and 75th percentiles (middle 50 % of distribution),
with the extended arms representing the 25 % upper and lower of
distribution, excluding outliers (asterisks). The median is shown as
the horizontal line within the box. Different letters indicate significant
differences (Dunn test, p<0.05)
190 Marrugo-Negrete et al.

Fig. 3 a Number of day per 900

week with fish consumption
800
(NDWFC), b number of meal
with fish per day, c amount of 700
fish consumed weekly (AFCW).
CH children, WCHA women of 600

AFCW (g)
childbearing age, RP rest of the 500
population. Different letters
indicate significant differences 400
(Dunn test, p<0.05) 300

200 a
a a c
100
CH WCHA RP

7 3

5 a a a
NDWFC

NMFD
4 2

2
a
a a a b
1 1

CH WCHA RP CH WCHA RP

fish consumption, and T-Hg concentrations in muscle tissue and
length of fish, were performed using Spearman correlation.
Statistical significance was set at p<0.05. Statistical analysis
was performed using SPSS 17.0 and MINITAB 16.0.
Results
The T-Hg concentrations in hair samples of riverine inhab-
itants of Urrá dam are shown in Fig. 2. The highest concen-
trations were recorded in CH (0.40–24.56 μg/g dw) with
significant differences with respect to WCHA (1.88–
18.20 μg/g dw) and RP (1.37–22.84 μg/g dw), which were
not significantly different (KW06.13, p00.04).
Figure 3 and Table 1 present a summary of the question-
naire regarding the number of days per week with fish
consumption (NDWFC), number of meals per day with fish
(NMDF), amount of fish consumption weekly (AFCW), and
range of age. The data shown in Fig. 4 show the WIT-Hg
and WIMeHg estimated for each population group (CH,
WCHA, and RP) in two considered fish consumption sce-
narios. Based on the information previously collected in the
study area (data not shown), a fish intake of 85 g/meal for
children and 100 g/meal in the other groups were assumed.
There are not significant differences between the differ-
ent population groups in NDWFC (KW 03.32, p00.19),
NMDF (KW00.21, p00.89), and AFCW (KW03.23, p0
0.19). On the other hand, WI recorded the highest value in
children in the two consumer scenarios: (a) (KW018.69, p<
0.001) and (b) (KW018.69, p<0.001), with significant dif-
ferences with respect to WCHA and RP, which were not
significantly different from each other.
Correlation analyses between T-Hg concentrations in hair
samples and NDWFC as well as AFCW for each population

Table 1 Age distribution of the

study participants CH (2–15 years old) WCHA (16–49 years old) Rest of the population

Age No. of individuals Age No. of individuals Age No. of individuals

2–5 5 16–26 3 16–26 5

6–10 7 27–37 17 27–37 3
11–15 12 38–49 9 38–48 8
CH children, WCHA women of ≥49 7
childbearing age, RP rest of the n 24 29 23
population
Relationship Between Mercury Levels in Hair and Fish Consumption 191

Fig. 4 Weekly intake of total 18

mercury (WIT-Hg) and 40 a 16 b
methylmercury (WIMeHg) es-
timated for a sample of riverine 14

WIMeHg a(ug/kg/week)
WIMeHg (ug/kg/week)
inhabitants from Urrá dam, in 30 a 12 a
b b b
different scenarios of fish con- b
10
sumption: a considering the
consumption of all evaluated 20 8
fish species; b considering only 6
the consumption of the non- 10 4
carnivorous fish species. CH
children, WCHA women of 2 1,6
childbearing age, RP rest of the 1,6
0 0
population. Different letters in- CH WCHA RP CH WCHA RP
dicate significant differences
(Dunn test, p<0.05) 90 35
80 a 30 b
70
a a

WIT-Hg (ug/kg/week)
WIT-Hg (ug/kg/week)

25
60
50 20
40 b b 15 b b
30
10
20
10 5
1,6 1,6
0 0
CH WCHA PT CH WCHA RP

group are presented in Table 2. In both cases, significant
positive correlations (p<0.05) were obtained between these
variables regardless of the group evaluated, except for the
rest of the population group. No significant correlations
were found between T-Hg concentrations in hair samples
and gender (r0−0.03, p00.77) or age (r0−0.13, p00.26).
Table 3 presents the characteristic of length, food feed-
ing, and T-Hg concentrations in the fish species evaluated.
Fish were classified as carnivorous and non-carnivorous,
based on studies of the food habits for these same species
in the Urrá dam and Sinú river basin [22–25]. The highest T-
Hg concentration was recorded in the carnivorous fish
(0.65–2.25 μg/g wet weight, ww), with significant differ-
ences (p<0.05) regarding to non-carnivorous fish (0.16–
0.54 μg/g ww). Significant strong positive correlation was
recorded between length and T-Hg concentrations of carniv-
orous fish (r00.93, p<0.001), whereas no correlation was
obtained for these variables in non-carnivorous fish (r0
0.39, p00.10). When the data were analyzed together, a
significant positive correlation was recorded between these
variables (r00.54, p<0.05).
Discussion
The highest T-Hg concentration in hair samples of CH can
be explained in relation to WIT-Hg, regarding WCHA and
RP. Taking into account that there are no differences in the
NDWFC, NMDF, and AFCW, which represents undifferen-
tiated fish consumption between this population groups, the
highest WIT-Hg in CH, is the result of their lower body
mass with respect to WCHA and RP.
Children are particularly vulnerable to Hg exposure. Al-
though there is no clear evidence to establish safety limits
regarding their Hg intakes, it is known that children less
than 17 years old are less sensitive neurologically than

Table 2 Correlation analyses between T-Hg concentrations in hair samples and number of day per week with fish consumption (NDWFC) and
amount of fish consumed weekly (AFCW), for riverside inhabitant from Urrá dam, Colombia

Correlated variables Children Women of childbearing age Rest of population General

r n r n r n r n

[T-Hg] hair: NDWFC 0.37** 24 0.44* 29 −0.12 ns 23 0.37** 76

[T-Hg] hair: AFCW 0.37** 24 0.45* 29 0.07 ns 23 0.38** 76

ns p>0.05
**p<0.01; *p<0.05
192 Marrugo-Negrete et al.

Table 3 Fish species evaluated

in the Urrá dam, Colombia Fish species Standard length (cm) [T-Hg] (μg/g ww) Food habit

Moncholo (Hoplia malabaricus) (n010) 18.5–35.5 0.65–2.25 C [22]

Different letters in the [T-Hg] Mojarra amarilla (Caquetaia kraussii) (n05) 18.0–24.7 0.69–1.38 C [22]
column indicate significant dif- Total carnivorous (n015) 18.0–35.5 0.65–2.25 a
ferences (Kolmogorov–Smirnov
test, p<0.05) Liseta (Leporinus muyscorum) (n08) 20.0–28.6 0.28–0.54 O [23]
C Carnivorous, O Omnivorous, I Bocachico (Prochilodus magdalenae) (n07) 23.5–30.0 0.17–0.25 I [24, 25]
Iliophagus (phytoplankton and Yalua (Cyphocharax magdalenae) (n03) 13.5–21.6 0.16–0.21 D/I [22]
organic detritus), Total non-carnivorous (n018) 13.5–30.0 0.16–0.54 b
D Detritivorous

developing embryos but more sensitive than adults, given
that their nervous system is still in development [26].
According to the above and considering the high T-Hg
levels in hair samples of CH (Fig. 2), the results suggest
the need for a more broad and detailed monitoring in this
single population group.
On the other hand, the positive correlations between T-
Hg concentrations of hair samples and NDWFC and AFCW
for CH and WCHA show that polluted fish consumption
(mainly of carnivorous fish as evaluated in this study) is an
important source of human exposure to Hg in these areas,
where there are no other known sources of Hg such as
mining activities. Gracia et al. [27] reported significant
positive correlations between the frequency of fish con-
sumption and the concentration of T-Hg in hair samples of
communities surrounding the Ayapel swamp, Colombia.
Other studies [28, 29] have shown that contaminated fish
is the main source of MeHg exposure in communities that
consume fish frequently. MeHg represented 90–100 % of
the T-Hg found in hair samples in those studies. In contrast,
Olivero-Verbel et al. [19] reported that the number of days
per week that people eat fish did not impact hair T-Hg
concentrations, although both mean and median values for
hair T-Hg were highest but not significantly greater in the
group who eat fish every single day.
According to the guidance of UNEP [6], for identifying
population at risk from mercury exposure, when most of the
hair samples evaluated have >2 μg/gT-Hg, it is necessary to
evaluate the Hg intakes to estimate potential risks to human
health. In the same direction, when the WIT-Hg exceeds
1.6 μg/kg/week in women of childbearing age and young
children and 3.2 μg/kg/week in other adults, it is necessary
to refine weekly intake estimation based in the MeHg con-
centrations of the fishes.
In this study, 89 % of hair samples recorded >2 μg/g T-
Hg (Fig. 2). Percentages >90, 60, and 30 % of the estimated
values for both WIT-Hg as well as WIMeHg in CH, WCHA,
and RP, respectively, exceeded the reference concentrations
(PTWI01.6 and 3.2 μg/kg bw/week) even considering a
scenario of fish consumption when the intake consists only
in non-carnivorous fish (scenario b), which has the lowest
Hg concentrations and could be considered as an alternative
to decrease their exposure (Fig. 4). Although this is an
exploratory study, according to guidance of UNEP [6], the
results of WIT-Hg suggest the need to refine the estimation
based in the MeHg concentrations of the fishes. This, cou-
pled with the estimated WIMeHg, shows a worrying situa-
tion which should be attended in greater detail to avoid a
potential public health crisis due to polluted fish consump-
tion in the study area.
On the other hand, it is important to note that recent
attention has focused on the role of selenium countering
mercury toxicity. Current works have suggested that seleni-
um might ameliorate the toxic effect of mercury, and a molar
excess of selenium may be protective although the protec-
tive level is unknown [30, 31]. Thus, the potential influence

Table 4 T-Hg concentrations in hair samples of riverine communities in different dams of world

Location n T-Hg concentration (μg/g dw) Population characteristics Reference

Mean±SD Range

Tucurui Dam, Brazil 125 35 0.9–240 Fishermen [37]

Balbina Dam, Brazil 53 6.54±5.45 1.2–22 Riverine village [38]
Flix Dam, Spain 142 1.1 0.19–5.63 Dam contaminated with Hg from a chlor-alkali plant [39]
Inanda Dam, South Africa 86 – <0.1–54.8 Communities living alongside of dam [40]
Babeni Dam, Rumania 75 1.1 – Dam contaminated with Hg from Hg from a chlor-alkali plant [41]
Urrá Dam, Colombia 76 6.95±5.57 0.40–24.56 Communities surrounding the dam have a high rate of fish This study
consumption
Relationship Between Mercury Levels in Hair and Fish Consumption
of dietary selenium intakes on the impacts of mercury in this
population should be included in future studies of risk
assessment.
Table 4 shows a comparison of the hair T-Hg concen-
trations found in this study and those of other studies in
riverine communities from different dams in the world. It
can be seen that our T-Hg levels (0.40–24.56 μg/g dw) are
similar to described in the Balbina–Brazil dam, lower than
the Tucurui and Inanda dams, and higher than those at the
Flix–Spain and Babeni–Rumania dams, these latter impact-
ed for industrial discharges. An exploratory study conducted
in riverine communities with high fish consumption long the
Magdalena and Cauca rivers basin in Colombia, where most
gold mining activities take place in this country, shown that
ten people (0.75 % of the total sample, n01328) presented
T-Hg levels in hair samples >10 μg/g dw [19]. In the present
study, 17 individuals (22.4 % of the total samples n076)
presented T-Hg levels >10 μg/g dw. These results suggest a
high potential of the Urrá dam to increase the Hg exposure
in their riverine inhabitants via polluted fish consumption.
Although there are no point sources of Hg in the study
area, a diffuse source exists in a nearby watershed (San
Jorge river basin), where it takes place ferronickel, coal,
and gold mining. This activity has expanded in recent years
due to increase in the ferronickel production, building the
new coal-based thermoelectric [32] and the opening of many
artisanal fronts of gold mining [33]. Thus, the high T-Hg levels
in fishes could reflect atmospheric transport from mining areas
not far from the reservoir, or it could simply result from higher
mobility of Hg in the areas investigated.
Differences in T-Hg concentrations between fish species
were further studied. T-Hg levels in carnivorous fish species
(0.65–2.25 μg/g ww) were significantly higher than in non-
carnivorous fish species (0.16–0.54 μg/g ww). In fact, a
ratio of 4:1 was found between these two feeding groups,
which is similar to the 3.4:1 ratio reported in an aquatic
ecosystem impacted by gold mining in Northern Colombia
[13]. The carnivorous fish usually have the highest Hg
concentrations than the non-carnivorous because to their
accumulation and trophic transference through food chain.
Hg (mainly as MeHg) is attached to sulfhydryl bonds pres-
ent in the amino acids cysteine and methionine [34]. On the
other hand, it is commonly acknowledged that diet is the
main source of exposure to mercury of aquatic organisms,
which can explain the differences in Hg concentrations
between species with different food habit [35]. Thus, the
Hg is accumulated and transferred through in the trophic
chain resulting in highest concentrations in the highest tro-
phic levels. Further, the significant positive correlation be-
tween T-Hg in muscle tissue and length of fish shows a
biomagnification process of Hg in the fish food chain of the
Urrá dam. This correlation occurs because larger fish, espe-
cially those in the highest trophic levels, are usually older,
193
have had longer exposure to the pollutant and have bioac-
cumulated the highest concentrations of Hg [11, 12, 36].
Similar results have been described for this same and other
species in other Colombian’s ecosystems [11–13], which
also show Hg biomagnification in the fish food chain.
In conclusion, results show that communities by Urrá
dam, especially women of childbearing age and children
groups, are highly exposed through fish consumption and
are potentially at risk when taking into account their dietary
habits and T-Hg levels in fish consumed. This is the first
study to evaluate mercury levels in hair of riverine inhab-
itants from Urrá dam, which indicates a need for more T-Hg
studies in the area and the establishment of a monitoring
program that could help to prevent serious harm to vulner-
able population groups. In addition, this study provides
more evidence of some of the potential negative consequen-
ces of the construction of dams for the purpose of electric
generation, and shows the need to include the potential
social costs of increased dietary mercury exposures in the
risk assessment for riverine communities in future projects
of this kind.
Acknowledgments The authors thank the University of Cordoba,
Montería-Colombia (Grant FCB-03-2007) and The Administrative
Department of Science, Technology and Innovation COLCIENCIAS
(1112-519-29083), for financial support.
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