CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background and motivation
As electric vehicles, portable electronics, and renewable energy systems, lithium-ion
batteries (LIBs) have emerged as the industry standard for energy storage. For these
systems to operate safely and effectively, the state of power (SOP) of LIBs during
discharging scenarios must be predicted with accuracy and dependability. The quantity of
power that can be drawn out of a battery at any given time is known as its SOP. It is a
crucial factor in determining the performance and lifetime of the battery. The complicated
electrochemical processes involved, the battery's nonlinear behaviour, and the influence
of operational parameters like temperature and discharge rate all make it difficult to
estimate SOP with any degree of accuracy.

For forecasting the SOP of LIBs, researchers have created a variety of models and
methods to solve these issues. These models frequently consider the battery's internal
state variables, including internal resistance, status of charge, and condition of health. But
these models frequently struggle to correctly forecast the SOP in scenarios with many
constraints, when factors like power, current, and temperature must be considered. In
many real-world LIB applications, where the battery is put through dynamic and
challenging operating circumstances, multiple constraints are frequently present. For
instance, the battery in an electric car is susceptible to variable driving circumstances like
braking and acceleration, which cause temperature and power demand changes. The
battery in renewable energy systems must supply power to the grid under various load
conditions due to the variable power generation from renewable sources. Researchers
have suggested several strategies, including the use of artificial intelligence (AI) methods
like machine learning and deep learning, to precisely estimate the SOP of LIBs under
multi-constraint scenarios. The accuracy and resilience of SOP prediction models have
improved as a result of these strategies, which has shown encouraging outcomes.

The goal of increasing the SOP prediction models' accuracy is to increase the safety and
dependability of LIB-based systems. One battery cell going bad can have disastrous
effects in numerous applications, including electric cars and aeronautical equipment. The
main causes of battery failures, over-discharge, over-charge, and thermal runaway, can be
avoided with accurate SOP prediction. Enhancing LIB performance and longevity is
another reason to improve SOP prediction algorithms. The battery's charging and
discharging procedures can be optimised to increase energy efficiency and lengthen
battery life with accurate SOP prediction. Particularly in applications like renewable
energy systems, when the cost and environmental impact of battery replacement are high,
this can have significant economic and environmental benefits.

It is essential to accurately estimate the SOP of LIBs during discharging scenarios in

order to ensure the secure and effective operation of LIB-based systems. The prediction
of SOP in multi-constraint circumstances is extremely difficult, however recent
developments in AI approaches offer encouraging answers. Enhancing the precision and
resilience of SOP prediction models can have a considerable positive impact on LIB-
based systems' performance and lifetime as well as their safety and dependability.

Predicting the state of power (SOP) of lithium-ion batteries is critical to improving their
performance and durability. The SOP reflects the current capacity and charging status of
the battery, which is critical information for a range of applications such as electric
vehicles, renewable energy storage systems, and mobile devices. Accurate SOP
prediction is required to avoid overcharging or over discharging, which can harm the
battery and shorten its longevity. Forecasting the SOP can also help to avoid dangerous
circumstances like thermal runaway, which can result in fires or explosions. SOP
prediction is a vital parameter that battery management systems (BMS) utilize to monitor
the battery's health, spot anomalies, and avert probable failures. Users may plan their
activities and prevent unplanned power outages by knowing the SOP's prediction of the
battery's remaining life. Additionally, accurate SOP prediction can be used to optimize
the charging and discharging cycles, minimizing energy waste and raising the battery's
overall efficiency. In conclusion, SOP prediction is a critical component of raising
lithium-ion battery performance, safety, management, user convenience, and efficiency.

Temperature is one of the most important parameters that affects the state of power (SOP)
of batteries. By changing the internal resistance, voltage, and chemical reaction kinetics,
temperature alters the SOP of batteries. By speeding internal chemical reactions, high
temperatures reduce the SOP of batteries and cause battery ageing and degradation. Low
temperatures, on the other hand, boost the SOP by lowering internal resistance, which
raises battery voltage. But at low temperatures, the battery's capacity drops because the
kinetics of chemical reactions slow down. Therefore, temperature control is essential to
guaranteeing the best battery performance and extending battery life. It has been
suggested to manage battery temperature using several techniques, such as thermal
management systems and temperature control algorithms.

In conclusion, when developing battery systems, it is important to take temperature into

account because it significantly affects the SOP of batteries. Low temperatures decrease a
battery's capacity whereas high temperatures hasten battery ageing and degradation. The
ability to effectively manage temperature is essential for ensuring optimum battery
performance and extending battery life. To improve the performance and safety of
batteries, additional research should concentrate on creating more effective and
dependable temperature management techniques.
1.2 Literature review

In response to growing global awareness of environmental issues and energy challenges,

vehicle electrification has emerged as a feasible alternative to reduce fossil fuel
consumption and greenhouse gas emissions. Lithium-ion batteries have grown in
popularity as a source of energy storage for electric vehicles (EVs) due to their positive
properties such as high energy and power density, extended lifespan, low self-discharge
rate, and cost [1]. Battery management systems (BMSs) are critical for ensuring the safe
and reliable functioning of lithium-ion batteries in EVs, especially under adverse operating
conditions [2]. BMSs perform an important job in estimating the real-time state of power
(SOP), which indicates the maximum power a battery may deliver to or receive from the
vehicle power system within a specific prediction timeframe without exceeding predefined
restrictions [3]. For BMSs to pick optimal driving strategies during acceleration,
regenerative braking, and uphill driving, accurate and effective online SOP estimate
algorithms are required [4]. However, determining SOP in real time is difficult because to
its non-measurable nature and close interaction with other battery parameters, which is
exacerbated by the limited processing power available in EV BMSs. Most online SOP
estimation methods use an equivalent circuit model (ECM) that simulates the battery's
current-voltage characteristics within a prediction window to strike a compromise between
computing expense and estimation accuracy. These systems are classified as either open-
loop prediction techniques (OLPM) or optimization-based approaches (OBM). To reflect
the dynamic behaviour of the battery at key points of each constraint, OLPM directly
formulates an analytical expression of the maximum (or minimum) permitted current [5].
Plett [6] pioneered the use of a lumped battery model for online SOP estimation, taking
into account variations in open-circuit voltage (OCV) within a forecast window. Sun et al.
[7] expanded on this by employing a 1-RC model to describe battery polarisation
dynamics, allowing OLPM to estimate SOP over a considerably longer prediction window
and outperforming the lumped battery model in terms of accuracy. Wang et al. [8] created a
1-RC model with diffusion resistance to simulate battery diffusion behaviour at low
frequencies for online SOP calculation. However, the OLPM's usefulness was limited due
to its reliance on huge amounts of training data for experimentally measuring diffusion

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resistance. Moving average noise was included into a 1-RC model by Feng et al. [9] to
partially compensate for model faults in prediction windows spanning from 10 to 120
seconds. Moving average noise coefficients were interactively regressed with other model
parameters using a recursive least squares (RLS) technique, allowing for model
adaptability in real-world situations. In [10], the OLPM was used to estimate pack-level
multi-constraint (MC) SOPs, with a mean average 1-RC model capturing the overall
dynamics of the battery pack and an adaptive ratio vector characterising cell-to-cell
changes. This method enabled the estimate of cell-level peak current at a reasonable
computational cost. To improve SOP estimation, Nejad and Gladwin [11] used a pseudo-
random binary sequence to trigger batteries for model parameter recalibration relaxing,
giving trustworthy prior knowledge for the extended Kalman filter (EKF) and OLPM
algorithms. Within the OLPM, Zhang et al. [12] based online SOP estimation on the state
of energy (SOE) rather than the state of charge (SOC). They evaluated the relationship
between SOE and SOP over the whole operating range of the battery, however SOE was
not shown to be a limiting factor for SOP. In contrast, [13,14] used a prediction window
with a constant battery terminal voltage to offer online SOP estimation under SOE
constraints. Particle filtering was used by Tang et al. [15] to

As SOC and temperature fluctuated, the model parameters of a 1-RC model were updated.
Although improved model resilience improved online SOP estimate efficiency, changing
the 10 coefficients in the parameter linear migrations needed significant processing
capability from BMSs. [16] studied and simulated concurrently battery electrical and
thermal dynamics utilising a dual polarisation (DP) model in conjunction with a two-state
thermal model for online estimate of SOC and SOP. To understand battery dynamics at
different frequencies, the DP model used two series-connected RC networks with varied
time constants, resulting in better accuracy while preserving an analytical technique for
calculating battery peak current. Hu et al. [17] proposed a multi-state estimation
methodology that highlighted the interdependence of SOC, SOH, and SOP. The validation
results showed that accurate knowledge of both SOC and SOH was very important for
OLPM performance.[18] suggested an interactive multiple model technique for multi-state

5
SOC, SOH, and SOP estimation. SOC and SOP calculations were conducted utilising a
model fusion technique with excellent reliability by examining the probability functions of
battery models at various ageing phases. [19,20] switched from an integer-order model to a
fractional-order model (FOM) for online SOP estimation in classical OLPMs. To provide
an analytical solution for estimating battery peak current, the authors linearized the battery
model by lowering the memory duration to only one sampling interval, which greatly
decreased the FOM's nonlinear properties. Aside from OLPM, researchers in [21]
converted online SOP estimation into a limited optimisation issue, resulting in a variety of
OBM techniques. For online SOP computation, a Butler-Volmer equation-based charge
transfer resistance was incorporated into a 1-RC model, and numerical methods such as the
Newton-Raphson method were used to solve the optimal peak current estimation [22,23].
Lu et al. [24] concentrated on the 1-RC model's parameter fluctuations and forecasted the
parameters at the end of the prediction window using linear extrapolation. They then used
a genetic algorithm to optimise the battery SOP. Esfandyari et al. [25] used a model
predictive control method in conjunction with a fuzzy logic control algorithm to achieve
online SOP estimation and battery control functions under harsh operating conditions (e.g.,
regenerative braking). Wang et al. [26] developed a novel dynamic matrix control
technique for determining the best current sequence in a prediction window, allowing for
real-time MC SOP estimation. Zou et al. [27] created an economic model predictive
control technique for online MC SOP estimation that takes into account temperature-
dependent model parameters as well as the impact of thermal generation coupling. [28]
converted the battery's safe operating region's inequality limits into Karush-Kuhn-Tucker
(KKT) criteria for SOP estimation, with the saddle point being the optimal solutions (i.e.,
global maximum/minimum points). [29] used a nonlinear optimisation technique to
combine all the constraints for online MC SOP estimation, which was a similar notion.

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1.3 Contribution to this thesis

Electric vehicle usage in developing countries like India is increasing at faster rate. The usage
of electric vehicle is belittled due to charging infrastructure and range anxiety faced by users.
Battery weight comprises of almost 35 percent of total weight of electric vehicle. The overall
performance of vehicle and its functions depends on the performance of the battery.
Advancements in battery technology are made in terms of battery chemistry hoping for a
better performance in terms of safety, specific power, specific energy, cost, life span etc.

NMC type lithium-ion battery showed a better performance than the rest existing chemistries
in terms of above-mentioned performance parameters. Abusive battery usage leads to thermal
runaway and reduced life span which is not economical for a user. Battery management
systems ensure and efficient usage of battery and safety of battery as well as user. State
estimation is an important function of BMS. Thesis explains a model based Multi constraint
State of Power (SOP) prediction in discharge scenario which considers constraints namely
maximum discharge current, terminal voltage, State of Charge (SoC), temperature etc. The
time window chosen for the prediction is 30 seconds. Simulated results are presented in
similar fashion explaining the duration of influence of each constraint on discharging power
capability of the cell . Constant current discharge of 0.5C profile is used as input for the
model .1-RC equivalent circuit model of cell is used and respective parameter of the same are
estimated and explained in the thesis. Influence of temperature on discharging power
capability of cell is explained in detail and validation procedure for results obtained from
simulated model is also explained as there are not any standard procedure for SOP
validation.Temperature constrained SoP prediction is included considering heat flux
transferred tom surroundings.

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1.4 Outline of this thesis

Subject to the above background and contribution, the thesis is outlined as follows.

Chapter 1 describes the overview of this project, literature review, and contribution to
the thesis.

Chapter 2 discusses the overview of Battery Management System and its functions.

Chapter 3 explains the Equivalent Circuit Modelling of lithium-ion cell and procedure
for parameter estimation using the data acquired from lab test.

Chapter 4 discusses the Multi constraint State of Power prediction simulation model,
various constraints involved in it, Mathematical equations for the involved constraints
and influence of each constraint on one discharge cycle of INR 18650-25R NMC type
lithium- ion cell. This chapter also discusses the validation procedure of SOP Model.

Chapter 5 presents the results obtained from simulation model and influence of each
constraint on discharging power capability of the cell. Time duration of each constraint
dominance is also presented in this chapter

Chapter 6 Conclusion and future scope of this project are discussed in this chapter.

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9
 CHAPTER 2

BATTERY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM OVERVIEW

BMS is an embedded system which monitors the battery closely so as to ensure its
operation is within the Safe Parameters, and to avoid over temperatures which damages
the battery, also monitors the voltage fluctuations and imbalance in voltage conditions.

2.1 Need for BMS

Battery Pack is one of the important components of Electric Vehicle. It has Lithium-ion
cells. BMS monitors and controls rechargeable batteries so that they operate safely and
efficiently. It is essential for safety and fault management.

Control unit monitors each cell for its current, voltage and temperature. All these inputs
are taken and processed using control algorithms to know that state of charge, battery
capacity and various other features. BMS can be used for monitoring voltage and current
during charge and voltage. It has a master disconnect that allows it to terminate charge or
discharge of battery if it detects that the battery is entering into undesirable state.

It is needed to communicate with an outward controller so as to know the state of

operation of internal battery pack. For a user to know how much energy left over and
how much of power he can utilize with the left-over charge can be found only with the
help of BMS.

It is also needed to know the amount of degradation that the battery pack is going
through so that the health of the battery is monitored and to know when the battery
should be replaced with the new one. So as to ensure the reliability of the Electric
Vehicle. With this knowledge user can easily estimate the amount of distance he can
travel with the left-over charge for a given capacity.

2.2 BMS features

 Cell Monitoring

 Cell Balancing

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  Communication

 SOC and SOH Estimation

 Thermal Management

 Charge and Discharge control

 Fault Detection

 Data Logging

Cell Balancing it is method of compensating weaker cells by equalising the amount of

charge on all the cells which are in a chain to extend the overall battery life. During
charging or discharging weak cells may get overstressed and become even weaker until
they get totally fail, this causes the battery to fail prematurely. Passive Balancing and
Active Balancing are the two types of Cell Balancing techniques followed by BMS.

SOC and SOH estimations play a key role in determining the amount of left-over charge
in the battery and SOH estimation will say the capacity of the battery by comparing it
when the battery was new. Moreover, these soc and soh updating are very much required
in the measurement of power and energy so BMS will estimate these two and will update
them for further measurements.

Thermal management is important to maintain the reliability of the battery. Generally,

lithium-ion batteries last longer if they are maintained in a temperature band of 10 to 40
degree Celsius. BMS may be used to measure the input and output temperature of
coolant for used for battery pack thermal setup.

Data logging is done by the BMS to carry out the estimations which need the earlier data
right from the start of the battery life and its operation. For example, SOH needs the
capacity of the battery when it was new. Usage patterns such as sudden acceleration and
deceleration is logged, Information regarding voltage current temperature and its lowest
and highest values are logged.

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2.3 State estimation in BMS

1. SOC – State of Charge

2. SOH – State of Health

3. SOE – State of Energy

4. SOP – State of Power

The BMS plays a crucial role in evaluating a battery's SOC, SOH, SOE, and SOP. SOC
represents the remaining charge in the battery as a percentage of its full capacity, while
SOH measures the battery's present capacity in comparison to its original capacity. SOE
determines the battery's remaining energy, and SOP shows its ability to deliver or absorb
power.

To estimate these values, the BMS utilizes a measurement block that translates cell
voltages, battery current, and temperature readings into digital data. The primary
algorithm block processes this information to determine the SOC and SOH, which are
important in determining the maximum charge and discharge rates the battery can
handle. The BMS then sends this information to the vehicle's ECU to safeguard the
battery from being overcharged or discharged beyond safe limits. Accurate SOC and
SOH estimation is crucial in determining SOE and SOP.

Fig Estimation of states in BMS

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2.4 Cell balancing feature of BMS

Cell balancing is an important function performed by a Battery Management System

(BMS) in order to ensure the optimal performance and longevity of a battery pack. The
primary purpose of cell balancing is to equalize the state of charge (SoC) or voltage of
individual cells within a battery pack. Here's an explanation of cell balancing in a BMS:

1. Cell Variations: In a battery pack, individual cells may exhibit slight differences in
their characteristics due to manufacturing variances, operating conditions, or aging
effects. These differences can lead to cell imbalances, where some cells reach their
capacity limits or voltage thresholds before others. Over time, these imbalances can
negatively impact the overall performance, capacity, and lifespan of the battery pack.

2. Cell Balancing Techniques: Cell balancing techniques aim to mitigate these

imbalances by redistributing charge among the cells within the pack. The BMS monitors
the SoC or voltage of each cell and determines the cells that require balancing. There are
several common cell balancing techniques used in BMS:

a) Passive Balancing: Passive balancing involves dissipating excess energy from

higher-voltage cells through resistors or bypass circuits. This technique allows the lower-
voltage cells to catch up without actively transferring energy. While simple and cost-
effective, passive balancing may not be as effective in quickly equalizing cell
imbalances.

b) Active Balancing: Active balancing involves actively transferring energy between

cells to equalize their SoC or voltage levels. It typically uses electronic switches or DC-
DC converters to redirect energy from higher-voltage cells to lower-voltage cells. Active
balancing is more efficient in equalizing cell imbalances but can be more complex and
expensive to implement.

c)Hybrid Balancing: Hybrid balancing combines elements of both passive and active
balancing techniques. It primarily uses passive balancing as the primary method but
incorporates active balancing for cells that require more significant adjustments. This
approach provides a balance between efficiency and cost-effectiveness.

3. Balancing Triggers: The BMS determines when cell balancing should be initiated
based on various triggers, such as predefined voltage thresholds, SoC thresholds, or time

13
intervals. When a trigger is met, the BMS activates the cell balancing mechanism to
equalize the cells within the pack.

4. Balancing Control: The BMS controls the balancing process by managing the
switching or bypassing of energy among cells. It continuously monitors the voltage or
SoC levels of the cells during the balancing operation to ensure that the cells are properly
balanced without overcharging or over-discharging.

5. Benefits of Cell Balancing: Cell balancing helps maintain uniform performance and
capacity across the battery pack, maximizing the usable energy and extending the overall
lifespan. It also improves the safety of the battery pack by reducing the risk of
overcharging or over-discharging individual cells.

Cell balancing is an essential function in a BMS, particularly for large battery packs used
in electric vehicles, renewable energy storage systems, and other high-capacity
applications. It ensures the optimal utilization and reliability of the battery pack by
preventing cell imbalances and promoting consistent performance among the individual
cells.

Fig Cell balancing

2.5 Discharge and Charge control in BMS

Discharge and charge control are crucial functions performed by a Battery Management
System (BMS) to ensure the safe and efficient operation of a battery pack. The BMS
monitors and regulates the discharge and charge processes of the battery cells, protecting

14
them from potentially harmful conditions. Here's an explanation of discharge and charge
control in a BMS:

Discharge Control:

1. Current Limiting: The BMS controls the discharge current of the battery pack to
prevent excessive current flow, which can lead to overheating, voltage drop, and reduced
capacity. It sets a maximum allowable discharge current based on the battery pack's
specifications and limits the current to stay within the safe operating range.

2. Over-Discharge Protection: The BMS continuously monitors the voltage levels of

individual cells or the overall battery pack during discharge. It triggers an alarm or takes
corrective action when the voltage falls below a predetermined threshold, indicating a
potential over-discharge condition. The BMS may reduce or cut off the discharge current
to prevent the cells from being discharged to unsafe levels, which can cause permanent
damage or reduce their lifespan.

3. State of Charge (SoC) Monitoring: The BMS estimates and tracks the SoC of the
battery pack during discharge. By monitoring the SoC, the BMS can provide accurate
information about the remaining energy in the battery pack, allowing users to gauge the
available capacity and plan their operations accordingly.

Charge Control:

1. Voltage Regulation: During the charge process, the BMS controls the charging
voltage applied to the battery cells to prevent overcharging. It monitors the voltage levels
of individual cells or the overall battery pack and adjusts the charging voltage to keep it
within safe limits. This helps avoid overcharging, which can lead to cell degradation,
electrolyte decomposition, and safety risks.

2. Current Regulation: The BMS controls the charging current applied to the battery
pack to prevent excessive current flow during the charging process. It sets a maximum
allowable charging current based on the battery pack's specifications and limits the
current to stay within the safe operating range. This ensures controlled charging and
prevents issues such as overheating and capacity degradation.

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3. Overcharge Protection: Similar to over-discharge protection, the BMS triggers an
alarm or takes corrective action when the voltage of individual cells or the overall battery
pack exceeds a predetermined threshold during charging. It may reduce or stop the
charging current to prevent overcharging, which can cause irreversible damage to the
cells and compromise safety.

4. SoC Estimation: The BMS estimates the SoC of the battery pack during the charge
process, providing information about the battery's energy level. This estimation helps
determine the charge completion, preventing overcharging and optimizing the charging
process for efficient energy utilization.

The discharge and charge control functions in a BMS are critical for maintaining the
safety, performance, and longevity of a battery pack. By actively monitoring and
regulating the discharge and charge processes, the BMS ensures that the battery cells
operate within their safe limits and protects them from potentially harmful conditions
such as over-discharge, overcharge, excessive current flow, and voltage imbalances.

Fig BMS functionality overview

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 CHAPTER 3

CELL MODELLING AND PARAMETER ESTIMATION

3.1 Lithium ion cell modelling overview

Lithium-ion cell modelling is required for several reasons namely performance

Prediction, Design and Optimization, Battery Management, Safety Analysis, Cost and
Energy Optimization, Performance Degradation Analysis, State-of-Charge and State-of-
Health Estimation, System Integration and Performance Optimization, Research and
Development.

Modelling allows us to understand and predict the behaviour of lithium-ion batteries

under different operating conditions. By accurately modelling the battery's voltage,
current, capacity, and other performance parameters, we can optimize its usage and
design appropriate control strategies. This is crucial for applications such as electric
vehicles, portable electronics, and renewable energy storage systems. Modelling helps in
the design and optimization of lithium ion batteries. By simulating different cell
configurations, electrode materials, and operating conditions, engineers can evaluate the
performance and characteristics of various designs before investing in expensive and
time-consuming prototyping and testing. This accelerates the development process and
improves the chances of success. Battery management systems
(BMS) rely on accurate models to monitor and control the operation of lithium-ion
batteries. Models provide essential information about the battery's state-of-charge (SoC),
state-of-health (SoH), and remaining capacity, which are critical for maintaining safe
and efficient battery operation. BMS use models to estimate the battery's internal state
variables, detect faults, and implement appropriate charging and discharging strategies.
Lithium-ion batteries can experience hazardous conditions such as thermal runaway,
which can lead to fires or explosions. Modelling helps in understanding the root causes
of such events and allows engineers to design safety features and thermal management
systems to mitigate the risks. By simulating the battery's behaviour under abusive
conditions, safety precautions can be established, improving the overall safety of the
battery system. Modelling assists in optimizing the energy consumption and cost of
operating lithium-ion batteries. By accurately predicting the battery's behaviour, models

17
can guide the development of energy management strategies that maximize the battery's
efficiency and minimize its degradation. This can lead to longer battery life, reduced
maintenance costs, and improved overall system performance. Overall, lithium-ion cell
modelling is essential for understanding, optimizing, and controlling the behaviour of
these batteries. It enables efficient design, performance prediction, safety analysis, and
cost optimization, contributing to the advancement and widespread adoption of lithium
ion battery technology in various industries.
Modelling allows for the analysis of performance degradation mechanisms in lithium-
ion batteries. Over time, batteries can experience capacity fade, increase internal
resistance, and reduced overall performance. By incorporating aging models into the
battery models, it becomes possible to study the effects of cycling, calendar aging, and
operating conditions on the battery's degradation. This information is valuable for
understanding the lifetime of the battery and developing strategies to mitigate
degradation, Rapid Prototyping and Virtual Testing, Accurate estimation of the battery's
state-of-charge (SoC) and state-of-health (SoH) is crucial for effective battery
management and optimization. Models can be used to develop algorithms and
techniques for estimating the SoC and SoH based on measurements of voltage, current,
temperature, and other parameters. These estimations enable better control of battery
usage, prevent overcharging or over-discharging, and provide insights into the battery's
health and remaining capacity. Lithium-ion cell models play a vital role in the
integration of batteries into larger systems. Whether it's an electric vehicle, a renewable
energy storage system, or a grid-scale energy storage project, modelling the battery's
behaviour allows for the optimization of the entire system. By considering the battery
model alongside other system components and external factors, engineers can design
control strategies that maximize energy efficiency, minimize costs, and ensure optimal
system performance. Modelling provides a means for rapid prototyping and virtual
testing of lithium-ion batteries and battery systems. Instead of relying solely on physical
prototypes, which can be time-consuming and expensive, models allow for quick
iterations and evaluations. Virtual testing through simulations enables engineers to
assess different operating scenarios, evaluate the impact of design changes, and optimize
the performance of the battery system without the need for extensive physical
experiments. Modelling facilitates research and development efforts in the field of
lithium-ion batteries. Scientists and engineers can use models to investigate novel

18
electrode materials, cell designs, and manufacturing techniques. By simulating the
electrochemical processes, thermal behaviour, and aging effects of various battery
configurations, researchers can gain insights into the underlying phenomena, validate
hypotheses, and drive innovation in battery technology. In summary, lithium-ion cell
modelling provides a comprehensive understanding of battery behaviour, enabling
performance prediction, design optimization, battery management, safety analysis, cost
reduction, and energy optimization. It supports the entire lifecycle of a lithium-ion
battery, from initial design and development to operation, maintenance, and eventual
retirement, contributing to advancements in energy storage technology.

3.2 Methods of battery modelling

Fig Battery modelling techniques

In order to accurately represent the behaviour of lithium-ion batteries, various modelling

techniques are used. These techniques cover a range of ideas, each with special qualities
and advantages. Here are a few lithium-ion battery modelling techniques:
1.Equivalent Circuit Models (ECMs): Batteries are portrayed as electrical networks
including resistors, capacitors, and current sources in equivalent circuit models (ECMs).
In order to accurately represent the electrochemical behaviour and internal losses of the
battery, these models include components like series resistance, parallel resistance, and

19
capacitance. ECMs are frequently used because they are straightforward and simple to
set up.

2.Electrochemical Models: The intrinsic electrochemical processes that take place in

lithium ion batteries are simulated by electrochemical models. They explore solid-state
reactions, diffusion phenomena, and chemical processes. These models call for thorough
knowledge of the composition and structure of the battery. The Doyle-Fuller-Newman
model, the Newman model, and pseudo-2D models are among examples.

3.Black-Box Models: Black-box models are empirical representations of battery

behaviour that omit explicit representation of the battery's fundamental electrochemical
operations. These models use methods like neural networks, polynomial regression, or
other data-driven methodologies to construct an input-output link and are based on
experimental data. Blackbox models lack physical interpretability despite being very
easy to create and making precise predictions.

4.Grey-Box Models: In grey-box models, elements of both physical and empirical

modelling are combined. They use experimental data to calibrate while using physics-
based principles. In battery management systems (BMS), where precision and
computing efficiency are essential, these models often strike a balance between accuracy
and complexity.

5.Thermal Models: Thermal models are designed to capture the temperature behaviour
of lithium-ion batteries when they are in use. They take into account heat generation
caused by internal resistance losses, electrochemical processes, and ambient
circumstances. By combining thermal models with other battery models, it is possible to
predict the battery's performance and accurately anticipate its temperature development.

6.Aging Models: Lithium-ion battery ageing and deterioration are both predicted by
ageing models. These models estimate capacity fading and impedance rise by
considering cycle, calendar ageing, temperature, and state-of-charge history. For
determining battery lifespan and maximising its performance, ageing models are
essential.

Understanding, optimising, and controlling the behaviour of lithium-ion batteries

requires battery modelling. Accurate modelling of battery performance is obtained using

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numerous methods that include equivalent circuit models, electrochemical models,
black-box models, grey-box models, thermal models, and ageing models. Performance
prediction, design optimisation, battery management, safety analysis, cost reduction, and
energy optimisation are all possible with these models. Estimating parameters such as
state-of-charge and state of health allows for more efficient battery management and
system integration. Battery modelling also enables rapid prototyping and virtual testing,
which shortens development cycles and lowers costs. Battery modelling fosters research
and development by researching new materials, designs, and manufacturing procedures,
providing insights into degradation mechanisms and ageing effects for better prediction
of battery lifespan and solutions to prevent degradation.

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3.3 Testing required for Parameter estimation

Lithium-ion battery parameter estimation entails carrying out numerous tests and
procedures to collect information and evaluate battery performance. Here are a few
typical tests and methods for parameter estimation:

1. Charge and Discharge Cycling:

To assess a battery's capacity, SoC, and SoH, the charge and discharge cycle tests entail
repeatedly charging and draining the battery. A predetermined current or power profile is
applied to the battery, and voltage and current readings are collected periodically. The
battery's energy storage capacity, efficiency, and deterioration over time are all shown
by these tests.

2. Coulomb Counting:

By integrating the current flowing into and out of the battery over time, the coulomb
counting approach can be used to determine the battery's state of charge (SoC). Using a
current sensor, current measurements are taken, and integrating the current yields an
estimation of the charge used or restored. For real-time SoC estimation, coulomb
counting is often used in battery management systems.

3. Open-Circuit Voltage (OCV) Measurement:

OCV measurement is a quick and unobtrusive way to gauge the SoC of the battery. The
battery is allowed to rest without any current flowing through it, and after stabilisation,
the terminal voltage is measured. The OCV and SoC are related via a calibration curve
or table. OCV measurements are frequently used for initial calibration of SoC estimate
methods and battery characterization.

4. Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS):

EIS is a method that analyses a battery's impedance at various frequencies to determine

its internal resistance and electrochemical characteristics. The battery is subjected to AC
pulses of small amplitude, and the voltage response is measured. It is possible to
estimate variables like resistance, capacitance, and diffusion coefficients through the

22
study of the impedance spectrum, offering information on the functionality and ageing
of batteries.

5. Pulse Discharge Tests:

In pulse discharge testing, the battery is subjected to brief bursts of high current or
power while the voltage response is being watched. The battery's internal resistance,
power capacity, and voltage sag during high-rate discharge are evaluated by these tests.
The battery's internal resistance may be calculated using the voltage drop during the
pulse, which is essential for comprehending the battery's capacity to deliver power.

6. Aging Tests:

In order to understand how lithium-ion batteries age and degrade over time, ageing
experiments are carried out. Accelerated cycling or storage conditions that replicate real
world usage scenarios are applied to the battery. The ageing rate and deterioration
patterns can be approximated by tracking variables including voltage decay, impedance
growth, and capacity fading. The battery's lifespan and performance over time are
shown by these tests’

7. Thermal Tests:

To assess the battery's thermal behaviour and performance at various temperature

ranges, thermal tests are carried out. The battery is put under constant thermal stress,
regulated temperature cycles, or extremely high temperatures. In order to estimate the
battery's thermal parameters, such as its rate of heat generation, thermal conductivity,
and heat dissipation characteristics, temperature sensors are used to measure the
battery's internal and surface temperatures.

8. Model-Based Approaches:

Model-based approaches simulate the behaviour of lithium-ion batteries by using

mathematical models or comparable circuit models. Utilising experimental data
gathered from the aforementioned tests, these models are calibrated. The model
parameters are then estimated based on the collected data using parameter estimation

23
algorithms as the Kalman filter, particle filter, or least-squares optimisation. Model-
based methods allow for more precise parameter estimation and greater understanding
of battery behaviour.

It's vital to note that the precise tests and methods used for parameter estimate can
change depending on the application, resources available, and research goals. To get
thorough data about the performance, features, and ageing behaviour of the battery,
researchers and battery manufacturers frequently combine different methodologies and
experiments.

3.4 Parameter Estimation procedure:

Step-1 Step-2 Step-4

Load and Pre- Number of time Step-3 Set equivalent circuit
process data constants for Estimate Parameters batter block
estimation parameters

Fig step wise procedure for parameter estimation

Step1: Load the time series battery discharge voltage and current data.

Step2: Number of time constants (TC) for estimation are to be determined

Step3: For discharge data derived from battery, estimate :

(i) Open-circuit voltage, Em

(ii)Series resistance, R0

(iii)RC pair(s) time constant(s), Tau

(iv)RC pair(s) resistance(s), Rx

Use the Estimation Equivalent Circuit Battery block.

Step4: feed the obtained parameters into equivalent block.

The parameters for the Equivalent Circuit Battery block are created using MathWorks
tools, estimate methods, and measured lithium-ion data. A resistor-capacitor (RC) circuit
battery with open circuit voltage, series resistance, and one through N RC pairs is

24
implemented using the Equivalent Circuit Battery block. The quantity of RC pairs
corresponds to the quantity of time constants that define battery transients. The typical
range of RC pairings is between 1 and 5.

To mimic the behaviour and characteristics of lithium-ion battery of NMC type INR
1865025R, 1RC pair is chosen for simplicity and faster response.

Discharge test is being conducted for the cell with a Discharge pulse current of 2.5A for
a period of 40 hours such that an hour is given for resting the battery to attain a stable
state. The obtained data from the discharge test is utilised for parameter estimation.
Parameter estimation involves selection of pulses, choosing number of time constants
same as number of RC pairs taken as 1. Pulse samples to be chosen is also given as
input during the first step while loading data. Second step helps us decide how many RC
pairs should be used in the model. Choosing less RC pairs might increase the fit error
whereas more RC pairs might lead to overfitting .3 Pulses are chosen to calculate
settling time and ohmic drop for estimation of Tau, ohmic resistance and RC branch
parameters.
Third step involves setting of initial guesses of time constant, relaxation time and

parameters. This step inspects the voltage immediately before and after the current is
applied and removed at the start and end of each pulse. It uses that for a raw calculation
estimating what the open-circuit voltage (Em) and the series resistance R0 should be.
This step also performs curve fitting on the pulse relaxation to estimate the RC time
constant at each SOC. In the final step obtained parameters are are given as input to
equivalent circuit battery block parameters and voltage output from both the models are
compared for checking accuracy.

Fig 1RC ECM of lithium-ion cell

25
Fig Voltage and residual voltage using SDO tool in MATLAB

Fig Pulse sequence and residual voltages after data fitting

26
Fig ECM battery model and Parameter fed battery model voltage comparison

Fig Estimated parameters varying w.r.t SOC

27
Fig Comparison of voltage from ECM battery model and parameter fed battery model

28
 CHAPTER 4
STATE OF POWER PREDICTION

4.1 State of Power overview

If the battery is used outside of its SOA, its ageing will accelerate significantly. Thus, it's
crucial to make sure that the restrictions on current, voltage, SoC, and temperature are
not broken.

The estimation of the constraints with regard to the input current is known as the SoP.
The simplest approach is to leave the current rate up to the power users, with only logical
limitations. If the battery SoC is high; the only current restrictions are those set by the
battery's manufacturer. High loads could push the voltage past its lower voltage limit
when SoC gets closer to zero. If the detected voltage falls below the lower limit, the
discharge current is reduced to zero and the drone is turned off. That is, until a sudden
shutdown, full power is available.

Furthermore, this method is rudimentary in that it is very dependent on measurements,

and thus on sampling time. If the sampling time is too long in comparison to the battery's
dynamics, the voltage is permitted to fall below its lower limits for a short period of time
since the BMS is unaware of the violation until voltage readings are refreshed. Finally,
because of the drone's immature shutdown, this unsophisticated procedure results in low
effective capacity. As a result of these factors, the need for a SoP estimator grows. As a
result of these factors, the need for a SoP estimator grows. The SoP estimator wishes to
answer the peak power discharge capability of the cell/battery for a given current profile.
SoP is found taking into consideration different current constraints namely current,
terminal voltage, SoC, SoE and temperature. The window length chosen for continuous
peak discharge power prediction is 30 seconds in the performed simulation. Maximum
discharge current limit is chosen to be 2.5A which is 1C rating of the cell under test.
Ambient temperature chosen is 28 degC and minimum terminal voltage chosen for the
test profile is 2.7V. A steady increase of temperature is given as input for accounting
temperature constrained current limit. Peak discharge power capability profile of the cell
is obtained as a result.

29
4.2 State of charge estimation using Coulomb counting method

Estimating the state of charge (SoC) using basic coulomb counting is a standard
technique used in battery management systems. It works by measuring how much charge
enters and departs a battery during charging and discharging cycles. An estimate of the
battery's SoC can be established by tracking the current flowing in and out of the battery
and integrating it over time. This strategy is based on the assumption that the capacity of
the battery remains consistent over time and that its behaviour is predictable. This
method is cost effective and simple to implement. Coulomb counting relies highly on the
accuracy of current measuring sensors.

In this particular project a basic coulomb counter is designed using mathematical

modelling which integrates current over time and an initial SoC of the cell is given as
input. A constant current profile of 1.25A is chosen for discharging the cell. The same
current profile is fed to the coulomb counter to estimate remaining SoC of the cell.
Several look up tables are made which are of 2-dimension, one consisting of the SoC and
the other are the equivalent circuit parameters of the cell. The following equation is used
and mathematically modelled in Simulink for SoC estimation using coulomb counting:

∆ Ah
SOC β ¿ SOC α − ………………………………………………..
C
Where C represents the capacity of the cell which is 2.5Ah. SOC α represents the initial
SoC and SOC β represents the real time SoC, h represents the time duration for
integration in hours.

4.3 Discharge test of INR 18650-25R lithium-ion cell

State of Power prediction requires either a constant current or voltage profile for a
window. For avoiding complexity, a constant current profile is chosen and fed as input to
the SoP prediction model and similarly with the same profile SoC is calculated.

Following are the details of conducted discharge test:

 Cell model: INR18650-25R

 Mode of discharge: Constant current 1.25A(0.5C)
 Target terminal voltage:2.5V

30
  Equipment used for discharging: TENMA Programmable Electronic
Load
 Data acquisition tool: TENMA software testing tool
 Test temperature:25 deg C

Fig Programmable DC electronic load

Fig Tenma software testing tool

Above shown picture shows the test equipment used for discharging the lithium ion cell.
Using the TENMA software testing tool discharge is set as CC referring to constant
current mode and data acquisition is done using above mentioned software for terminal
voltage and current profile till the terminal voltage reaches 2.5V.

31
Current and voltage profile from the discharge test is as shown below:

Fig current and voltage profile of the cell during discharge

4.4 Calculation of terminal voltage

State of Power prediction of lithium ion cell requires terminal voltage and it can be
Calculated knowing the equivalent circuit of cell and their respective drops. Current
profile from the cell discharge test is fed to the SoC estimator such that real time SoC is
known and the same is fed into look up tables consisting of parameters varying wrt SoC,
in such manner series ohmic drop and polarization voltage drop are calculated. For
calculation of polarization voltage the above mentioned drops along with the terminal
voltage obtained from discharge test is subtracted from the Open Circuit Voltage (OCV)
of the cell.at a later stage using the below mentioned eq() polarization voltage is
predicted for a window of every 30 seconds.

The obtained polarization voltage along with a drops calculated taking rated current of
cell is subtracted from the open circuit voltage to get predicted terminal voltage at the
end of the window.

Below is the equation for predicting polarization voltage:

32
 ( ) + R ( 1−e ) ∑ ( e )
−∆ t L −∆ t L−1 −∆ t L−1− j
τ1 τ1 τ1 lim ¿
U 1 , K +L =U 1 , K e Ik,L ¿
j=0

where L is the time step interval, LΔt is the time duration for the continuous peak power,
and I lim
k,L
¿¿
is the continuous peak current meeting multiple constraints. U 1 , K +Lis the
updated polarization voltage at the end of prediction window.

Predicted terminal voltage obtained from simulation is compared with the actual terminal
voltage taken from the discharging test data and the plots are as shown below:

Fig Terminal voltage plot comparison

Voltage predicted from the simulated model has 80mV deviation from the Discharge test
terminal voltage.

33
 4.5 SoP prediction flowchart

Measured current ib(k) and voltage vb(k)

Updated model parameters OCV, Ro, Rp, Cp

SOC Estimator
Update vp : vp(k) = OCV˗ vb(k) ˗ ib(k)Ro

Predict vp at next instance:

( ) + R ( 1−e ) ∑ ( e )
−∆ t L −∆ t L−1 −∆ t L−1− j
τ1 τ1 τ1 lim ¿
U 1 , K +L =U 1 , K e I
k,L ¿
j=0

Peak power under SOC limitation:

SOC SOC
Covert SOC limits to current limits: Substitute Imax and Imin by I max and I min
I SOC
min = Cn[SOC(k) ˗ SOCmax] / Tp
SOC
respectively to get SOPdischarge and
SOC SOC
I max = Cn[SOC(k) ˗ SOCmin] / Tp SOPcharge according to formula under
current limits.

Estimate peak current at next instance: Peak power under current limitation:
discharge I discharge
ib (k+1) = [OCV ˗ vp(k+1) ˗Vmin] /Ro SOPdischarge =I max v b (k +1)
charge I charge
i b (k+1) = [OCV ˗ vp(k+1) ˗Vmax] / Ro SOPcharge = Imin v b ( k +1)

Estimate peak voltage at next instance: Peak power under voltage limitation:
discharge v discharge
vb (k+1) = OCV ˗ vp(k+1) ˗ RoImax SOPdischarge = Vmini b (k+1)
charge v discharge
v b (k+1) = OCV ˗ vp(k+1) ˗ RoImin SOPdischarge = Vmini b (k+1)

Estimate results:
v
SOPdischarge = min[ SOPdischarge I SOC
, SOPdischarge , SOPdischarge ]
SOPcharge = max[ SOPcharge
v I SOC
, SOPcharge , SOPcharge ]

34
4.6 Voltage, Current, SoC, Temperature constrained currents for SoP
prediction

4.6.1 Voltage constrained current for SoP prediction

{
(e ) −U
−∆ t L
τ1
dis, volt
U OCV ( SOC K ) −U 1 ,k T ,min
I max , L =
+ R ( 1−e )∑ (e )
−∆ t l−1 −∆t L−1−j

ηLt ∂U OCV
τ1 τ1
1 + R0
SOC=SOC k j=0

C ∂ SOC
………………
( ) −U
−∆ t L

cha , volt
U OCV ( SOC K )−U 1 , k e τ1
T , max
I min , L =
+ R (1−e )∑ (e )
−∆t l−1 −∆t L−1− j

ηLt ∂ U OCV
τ1 τ1
1 +R 0
SOC =SOC k j=0

C ∂ SOC

State of power prediction under voltage constrained utilises the above equation for
estimating constrained current considering min voltage in case of discharging. Updated
polarization voltage is used in the numerator part of equation and with varying SoC open
circuit voltage also changes, gradient of OCV w.r.t SoC is observed from OCV-SoC plot.
Time constant is calculated and updated accordingly using look up tables linked with
varying real time SoC. L is chosen to be 1000 which means 1000 samples are chosen and
sampling rate is 30 msec.

Using the above voltage constrained current equation while discharging it is assured that
current do not exceed beyond the current which is responsible for discharging battery
from initial to minimum set voltage of 2.5V in 30 seconds.

4.6.2 Current constraint for SoP prediction

The maximum dischargeable current set in the simulation is 5A which is 2C rating of the
cell. This particular limit for discharging has more influence in the peak power
discharging capability profile than the rest. This is usually set by manufacturers.

dis, cur
I max , L =5 A

35
4.6.3 SoC constrained current for SoP prediction

State of Charge is estimated using coulomb counting in the work included in the project.
Real time SoC from the real time estimator is used in calculating SoC constrained
current using below equation:

{
dis, SOC (SOC K −SOC min )C
I max , L =
ηL ∆ t
cha , SOC (SOC K −SOC max ) C
I min , L =
ηL ∆ t

A minimum SoC limit is set to which battery is discharged is 0.3 on a scale of 1. η is the
coulombic efficiency factor and its value chosen is 0.98 referenced from the literature.

4.6.4 Temperature constrained current

Temperature is a vital factor that affects the performance of the battery. The process of
charging or discharging might increase the temperature which might after the battery
performance and other states. According to [], introduces a new method to estimate the
maximum power output of lithium-ion batteries by considering temperature conditions.
The authors emphasize the need for accurate predictions of peak power capability as it
directly affects battery performance and safety. Existing approaches for calculating peak
power capability primarily concentrate on characteristics such as state of charge (SoC)
and state of health (SoH), ignoring the effect of temperature. This research, on the other
hand, proposes a more thorough strategy that includes temperature as a critical element
in forecasting battery performance. Continuous discharge with constant current may
increase the rate of temperature rise, which may surpass the limiting operating range of
Li-cells.

A Mathematical model considering rate of heat flow, mass, temperature of the cell,
temperature of the surroundings, voltage temperature gradient, ohmic and polarization
resistance are included and influence of the temperature on peak power discharging
capability is analysed. Given below is the equation used for including temperature
constrained SoP prediction:

36
I dis, volt
max, T =
√( 2 dT)
T max +T k dU 2
[ (
−4 ( R 0+ R 1) hw S T amb −
T max +T k
2
2 ( R0 + R 1 )
)−C p m
L∆t ]
T max +T k T max + T k dU
−
2 dT

A constant current of 5A is chosen for calculation of heat flux of the cell to surroundings.
The used parameters of the cell are as given below:

• Temperature: -10 to 60 degC

• Mass:0.0450 Kg

• Surface area: 0.004237 sq.m

• Rated capacity:2500 mAh.

Followings steps are involved in calculation of heat flux of the cell to surroundings:

1) Define the battery parameters and simulation settings

2) Initialize the state variables: T amb, Q

3) Simulate the battery behaviour

4) Compute heat generation rate

5) Compute heat transfer rate

6) Calculate the heat flux

37
Below fig shows the heat flux transferred to surroundings under constant current
discharge of 5A.

Fig Heat flux transferred to surroundings vs Time

From the above plot mean is taken and substituted as the value of h w, ambient
dU
temperature is taken as 28degC. , temperature voltage gradient is taken from [].
dT

Fig Maximum discharge current at different air temperatures

38
4.6.5 State of Power (SoP) prediction model validation
1. Discharge the Pack with 2.5A for 10 seconds and observe the values
Table 1

Expected Observation Results

SOP is non-zero and positive PASS

2. Charge the pack with 1A for 10 seconds and observe the values
Table 2

Expected Observation Results

SOP is non-zero and negative PASS

3. Trigger a critical fault when discharging

Table 3

Expected Observation Results

SOP is zero PASS

4. Trigger a critical fault when charging

Table 4

Expected Observation Results

SOP is zero PASS

5. Discharge the Pack with below profile:

a. 5 A for 10 minutes
b. 3 A for 10 minutes
c. 2.5 A for 30 minutes

Table 5
Expected Observation Results
SOP is non-zero and positive PASS
SOP trend is reducing PASS

39
SOP is less than (Terminal Voltage* PASS
Nominal Current) at all instant
SOP reduces quickly when SOC is PASS
below 50%

40
 CHAPTER 5
RESULT ANALYSIS

41