AIAA JOURNAL

Vol. 60, No. 4, April 2022

Theoretical Prediction for the Mach-Disk Height

in Two-Dimensional Supersonic Underexpanded Jets

Chongwen Jiang,∗ Tianyixing Han,† Shuyao Hu,‡ Zhenxun Gao,∗ and Chun-Hian Lee§
Beihang University, 100191 Beijing, People’s Republic of China
https://doi.org/10.2514/1.J060573
Supersonic jets are in common use in aerospace, where the Mach-disk height is an important parameter to the
aerothermodynamic and acoustic effects of the related interaction. To understand the Mach disk and predict its
height, two-dimensional supersonic underexpanded jets are analyzed and a theoretical model is proposed in this
work. First, through analyses of the viscous term in the Navier–Stokes equation, the dominance of an inviscid
mechanism is verified upstream of the Mach disk. The pressure downstream of the Mach disk is a primary parameter
to the prediction of the Mach-disk height. Then, the region dominated by the inviscid mechanism is divided into the
following three regions: homogeneous, simple, and nonsimple by contour lines of the Riemann invariants. Analytical
Downloaded by BEIHANG UNIVERSITY on March 20, 2023 | http://arc.aiaa.org | DOI: 10.2514/1.J060573

description of the simple region is achieved through analyses of the characteristic curves. Fan-shaped approximation
to the nonsimple region is deducted based on analyses of expansion fans. Finally, a theoretical prediction of the Mach-
disk height is developed based on the pressure downstream of the Mach disk. For either the freejet or the lateral jet
interaction, it is feasible to obtain prediction with errors below 10%, which is much better than existing empirical
models, especially for supersonic underexpanded jets.

Nomenclature
A = flow section or area of unit length, m Superscripts
C = characteristic curves
p = streamwise projected section
d = width or diameter of the nozzle exit, m

= critical value when flow becomes sonic isentropically
h = Mach-disk height, m
 = left- or right-running characteristics related
J = Riemann invariant, rad
M = Mach number
p = pressure, Pa I. Introduction
q = area ratio, in which A
∕A is equal to ρu∕ρ
u

Re
r
=
=
Reynolds number
polar radius (pole is j− ), m S UPERSONIC jets are commonly encountered in many engineer-
ing applications, such as the propulsion and control of aircraft
[1,2], fuel injection [3], as well as film coating [4]. In aerospace
s = unit vector of flow velocity
T = temperature, K applications, lateral jet interaction with crossflow could influence the
u = flow velocity, m/s aerothermodynamic characteristics of the aircraft [5], the opposing
x, y = Cartesian coordinates, m;x axis is aligned with jet veloc- jet could reduce thermal load on the nose of the aircraft as well as the
ity uj wave drag [6–8], and the impinging jet interaction with launch
γ = specific heat ratio structures could produce additional acoustic and thermal loads during
θ = flow direction angle, rad rocket launching [9–12]. Thus, the interactions involving supersonic
μ = Mach angle, rad jets should be considered in the design of aircraft and auxiliary
ν = Prandtl–Meyer expansion function, rad systems.
ρ = density, kg∕m3 The qualitative and quantitative understanding of the flow struc-
φ = expansion angle, rad tures involved in freejets is fundamental to the understanding of the
complex flow where jets are involved. For inclined jet impingement,
the flow could be classified into four types according to the combi-
Subscripts
nation of the inclined angle and the impingement distance, which is
a = ambient value nondimensionalized by the axial location where the first shock cell of
0 = total value for gas state parameters the corresponding freejet reaches the maximum diameter [13–15].
∞ = freestream value for lateral jet interaction Radulescu and Law [16] developed a model for the transient start of
supersonic jets based on a solution to the corresponding one-dimen-
sional (1-D) steady expansion, which is in effect an analogy to the
expansion of steady jets. The shock-cell length of freejets is an
important parameter in analyses of broadband shock-associated
Received 24 January 2021; revision received 2 July 2021; accepted for
publication 22 January 2022; published online 10 March 2022. Copyright ©
noise [17–20].
2022 by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc. All Among the studies on underexpanded freejets over the last 70
rights reserved. All requests for copying and permission to reprint should be years, the Mach disk is the most studied flow structure, regardless of
submitted to CCC at www.copyright.com; employ the eISSN 1533-385X to theoretical, experimental, or numerical investigations [21]. Still,
initiate your request. See also AIAA Rights and Permissions www.aiaa.org/ there remain some doubts [21]. The mechanism of the appearance
randp. of the Mach disk remains unclear. Hysteresis is involved in the
*Associate Professor, National Laboratory for Computational Fluid occurrence of the Mach disk, where the Mach-disk height is related
Dynamics, School of Aeronautic Science and Engineering. Member AIAA. to the history how the pressure ratio (PR) varies [22–25]. On the other
†
Ph.D. Candidate, National Laboratory for Computational Fluid Dynamics, hand, the location of the Mach disk depends on the configuration of
School of Aeronautic Science and Engineering.
‡
Postdoctoral Fellow, National Laboratory for Computational Fluid the nozzle. The Mach-disk height is affected by the radial component
Dynamics, School of Aeronautic Science and Engineering (Corresponding of the flow velocity at the nozzle exit [26–28].
Author). Numerous empirical models of the Mach-disk height have been
§
Professor, National Laboratory for Computational Fluid Dynamics, established from experimental data in the form of power functions
School of Aeronautic Science and Engineering. correlated to either the PR [29–38] or the nozzle pressure ratio (NPR)
2115
 2116
Wilcox et al. (1957)
Adamson and Nicholl, (1959)
Love et al. (1959)
D’Attore et al. (1964)
Carlson and Lewis, (1964)
Avduevskii et al. (1970)
h/d
50% and 200% of Crist
Crist et al. (1966)
NPR
Fig. 1 Mach-disk height varying with NPR [29, 30, 32, 39, 51, 64, 65].
Downloaded by BEIHANG UNIVERSITY on March 20, 2023 | http://arc.aiaa.org | DOI: 10.2514/1.J060573
[27,39–42], with corrections related to the jet Mach number and the
specific heat ratio of the ejected gas. The empirical models cited
earlier are reasonable descriptions to the trend of the Mach-disk
height varying with PR or NPR, while the accuracy is acceptable in
limited parameter ranges. For instance, the empirical model by Crist
et al. [39] achieves a narrow error band of 15% for sonic jets [21],
while it shows noticeable discrepancies (up to 50%) from the exper-
imental results of supersonic jets, as shown in Fig. 1. The influence of
the jet Mach number is not well reflected in the empirical model.
Most theoretical studies concerning the Mach-disk height rely on
empirical models. The limitation of the empirical models would
inevitably affect the application of the theories. Based on the
empirical models of the Mach-number distribution on the jet axis
[40,43], Young [44] developed a model of the Mach-disk height,
from the perspective of entropy balance, under the assumption that
the mixing of the flow downstream of the Mach disk is nearly at the
ambient pressure. The model shows considerable discrepancies
from the experimental result (see Fig. 1). Lengrand [45] and Len-
grand et al. [46,47] developed a model of the axial and radial
distribution of the density, based on the mass conservation equation
and half-empirical models [48,49], under the assumption that the
pressure downstream of the Mach disk pb is equal to the ambient
pressure pa . Based on an empirical model of the Mach-disk height,
Crist et al. [39] analyzed the flow by the theory of the 1-D nozzle and
developed a model of the axial distribution of the Mach number
upstream of the Mach disk Md for Md ≫ 1, under the assumption
pb ≈ pa . Finat’Ev et al. [50] also developed a model of the Mach-
number distribution on the jet axis, based on an empirical model of
the Mach-disk height, under the assumption pb ≈ pa . In addition,
Adamson and Nicholl [51] converted the problem of supersonic
underexpanded jets to sonic jets under the assumption that the
∂ρ ∂ >
 ρu~j   0
∂t ∂xj
∂ρu~i  ∂ ∂
  
ρu~i u~j  δij p
∂t ∂xj ∂x
∂ρ E
~ ∂ ∂
 j
∂ ~
T h
 ρ H~ u~j   λ 
∂t ∂xj ∂xj ∂xj
distribution of pressure on the jet axis for supersonic jets is the
same as that for sonic jets downstream of the point with the corre-
sponding jet Mach number.
To summarize, there involve in the aforementioned theoretical
studies the following two critical relations: distribution of Mach
number (or pressure and density) on the jet axis and the relation
JIANG ET AL.
between the pressure downstream of the Mach disk pb and the
ambient pressure pa . The pb is a primary parameter to bridge the
Mach-disk height and the ambient pressure. If the known quantity pa
is converted to the Mach number upstream of the Mach disk Md
through certain theories (pressure balance, entropy balance, etc.), the
Mach-disk height could be determined by substituting the Md into
the Mach-number distribution on the jet axis. However, the models of
the Mach-number distribution adopted in the aforementioned studies
are either empirical or numerical, of limited applicable ranges due to
the dependence on experimental or numerical conditions. As to the
relation between pb and pa , equality is adopted in all the aforemen-
tioned studies. But, in the experiment by Finat’Ev et al. [50], the
deviation between pb and pa shows certain randomness and a
maximum value above 60%. In addition, Eastman and Radtke [52]
indicate that approximation might be acceptable only for the last
Mach disk or the downstream-most normal shock (if there are quasi-
periodic shock cells). Thus, a theoretical description of the Mach-
number distribution remains to be developed, and the relation
between pb and pa needs further researches.
To avoid the limitation induced by empirical formulas, this work
aimed at developing a theoretical prediction of the Mach-disk height,
which is independent from experimental data. In Sec. II, the numeri-
cal methods are briefly introduced and validated. In Sec. III, the
dominance of the inviscid mechanism in the free-expansion region is
found by the analyses of the viscous term of the Navier–Stokes (N–S)
momentum equation and the Riemann invariants. The relation of the
pressure downstream of the Mach disk pb and the ambient pressure
pa is analyzed. It is found that pb could be a proper control parameter
to model the Mach-disk height. In Sec. IV, a model of the Mach-disk
height is developed step by step through analyses in each subregion
of the free expansion. In Sec. V, an asymptotic analysis of the
theoretical model is presented first. Then, the theoretical prediction
is compared with experimental, numerical, as well as empirical
results. Finally, the theoretical model is applied to the lateral
jet interaction. In Sec. VI, the main conclusions of this work are
summarized.
II. Numerical Methods
The freejet and the lateral jet are solved by a Reynolds-averaged
Navier–Stokes (RANS) method, which is implemented on the code
ACANS developed by the authors. ACANS has been validated by
various simulations of high-speed flow [53–55]. The governing
equations and numerical methodology used in ACANS are briefly
introduced in this section.
A. Governing Equations
The compressible turbulent flow is described by Favré-averaged
N–S equations [56] in ACANS. The governing equations can be
written in a conservation form as
9
>
>
>
>
>

 >
>
=
τ ij  τij
t
(1)
>
μ ∂ ~ ∂k
 >
>
>
>
 u~i τ ij  τij >
t
 μ  σ k μt  t >
>
Prt ∂xj ∂xj ;
where the superscript − represents Reynolds average and ∼ repre-
sents Favré average. Molecular stress tensor τij and Reynolds-stress
tensor τtij are as follows
 
∂u~ i ∂u~ j 2 ∂u~
τ ij  μ  − μ k δij (2)
∂xj ∂xi 3 ∂xk
 JIANG ET AL. 2117

  structured grid. The computational domain varies with the length of

∂u~ i ∂u~ j 2 ∂u~ 2
τtij  μt  − μt k δij − ρ kδij (3) the reaccelerating region to ensure that the jet flow is supersonic at the
∂xj ∂xi 3 ∂xk 3 right bound. The influence of the nozzle configuration is neglected
and uniform inflow is set at the nozzle exit. The lower bound is
In this work, numerical simulation is performed with Menter’s k-ω symmetry for 2-D cases and axis for 3-D cases. The upper and right
shear stress transport (SST) turbulence model. The form of transport bounds are assigned ambient pressure and temperature. The left
equations is given as bound is set as adiabatic wall for the experiment by Driftmyer [36],

9
  >
>
∂ρk ∂ρu~ j k ∂u~ ∂ ∂k >
>
  τtij i − β
ρ kω  μ  σ k μt  >
>
=
∂t ∂xj ∂xj  ∂x j  ∂xj
(4)
∂ρω ∂ρu~ j ω ρ υ t ∂u~ i ∂ ∂ω 1 ∂k ∂ω >
>
  τij − βρ ω2  μ  σ ω μt   21 − F1 ρσ ω2 >
∂t ∂xj μt ∂xj ∂xj ∂xj ω ∂xj ∂xj >
>
>
;

with the turbulent eddy viscosity where the nozzle is flush mounted. For the experiment by Love et al.
[29], the left bound is assigned ambient values and is translated to
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ρ a1 k about 10d upstream of the nozzle exit.

μt 
maxa1 ω; ΩF2 
Details about the model constants β
, σ k , β, σ ω , υ and the blending
functions F1 , F2 can be found in [57]. The compressibility correc-
tions proposed by Wilcox [56] are employed for k–ω SST turbulence
model as

β
 β
i 1  ξ
FMt  ; β  βi − β
ξ
FMt 
(6)
FMt   Mt − Mt0 HMt − Mt0 
2 2
where ξ
 1.5, Mt0  0.25, and Hx is Heaviside step function.
The turbulent Mach number Mt is defined as
r
2k
Mt 
a2
The AUSMDV scheme [58] is employed for discretizing the
inviscid flux vectors, and the MUSCL method [59] is used to achieve
second-order accuracy. The second-order central-difference scheme
is used to discretizing the viscous flux vectors, and the implicit LU-
SGS scheme [60] is employed for time marching.
B. Numerical Validation
The experiments of two-dimensional (2-D) freejets by Driftmyer
[36] and three-dimensional (3-D) freejets by Love et al. [29] are
simulated to validate the code ACANS. The conditions are shown in
Table 1, where d refers to the width or diameter of the nozzle exit.
CV refers to convergent nozzle and CV-DV refers to convergent-
divergent nozzle. As shown in Fig. 2, the computational grid used is a
(5)
To assess the grid independence, grids of different spans and
dimensions (Table 2) are used to simulate the experimental case
4 in Table 1. As shown in Fig. 3, the locations of the shock cell, the
reaccelerating region, and the shear layer are almost the same for the
grids of different field spans. In Fig. 4, the numerical results of
different grids coincide and only slight differences could be observed
near the Mach disk. Therefore, grid 1 is chosen to be the template for
other conditions. The grid-refining region follows the shock cell, and
the span of the grid is adjusted to ensure that the jet flow is reaccel-
erated to be supersonic at the right bound. As shown in Fig. 5, the
numerical results match the experimental results well, which indi-
cates the numerical methods are acceptable.
III. Basic Understanding of Supersonic
(7) Underexpanded Freejets
In this section, the supersonic underexpanded freejets are analyzed
qualitatively to present the dominance of the inviscid mechanism in
the free-expansion region as well as the pressure balance between pb
and pa .
A. Inviscid Mechanism in the Free-Expansion Region
The viscous term of the RANS equations is a reasonable indicator
to the viscous effects involved [61,62]. The contour of the Euclidean
norm of the nondimensional viscous term is shown in Fig. 6. It is
found that the shear layer, the Mach disk, and the slipstreams are
dominated by the viscous effects, with the norm above 10−4 . How-
ever, in the expansion region upstream of the intercepting shocks and
the Mach disk, the flow is dominated by the inviscid mechanism, with
the norm below 10−5.

Table 1 Conditions of the freejet experiments

No. Ref. Nozzle d; mm Mj Re PR NPR pa ; Pa Tj Ta
1 [36] 2-D, CV 1.521 1 9.59 × 104 15.69 29.70 13,790 240.74 288.89
2 [36] 2-D, CV 1.521 1 1.36 × 105 22.29 42.19 13,790 240.74 288.89
3 [36] 2-D, CV 1.521 1 3.77 × 105 61.75 116.88 13,790 240.74 288.89
4 [36] 2-D, CV 1.521 1 7.03 × 105 115.02 217.72 13,790 240.74 288.89
5 [36] 2-D, CV 1.521 1 9.60 × 105 157.24 297.64 13,790 240.74 288.89
6 [36] 2-D, CV–DV 2.167 3 1.34 × 106 15.16 556.86 13,790 103.17 288.89
7 [36] 2-D, CV–DV 2.167 3 1.89 × 106 21.39 785.71 13,790 103.17 288.89
8 [29] 3-D, CV 12.7 1 8.16 × 105 2.29 4.33 101,325 250 300
9 [29] 3-D, CV 12.7 1 2.09 × 106 5.86 11.09 101,325 250 300
10 [29] 3-D, CV 12.7 1 3.76 × 106 10.56 19.99 101,325 250 300
11 [29] 3-D, CV 12.7 1 5.72 × 106 16.05 30.38 101,325 250 300
 2118 JIANG ET AL.

Ambient

~ 0.5 Reaccelerating region length

Ambient or Ambient
adiabatic wall

Grid refined at
shock cell

Nozzle Symmetry or axis

~ 1 Reaccelerating region length
Fig. 2 Scheme of the computational grid.
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Table 2
No. Domain/(d × d)
1 500 × 250
2 500 × 250
3 1000 × 500
300
Grids used in grid study
Driftmyer, (1972) Mj=1, 2-D
Driftmyer, (1972) Mj=3, 2-D
Resolution/(cells × cells) Sizes
Love et al. (1959) Mj=1, 3-D
500  200 × 250  50 210,000 100
RANS
800  200 × 350  50 400,000
800  400 × 350  100 540,000
h/d

10
Grid 1

Ma = 1

1
1 10 100 200
PR
Fig. 5 Mach-disk height varying with PR.
Ma
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Grid 3

Fig. 3 Mach-number contours of different grids.

Shear layer

10
8.7
Intercepting shock

8 Mach disk
8.6 Slipstreams

6 8.5
124 125 126
Ma 1

2 Fig. 6 Contour of the Euclidean norm of the nondimensional viscous

Grid 1, 500d × 250d, 210k
Grid 2, 500d × 250d, 400k 0 term; Mj
2 and PR
20.
Grid 3, 1000d × 500d, 540k 124 125 126

0
0 50 100 150 200 250
x/d other expansion waves would end at the intercepting shocks. As
Fig. 4 Mach-number distribution on the symmetry. shown in Fig. 8, for the PR considered, the Mach-number distribution
in the expansion flow upstream of the shocks is almost the same as the
free expansion described by method of characteristics (MOC) [63].
As shown in Fig. 7, the contour lines of Riemann invariants are Thus, the expansion region upstream of the shocks is called the free-
similar to the characteristic curves. Some of the expansion waves that expansion region in this work. The flow in the free-expansion region
originated from the nozzle exit are reflected by the pressure-balanced is mainly affected by the jet Mach number Mj, while the PR
boundary and induce the corresponding compression waves, which influences where the free-expansion region ends, or the location of
would converge and become the intercepting shocks. Meanwhile, the the Mach disk.
 JIANG ET AL. 2119

Reflected shock
p pa

Intercepting shock

Mach disk pb

p/pa
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

Fig. 7 Contour lines of Riemann invariants; the dashed box refers to Fig. 9 Contour of pressure; Mj
2 and PR
20.
Fig. 12a; Mj
2 and PR
20.
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1.5
B. Pressure Balance in the Supersonic Underexpanded Freejets Mj=1
As shown in Fig. 9, the static pressure of the flow decreases as the Mj=2
flow expands. After the flow crosses the intercepting shock, the 1.4
pressure increases and meets the balance with the ambient pressure
pa . The pressure increases further across the reflected shock and
meets the balance with the pressure downstream of the Mach disk pb , 1.3
pb/pa

which indicates that pb > pa . As shown in Fig. 10, the pressure

downstream of the Mach disk pb is always larger than the ambient
pressure pa , while the deviation goes down generally as the PR 1.2
increases or the jet Mach number decreases. For a relatively low
PR (∼20), a large deviation (∼50%) could be observed, while the
minimum deviation is about 15% for a relatively high PR (>150). 1.1
In previous studies [33,50,51], the approximation of pb by pa
would actually underestimate the value. For the empirical model,
where the pressure approximation pb ≈ pa is adopted, the error of the 1
0 200 600400 800 1000
prediction would also be more significant for supersonic jets than that PR
for sonic jets. Two empirical predictions of the Mach-disk height are
Fig. 10 Ratio of the pressure downstream of the Mach disk and the
shown in Fig. 11. The empirical model by Driftmyer [36] is ambient pressure pb ∕pa varying with PR; RANS results of 2-D under-
expanded freejets.
h 1
 γM2j ⋅ PR1∕i1 γMj i−1 (8)
d i1
where i  0 for 2-D freejets and i  1 for 3-D freejets. The empirical
model (8) by Driftmyer [36] is based on the experimental results
and the empirical model by Werle et al. [33] is mentioned earlier, whereas the empirical model (9) by Werle et al.
[33] is developed under the approximation pb ≈ pa . The predicted
h values are near the experimental and numerical results, with maxi-
 0.7γM2j ⋅ PR1∕i1 (9)
d mum relative errors below 5%, at Mj  1 and a relatively low PR

10 15
RANS RANS
MOC MOC

10
6
Ma

Ma

PR = 61.8 115.0 157.2

4
5

2
PR = 20 40 120

0 0

a) x/d b) x/d
Fig. 8 Mach-number distribution on the jet axis: a) Mj
1.0 and b) Mj
2.0.
 2120 JIANG ET AL.

1000 1200
Driftmyer, (1972) Experiment. RANS
RANS Driftmyer, (1972) Model
Driftmyer, (1972) Model 1000 Werle et al. (1970) Model
800 Werle et al. (1970) Model

800
600

h/d
h/d

600
400
400

200
200

0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 100 200 300 400
a) PR b) PR
Fig. 11 Mach-disk height varying with PR: a) Mj
1 and b) Mj
2.

(PR ≤ 60). However, with increasing jet Mach number and PR, the by any expansion fan, the simple regions covered by a single expan-
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relative errors increase to a maximum value above 30%. Moreover,
for supersonic freejets, there are significant discrepancies between
the two empirical models. The empirical models are applicable to
limited ranges of parameters and incapable to predict the Mach-disk
height at larger jet Mach number and PR.
The preceding analyses indicate that the approximation pb ≈ pa
would produce a noticeable error for a relatively low PR and high jet
Mach number. It might take several shock cells for the Mach disk to
meet the pressure balance with the ambient. The complicated corre-
lation between pb and pa involves the location of triple points, the
curvature of the shocks, and slip lines. The relation of pb and pa
needs further investigations in the future. Thus, this work would
focus on the Mach-number distribution on the jet axis and develop the
model of the Mach-disk height taking the pb as a controlled
parameter.
IV. Modeling of the Mach-Disk Height
Existing theoretical studies on the Mach-disk height frequently
involve the following two relations: the Mach-number distribution on
the jet axis and the relation between pb and pa . The flow in the
vicinity of the jet axis expands isentropically in the free-expansion
region, and then go through the Mach disk normally. Thus, the Mach
number upstream of the Mach disk Md could be deducted by solving
the isentropic relation and the normal shock relation. The Md could
be expressed as an implicit function of the jet Mach number Mj, the
static pressure at the nozzle exit pj , and the pressure downstream of
the Mach disk pb . According to the analyses in Sec. III.A, the PR is
irrelevant to the Mach-number distribution in the region, which is
almost identical to the free expansion described by MOC. Thus, in
this section, the Mach-number distribution in the free-expansion
region is deducted solely from the perspective of MOC. It should
be noted that, under certain jet Mach number and PR, the shock
reflection is regular and no Mach disk emerges. During the modeling
of the Mach-disk height, the Mach disk is assumed to exist and the
regular reflection is not considered.
The distribution of the Riemann invariant contour lines near the
nozzle exit is shown in Fig. 12a. According to the regions that the
expansion fans cover, the free-expansion region could be divided into
the following three subregions: the homogeneous region not covered
sion fan, and the nonsimple regions covered by both expansion fans.
The distribution is mainly determined by the jet Mach number Mj,
while the extent of the free-expansion region is limited by the PR.
When Mj → 1, the homogeneous region would degenerate to the
nozzle exit and the simple regions would degenerate to the endpoints
of the nozzle exit, while the nonsimple region would expand gradu-
ally to the whole free-expansion region.
As shown in Fig. 12b, from the perspective of MOC, the domain of
dependence for an arbitrary point d downstream of point j on the jet
axis is a subdomain of the whole free-expansion region. The homo-
geneous region is bounded by the leading characteristics C j and not
affected by any expansion fan. Thus, the flow parameters in the
region are the same as the nozzle exit. The simple region is affected
by only a single expansion fan, and thus analytically solvable (see
Sec. IV.A). However, the nonsimple region is affected by both
expansion fans. Thus, an analytical description is unavailable. The
intersection point c of the characteristics C −
j and Cd is a good
intermediary between the points j, d, which could provide the
analytical information in the homogeneous and simple regions, or
transfer the boundary conditions at point j to point c. Then, integral
relations between the points c, d could be established (see Sec. IV.B).
Finally, the integral relation could be converted to the prediction of
the Mach-disk height, h  hM j ; Md  (see Sec. IV.C).
A. Analytical Solution in the Simple Region
1. Shape of the Leading Characteristics
The flow in the simple region is determined by only a single
expansion fan, and thus analytically solvable. As shown in Fig. 12b,
for an arbitrary point d (downstream of the point j) on the jet axis, the
characteristics C−d always intersects C
j at a point c. According to the
definition of the Riemann invariants (J  ν∓θ), the flow parame-
ters at point c could be deducted as
νd  νj νd − νj
νc  ; θc  (10)
2 2
where θ is the angle of flow direction, and ν is the Prandtl–Meyer
expansion function

j c
Simple Simple Cd
Cj
d
Homogeneous Nonsimple Homogeneous j Nonsimple
Cj
Simple j Simple

a) b)
Fig. 12 Free-expansion region divided into three subregions: a) RANS results (zoomed view of Fig. 7), b) MOC results.
 JIANG ET AL. 2121

s 0s 1
γ1 γ  1
ν arctan@ cot μA − arctancot μ;
γ−1 γ−1

1 rc c AMd
μ  arcsin (11) j rk µc M Md
M µk
k rj
Aj 2µj AMc
As shown in Fig. 13, a polar coordinate system is defined, where j M Mc d
the pole is the nozzle exit edge point j− and the polar axis is parallel to
the jet axis. The flow parameters are constant on an arbitrary char-
acteristics in the simple region. Thus, the direction angle θ − μ of
the characteristics is constant and the characteristics are a straight polar radii
line. The polar coordinates of point c is rc ; θc − μc . The polar angle streamlines
characteristics
θc − μc  could be deducted from Eq. (10), while the radius rc would contour lines
be attained as follows.
According to the sine law Fig. 14 Reference flow tube.

dr rdθ − μ
 (12) ρj uj ρu
sinπ∕2 − 2μ sin2μ  2dμ r sin μj 
c c
rc sin μc (17)
ρ
u
k ρ u
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By substituting the differential of the Riemann invariant J on C

j ,
dJ  dν − dθ  0, into Eq. (12), the term dθ is reduced, and the The area ratio
integral of the reduced equation from point j to point c gives
!− γ  1
rc Rμc  A
ρu 2 γ−1 2 2γ − 1
 (13) q 

M  M (18)
rj Rμj  A ρ u γ1 γ1

where
Thus, the flow rate ratio of the outer and total flow
 1∕2γ−1
γ − cos 2μγ 1
Rμ  ; rj  d cot μj (14) _ k rk rk rc qc rc sin μc
m
cosγ−1 μ ⋅ sinγ1 μ 2 k    (19)
_j
m rj rc rj qj rj sin μj

Then, the Cartesian coordinates of point c could be expressed as and the inner flow rate is ρj uj Aj 1 − k.
follows:
B. Analytical Relations in the Nonsimple Region
xc 1 rc cosθc − μc  yc 1 1 rc sinθc − μc  1. Mass Conservation in the Nonsimple Region
 ;   (15)
d 2 rj sin μj d 2 2 rj sin μj The flow in the nonsimple region is affected by both expansion
fans, and thus could not be described analytically. Still, an analytical
integral relation could be obtained from the mass conservation. As
2. Mass Conservation in the Simple Region
shown in Fig. 14, the flow rate through sections Aj , AMc , AMd inside
As shown in Fig. 14, the jet flow could be divided into two parts by the reference tube is conserved:
the reference flow tube, which is bounded by the streamline through
point c and its symmetry. The flow in the reference flow tube could be Z Z
directly integrated on the leading characteristics. However, because ρj uj Aj 1 − k  ρc uc ⋅ dA  ρd ud ⋅ dA (20)
the flow outside the reference flow tube and upstream of point c is AMc AMd

Prandtl–Meyer expansion flow, the outer flow could be deducted first

and then the inner flow. Similar to Sec. IV.A.1, the division of Eq. (20) by the flow rate per
As shown in Fig. 14, there is mass conservation for the outer flow, unit area on the critical section, ρ
u
, reduces the unit flow rates into
that is, the flow rate through segment rk , m
_ k , is equal to that through area ratios. The area ratio q  qM is a function of Mach number,
segment rc , m _ c: and thus could be extracted from the integrals on Mach contours. If
Z Z we define the streamwise projected area
ρj uj ⋅ dA  ρc uc ⋅ dA (16)
rk rc

d'
The flow in the simple region is self-similar. Thus, the flow d"
parameters on segments rk , rc are constant. Divided by the flow rate
c'
per unit area on the critical section (the sonic section in the nozzle
theory), ρ
u
, the integral Eq. (16) becomes c
d
c"
p
A c Apc"
µ rc c
j
d( µ) r dr Apd"
r 2(µ dµ) Apc'
y 2µ
d rj Apd
x j
Cj A p
d'

Fig. 13 Shape of the leading characteristics C

j . Fig. 15 Mean value law applied to cross sections of flow tube.
 2122 JIANG ET AL.

Z Z Z Z Z
A s ⋅ dA (21) spc ⋅ dA < Ac < spc00 ⋅ dA; spd00 ⋅ dA < Ad < spd ⋅ dA (26)
A Apc Apc00 Apd00 Apd

where the unit vector of flow velocity s  cos θ; sin θ, Eq. (20) According to mean value law, there exist sections that are
could be converted into perpendicular to the streamlines (i.e., streamwise projected sections,
Z Apc0 , Apd 0 , subject to Apc0  Ac , Apd 0  Ad ). Thus, the areas of the Mach
qj contour sections, Ac , Ad could be replaced by the areas of the nearby
Ac  sc ⋅ dA  A 1 − k;
AM c qc j streamwise projected sections, Apc0 , Apd 0 .
Z
qj
Ad  sd ⋅ dA  A 1 − k (22)
AM d qd j C. Modeling of the Mach-Disk Height
The preceding analyses in Sec. IV.B are mathematically strict,
while it is not feasible to describe the integral relations through
For now, the relation of mass flow rates between upstream and
simple algebraic expressions. The analyses in this section are based
downstream of the nonsimple region has been converted into the
on the MOC results in the parameter ranges, 1 ≤ Mj ≤ 10, 1.1 ≤
relation of streamwise projected areas. The location of point d could
be deducted if the relation between the streamwise projected area and γ ≤ 1.6, and h∕d ≤ 103 , which cover most experimental conditions
the location of the corresponding section is attained. reviewed by Franquet et al. [21]. In Sec. IV.C.1, approximate analy-
ses based on certain assumptions would give a model of the Mach-
disk height. Then, the error of the model is analyzed in detail (see
2. Mean Value of the Streamwise Projected Area
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Sec. IV.C.2). Finally, a theoretical model is developed in Sec. IV.C.3.

Applying Gauss law to the field enclosed by the reference flow
tube and arbitrary two sections A1 , A2 (in which A1 is upstream of A2 ), 1. Fan-Shaped Approximation of the Streamwise Projected Area
because the flux through the tube wall is 0
The streamwise projected areas are expressed as integrals of
Z Z Z direction vectors on Mach-number contours, which would be unsolv-
s2 ⋅ dA − s1 ⋅ dA  ∇ ⋅ s dV (23) able unless the distribution of the direction vectors is known. The
A2 A1 streamlines of underexpanded freejets at varying jet Mach numbers
are shown in Fig. 16, accompanied with tangent lines (dashed lines)
Considering the mass conservation equation of steady flow along the of the streamlines at points on curve jc. The flow across jc, or the
streamline (i.e., the direction of s), leading characteristics, becomes affected by both expansion fans.
Usually, the flow on the left of the jet axis (near the edge point j− ) is
∇ ⋅ ρu  0; ρu∇ ⋅ s  s ⋅ ∇ρu  0 (24) more affected by the right-running expansion fan (originated from
point j− ) than the other expansion fan and vice versa. The tangent line
the Mach number increases in the expansion flow, q  qM could serve as a baseline to evaluate the effects of expansion fans on
decreases. Thus the flow direction. As shown in Figs. 16a–16c, the deviation of the
streamline from the tangent line is noticeable for 1 ≤ Mj < 2 and
s ⋅ ∇ρu < 0; ∇⋅s>0 (25) increases quickly as Mj → 1. The influence of one single expansion
fan on the near-field flow is significantly stronger than the other one,
In Fig. 15, the Mach-number contour AMc intersects the jet axis at or “anisotropic” expansion. However, as shown in Figs. 16d–16f, the
point c 0 0 . The Mach-number contour AMd intersects the streamline at deviation observed is relatively small for Mj  2, and the streamlines
point d 0 0 . Sections Apc , Apc0 0 , Apd , and Apd 0 0 are perpendicular to stream- are almost overlapped with the tangent lines for Mj  3 and 5. The
lines. The subscripts indicate the sections pass through the corre- flow denoted by the streamline is affected evenly by the two expan-
sponding points. Apply Gauss law to sections Apc , Apc0 0 , Apd , and Apd 0 0 : sion fans, or “isotropic” expansion.

j j c j c

j j

a) b) c)

j c j j
c c

d) e) f)
Fig. 16 Streamlines distribution at Mj
(a) 1.0, (b) 1.3, (c) 1.5, (d) 2.0, (e) 3.0, (f) 5.0.
 JIANG ET AL. 2123

If we leave aside the noticeable deviation for 1 ≤ Mj < 2 and qc ) c

assume the streamlines through jc could be replaced by the tangent k)(q d

d(1
lines for Mj ≥ 2 (straight streamline assumption), the streamlines in 0.5q j
xj xjc l cd=
the nonsimple region could be approximated as follows:
 c
x − x0 θ  0 d
(27) xc yc tan 0.5
y  l sin θ c
2 j
c
lc
where x0 θ; 0 is the intersection point between the tangent line and
the jet axis, and l is the distance from point x0 θ; 0 to an arbitrary Ac 2 clc
ld
point on the tangent line.
For an arbitrary streamwise projected section in the nonsimple
Ad 2 cld
region, Ap , subject to sp × dAp  0, sp ⋅ dAp  dAp , by substitut-
ing the approximation (27) and sp × dAp  0 into sp ⋅ dAp  dAp ,
the integral of dAp could be approximated as follows: Fig. 17 Formulation of the prediction model.
Z
Ap  dAp  2θlθ  Δθ  Δex (28)  −γ1∕2γ−1
2 γ−1 2
Ap q  qM  M  M
γ1 γ1
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where
the flow rate ratio
Z xθθ
Δθ  2 θ 0 cos θ 0 − sin θ 0  dx0 θ 0  (29) qc rc sin μc
x00 k
qj rj sin μj
and the Δex covers the effects not explicitly described for now.
Thus, the equivalent sections Apc0 , Apd 0 could be approximated as the coordinates of point c
follows:
xc 1 rc cosθc − μc  yc 1 1 rc sinθc − μc 
 ;  
Apc0  2θc lc  Δθc   Δex;c (30) d 2 rj sin μj d 2 2 rj sin μj

and the parameters at point c

Apd 0  2θc ld  Δθc   Δex;d (31)
νd  νj νd − νj
By subtracting Eq. (30) from Eq. (31) and ignoring the extra terms νc  ; θc 
2 2
δA  Ad − Ac  Apd 0 − Apc0 ≈ δAfan  2θc ld − lc  (32) as well as the ratio of the polar radii for points c, j

By nondimensionalizing the preceding approximation with the area rc Rμc 

 ;
of the nozzle exit Aj rj Rμj 
 1∕2γ−1
γ − cos 2μγ 1
δA ≈ δA fan (33) Rμ  ; rj  d cot μj
cosγ−1 μ ⋅ sinγ1 μ 2
where the nondimensional fan-shaped approximation
2. Analyses of the Extra Term
 
2θ l − lc  x x yc yc The extra term Δex covers the effects excluded from the fan-shaped
δA fan  c d  2θc d − c  − (34)
Aj d d d tan θc d sin θc approximation in previous analyses. In this section, the components
of the extra term are extracted and compared with each other. As
is a function of the jet Mach number Mj, the Mach number upstream shown in Fig. 18, under the straight streamline assumption, the
of the Mach disk Md , and the nondimensional Mach-disk height h∕d. reference flow tube is approximated by a fan, and At is a subsection
The nondimensional area difference of the Ap bounded by the fan-shaped approximation. The difference

Ad − Ac qj qj
At
δA   1 − k − 1 − k (35) At
s dA
Aj qd qc
ld
l dt l d
is determined by the jet Mach number Mj and the Mach number dt
upstream of the Mach disk Md . j
c
By rearranging the terms in the approximation δA ≈ δA fan and l dt
taking point d at the Mach disk, the Mach-disk height could be c
d
deducted as Eq. (36), terms of which are shown in Fig. 17:
ld
hpred xd xj Δxjc Δxc Δlcd
    
d d d d d d
 
xc yc θc qj 1 − k 1 1
  tan  − (36) d" d'
d d 2 2θc qd qc

where the area ratio Fig. 18 Fan-shaped approximation of the streamwise projected area.
 2124 JIANG ET AL.

between the Ap and the subsection At is called the tube term: δA  Ad − Ac  Apd 0 − Apc0  δAfan  ΔAl  ΔAs  ΔAt (40)
Z Z Z
where δAfan  2θc ld − lc  is the fan-shaped approximation of the
ΔAt  Ap − At  s ⋅ dA − s ⋅ dA  s ⋅ dA
Ap At ΔAt area difference, ΔAl  2θc Δld − Δlc  is induced by the approxi-
mation of the fan radius and called the station term, ΔAs  Δsd 0 − Δsc 0
For an arbitrary streamwise projected section in the nonsimple is the distribution term, ΔAt  ΔAtd 0 − ΔAtc 0 is the tube term, while
region Ap , the integral on subsection At could be reduced as follows: the integral terms Δθc  are canceled in the difference, for it is only
dependent on θc .
Z
The components of the extra term in the fan-shaped approxima-
At  dAt  2θc lθc   Δθc   Δs (37) tion, Ap ≈ 2θc l [see Eqs. (38) and (39)], are shown in Figs. 19a and
At
19b. The distribution term Δs is a minor component and the integral
where Δs is induced by the deviation of the distribution of the term Δθc  is neglectable. For section Apc0 , the fan-shaped approxi-
streamlines on subsection At from the straight streamline assumption. mation is adjacent to the reference flow tube, and thus produces a
The term Δs is called the distribution term. Thus, the equivalent relatively small tube term. For Mj ≥ 1.1, the dominant term is the
sections Apc0 , Apd 0 could be expressed as follows: station term ΔAlc  2θc Δlc , while the tube term ΔAtc 0 could surpass
the station term for h∕d ≤ 1 as Mj → 1. For section Apd 0 , significant
Apc0  2θc lc  Δlc   Δθc   Δsc 0  ΔAtc 0 (38) deviation could be observed between the reference flow tube and the
fan-shaped approximation. The absolute values of the dominant
terms, the tube term ΔAtd 0 and the station term ΔAld , increase quickly
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Apd 0  2θc ld  Δld   Δθc   Δsd 0  ΔAtd 0
where lc , ld are distances from point x0 θc ; 0 to points c, d,
respectively; and Δlc , Δld are deviations led from the replacement
of lct , ldt by lc, ld , respectively. By subtracting the approximation
[Eq. (38)] from approximation [Eq. (39)], the difference of the section
areas δA could be expressed as follows:
(39) as the Mach-disk height grows. Fortunately, the equivalent section
Apd 0 is upstream of point d, which produces a negative station term to
cancel most of the tube term. Thus, the two components are consid-
ered as a combined term in later analyses. It should be noted that point
c is degenerated to the nozzle exit edge point at Mj  1, and the
singular point makes it impossible to extract a reference flow tube.
Thus, the results for Mj  1 are not available in Figs. 19 and 20.

2 c
lc 2 c
ld
Atc'
Mj { Atd'
s s
c' d'

( c) ( c)

Ac Ad

Mj = 1.00001

a) h/d b) h/d
Fig. 19 Components of the extra term in the fan-shaped approximation for a) Apc0 and b) Apd 0 ; 1.00001 ≤ Mj ≤ 10; γ
1.4.

Al + At
As
Mj = 1.00001

1.01

A A
1.1

1.3

2.0

10.0

a) h/d b) h/d
Fig. 20 The extra term varying with h∕d a) The components of the extra term and b) the ratio of the extra term in the fan-shaped approximation;
1.00001 ≤ Mj ≤ 10 and γ
1.4.
 JIANG ET AL. 2125

3. Model with the Extra Term where

For 1 ≤ Mj < 2, the streamlines deviate noticeably from the tan-
gent lines (see Figs. 16a–16c), and the distribution of streamlines νd  θc  − νj
Δθ−c  θ−c − θc  0.5θc ; θ−c   1.5θc (42)
could not be described with the straight streamline assumption. The 2
straight streamline assumption could be interpreted as an isotropic
expansion assumption, where the flow inside the reference tube νj − νd − θc 
within the nonsimple region is affected evenly by the two expansion Δθ 
c  θc − 0  −0.5θc ; θ
c   −0.5θc (43)
2
fans, producing an isotropic expansion and insignificant deviation.
Or specifically, under the isotropic expansion assumption, the flow which indicates that the contributions are of opposite signs with the
direction is almost normal to the Mach-number contour, and the same absolute value. It should be noted that the expansion from the
deflection angle of the streamlines across AMc , AMd is almost 0. nozzle exit to point c is only affected by the right-running expansion
However, when Mj → 1, one expansion fan imposes prominently fan (the fan radiated from point j− ), and thus, the baseline in Δθ−c is
stronger influence on the flow than the other, producing noticeable θc , whereas that in Δθ c is 0. The expansion angles for the two
anisotropic expansion, where the deviation of the Mach-number expansion fans concerned are φ− and φ . The results show φ− <
contour from the equivalent streamwise projected section would φ (in which φ are positive values), which reflect the uneven
produce the station term, and the deflection of the streamlines would contribution of the two expansion fans. To achieve matching con-
lead to the tube term. The distribution term is omitted in the modeling, tribution on the deflection angle of the flow on the left side, the right-
considering that the distribution term is dominant for h∕d ≤ 1, and running expansion fan (the fan radiated from point j− ) requires a
the extra term is below 10% in the range. The station term and the tube smaller expansion angle than the left-running expansion fan (the fan
radiated from point j ), that is, the influence of the right-running
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term are dominant and related to the anisotropic expansion of

the flow. expansion fan on the flow on the left side is prominently stronger than
As shown in Fig. 21, there exists a point dc0 0 on the Mach-number the left-running expansion fan.
contour AMd subject to θ  θc (i.e., the deflection angle Δθdc0 0  0). By weighing the contributions of the expansion fans Δθ 
c with φ ,
the deflection angle could be revised as follows:
As to the flow expanding from point c to point dc0 0 , the contributions
of the two expansion fans on the deflection of the flow could be
Δθ φ Δθ−c  φ− Δθ
c φ − φ−
described as follows: Δθ    −   (44)
θc 0.5φ  φ θc φ  φ−

where
Δθdc0 0  Δθ−c  Δθ
c (41)
φ−  θ−c − μ−c  − θc − μc ; φ  μj − θ 
c  μc  (45)

By substituting θc in the prediction [Eq. (36)] with the arithmetic

Cj d" mean value θc 1  0.5Δθ,
 a corrected prediction could be devel-
Cc c oped as follows:
c d"c M = Md, = )  
j Cc
c
hpred xc yc θ qj 1 − k 1 1
c   tan c  − (46)
Cd d d d 2 2θc 1  0.5Δθ  qd qc
c
d
The results of the theoretical model [Eq. (46)] are shown in Figs. 22
j c
and 23. For 1 ≤ h∕d ≤ 103, the curves approach to the line h  hpred ,
with a maximum error of about 10% for Mj  1 and 5% for Mj ≥ 2.

V. Results and Analyses

In the beginning of this section, the asymptotic form of the model is
deducted as PR approaches 1 or infinity and is compared with
Fig. 21 Definition of the reference expansion angles. empirical models. Then, based on RANS computations, the theoreti-

30 300

20 200
Mj = 2, 10 Mj = 1
h/d

Mj = 1 Mj = 2, 10
h/d

10 100
h = hpred h = hpred

0 0

a) hpred/d b) hpred/d

Fig. 22 Prediction of the Mach-disk height and corresponding at a) h∕d below 30 and b) h∕d below 300.
 2126 JIANG ET AL.

15% 10%
h/d
Mj
h/d
10% h/d
5%
Mj
5%
Relative Error

Relative Error
0 0
Mj

5%
5%
10%

15% 10%

a) h/d b) Mj

Fig. 23 Relative error of the prediction of the Mach-disk height: a) varying with Mach-disk height and b) varying with Mj at γ
1.4.
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cal predictions with various inputs are compared with experimental region. In addition, as Mj → ∞, hpred ∕d → Mj . For 2-D freejets, the
and numerical results as well as empirical models. Finally, the empirical predictions [Eqs. (8) and (9)] proposed by Driftmyer [36]
theoretical model is applied to the lateral jet interaction. and Werle et al. [33] are also proportional to Mj .
As PR → ∞, or Md → ∞
A. Asymptotic Relation Between the Theoretical Model and the
Empirical Models s 
π γ1 νlim  νj
The empirical models are acceptable descriptions on the trend of νd → νlim  −1 ; νc → ;
Mach-disk height varying with NPR or PR. Thus, the theoretical 2 γ−1 2 (53)
prediction [Eq. (46)] is supposed to degenerate to a general form of νlim − νj
empirical models under certain conditions. θc →
2
As PR → 1, or Md → Mj
Thus, the position of and parameters at point c would be constant.
νd → νj ; νc → νj ; θc → 0 (47) The area ratio
The correction term Δθ is analyzed at first. For any jet Mach number  
2 γ − 1 2 −γ1∕2γ−1
Mj ≥ 1, the differentials of Riemann invariants J on the character- qM  M
γ1 γ1
istics C
j are as follows:  
γ − 1 −γ1∕2γ−1 −2∕γ−1
dJ  dν∓dθ  0 → M (54)
(48) γ1
Then
and thus the prediction
   
dμ dμ dν  dμ  
  (49) hpred qj 1 − k 1 1 2
dθ dν dθ dν → −  Oq−1
d   OMd  (55)
γ−1

d 2θc 1  0.5Δθ qd qc

Thus
−
According to the isentropic relation on the jet axis, the relation
φ −Δθ c 1  dμ∕dθj between the stagnation pressure p0 and the static pressure pd at
→ → 1;
φ− Δθ−c 1 − dμ∕dθc point d
(50)
φ − φ− 2    
Δθ  1− →0 p0 γ − 1 2 γ∕γ−1 γ − 1 γ∕γ−1 2γ∕γ−1
φ  φ− 1  φ ∕φ−  1 Md → Md (56)
pd 2 2
when Mj  1, μj  π∕2, rc ∕rj  0, and xc ; yc   0; 0.5d, that
is, point c is degenerated to the exit edge point j− , k  0, and the There would be a Mach reflection for the intercepting shocks when
predicted height the PR is large enough. According to the normal shock relation at the
center of the Mach disk
 
hpred q2j 1 qc − qd 1 dq 1 q
→ →−  M2j − 1  0 (51)
d qc qd qj νd − νj 2 qdν j 2 pb 2γ 2γ
1 M2 − 1 → M2 (57)
pd γ1 d γ1 d
when Mj > 1, 0 < μj < π∕2, rc ∕rj → 1, and k → 1, and the pre-
dicted height If the pressure downstream of the Mach disk pb is assumed to be the
same order of the ambient pressure pa [i.e., pb ∕pa  O1]
hpred x 1 q
→ c→ M2j − 1 (52)  
d d 2 p0 p p p γ  1 γ − 1 γ∕γ−1 2∕γ−1
q NPR   0 d b→ Md
pa pd pb pa 2γ 2
Thus, as PR → 1, hpred ∕d → 0.5 M2j − 1. The prediction of the
theoretical model approaches the axial span of the homogeneous  OMd2∕γ−1  (58)
 JIANG ET AL. 2127

1000 1200
Driftmyer, (1972) Experiment RANS
RANS Driftmyer, (1972) Model
Driftmyer, (1972) Model 1000 Werle et al. (1970) Model
800 Werle et al. (1970) Model Present Model
Present Model
800
600

h/d
h/d

600
400
400

200
200

0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 100 200 300 400
a) PR b) PR
Fig. 24 Mach-disk height varying with PR at a) Mj
1 and b) Mj
2.

freestream Mach number M∞, jet Mach number Mj, and PR are
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pj
PR  ⋅ NPR  OMd2∕γ−1  (59) considered. For lateral jet interaction, the PR is defined as pj ∕p∞ .
p0
The contour lines of Riemann invariants are shown in Fig. 25,
which is similar to those in the freejet. The streamline that originated
As a result, hpred ∕d  ONPR  OPR, which is of the same order from the nozzle center keeps aligned with the jet axis until it reaches
of the empirical models [33,36] for 2-D freejets. Thus, it is reasonable the Mach disk. As shown in Figs. 26 and 27, for the M∞ , Mj , and PR
to conclude that the theoretical prediction [Eq. (46)] asymptotically considered, the Mach-number distribution matches the free expan-
approaches to general power functions of the NPR or PR when the PR
approaches infinity.
12
RANS
B. Predictions of the Theoretical Model and Empirical Models
MOC
In this section, the experiments by Driftmyer [36] and several 10
additional conditions are simulated. The theoretical model is com-
pared with the empirical models [(8) and (9)], experimental and 8
numerical results, as shown in Fig. 24.
Taking the pressure downstream of the Mach disk pb as a con- PR = 250 300 350 400
Ma

trolled parameter, the Mach number upstream of the Mach disk Md 6

could be deducted by solving the isentropic relation [Eq. (56)] and the
normal shock relation [Eq. (57)]. For Mj  1; 2 and the PR, where
4
the Mach disk emerges, the error between the theoretical prediction
hpred  hpb  and the numerical results is below 10%. The theoreti-
cal prediction proposed in this work is more accurate than the 2
empirical predictions for sonic and supersonic underexpanded free-
jets, especially for supersonic ones.
0
0 100 200 300
C. Prediction for the Lateral Jet Interaction y/d
In this section, 2-D lateral jet interaction is simulated by RANS, Fig. 26 Mach-number distribution on the jet axis; M∞
4 and
and the model presented in this work is applied to the lateral jet Mj
1.
interaction. The freestream Reynolds number is 8.7 × 106 . Different

10
RANS
MOC
8

6 5 4
M = 5.5 4.5 3.5
Ma

0
0 50 100 150
y/d
Fig. 25 Contour lines of Riemann invariants; M∞
4, Mj
2, and Fig. 27 Mach-number distribution on the jet axis; Mj
1 and
PR
250. PR
210.
 2128 JIANG ET AL.

150 normal shock relation. The theoretical model proposed in this work
RANS could obtain a better prediction of the Mach-disk height than empiri-
Present cal models, for sonic or supersonic underexpanded freejets, espe-
130 cially for supersonic ones. As the PR approaches to 1 or infinity, the
predictions given by the theoretical model would approach to the
same order as the empirical models.
110 For the lateral jet interaction, the influence of the freestream on the
flow in the free-expansion region is insignificant. The free-expansion
h/d

region in the lateral jet interaction is also dominated by the inviscid

90 mechanism. Thus, the theoretical model is applicable to the lateral jet
interaction. The theoretical prediction with errors below 10% is
achieved for the situation where the jet axis intersects with the Mach
70 disk.

Acknowledgments
50
3 4 5 6 This work was supported by grants from the National Natural
M Science Foundation of China (numbers 11721202, 11972061, and
Fig. 28 Mach-disk height varying with M∞ ; Mj
1 and PR
210. U20B2006), the China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (number
2020M680286), and the National Key Project of China (number
Downloaded by BEIHANG UNIVERSITY on March 20, 2023 | http://arc.aiaa.org | DOI: 10.2514/1.J060573

GJXM92579).
300
RANS
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C. Bailly
Associate Editor