Psychology as a Science

 Scientific study of behaviour (anything overtly/directly observed) and mental processes

(thoughts, feelings, motives that are privately experienced that cannot be directly observed
– inferred directly through behaviour)

- Scientific study – uses scientific methods to describe, observe, predict and explain
behaviour.
o Studies behaviour through careful controlled observation/experimentation.
- Aim of Psychology  Describe: what is happening?
 Explain: why is it happening?
 Predict: how can it be changed?
 Control: how can it be changed? – change behaviour to help individuals cope with
different individuals.

 Scientific Way of thinking (not always about what is found but how it is found)
4 important features of scientific approach/attitudes:
1. Curiosity: Quest for knowledge – waiting to know/ask questions
2. Skepticism: Question evidence for any idea/Question what others take for
granted/Question whether evidence is strong enough to be accepted as accurate and
factual/Questioning attitude often leads to clarity.
3. Objectivity: use of methods that are free from personal bias and judgement, free from
unreliable personal beliefs, opinions, emotions. (Seeing things as they are and not as
what we’d like to see them as.)
4. Critical thinking: test facts – examine research to check how an idea is supported –
willingness to think critically.
*These attitudes aren’t always possessed by everyone at every stage. – are ideal to have
– as they reduce information/errors based on personal opinions, emotions and beliefs.

 Scientific Method:
1. Conceptualize a problem: Through theory and hypothesis
2. Collect research information
3. Analyze Data
4. Draw Conclusions

1. Theory: (summary of research of verified knowledge) integrated set of related

principles/ideas/concepts that attempts to organize/explain/predict behaviour.
Theory is useful if – effectively organized and connects observations and research.
– implies clear predictions that anyone can use to check/test the theory or derive practical
applications.
Hypothesis: tentative testable prediction made about behaviour that will be proven valid or
invalid.
– Theory can generate multiple hypotheses
– If observations don’t support them, theory revised.
– When theory generates hypothesis correctly, said to be ‘reliable’
– A theory is judged by its ability to generate hypotheses that predict important events
and behaviour.
 2. Collect data
3. Analyze Data
4. Report the conclusions – Publishing a study allows other researchers to examine a study for
errors, biases and faulty logic.

Types of Psychological Research

 DESCRIPTIVE – describing a behaviour or mental processes

Methods:
o Observation
o Surveys and Interviews
o Standardized tests
o Case studies

Observation  Naturalistic Observation – Observation and recording behaviour in naturally

occurring situations without trying to manipulate/control the situation.
In best type of Natural Observation, subjects aren’t aware they are being observed.
Advantage: No observer effect – people change behaviour when being observed
No observer bias – no selective attention to things they are affiliate to by not telling them
the study or focus of study.
Disadvantage: Researchers have less control over what happens in the natural environment
more detrimental (takes more time)
- more difficult to see the casual relationship among specific variable in a natural setting than
a laboratory  often used in conjunction with other methods.

 Laboratory Observation – when/since natural observation can be

non-conclusive/impractical observation of behaviour of subject that are in a controlled
environment.
Advantage: allows for a greater degree of control to the observer
Disadvantage: since it involves artificial situations, might result in artificial behaviour.

Surveys  technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes/behaviour of people – by

questioning a representative/random sample of them.
While conduction:
1st attempt to identify population/group of subjects they wish to survey.
2nd use statistical methods to pick up random but representative (all inclusive (no bias))
sample of that population.
*respondents = representative of total population one is studying.
Advantage: helps obtains tremendous amount of data
Can accurately reveal tendencies of large population
Disadvantage: Questions may not always be clear and biased
respondents will not answer them honestly – leads to courtesy bias where feelings are not
fully stated to please/be polite/be courteous to the questioner

Interviews – face to face interaction/telephone/online (direct communication)

Advantage: better response rate
Enables detailed thorough assessment
Can judge non-verbal behaviour
 Disadvantage: lack of accessibility to respondents
Highly time consuming
Risk of personal bias
Less anonymity, concern to respondents

Standardized tests:
 Set of oral/written questions
 Answers tallied  yield score  indicates something about individual
 Score of subjects usually compared to data of larger group of people
Advantages: provides information about individual differences among people
Disadvantages: may not always predict behaviour in non-test situations
Tests can predict behaviour more or less, but there is a possibility for variation
Psych tests developed in Western Culture may not be appropriate in other culture (different
perspective, outlook, upbringing)

Case Study – Individual cases are studied in greater depth and detail, used to suggest what
maybe true to the rest of the people.
3 major uses:
1. Understand and help people with psych disorders
 Know what sort of person a patient is
 What sort of difficulties he or she is experiencing
 How the patients’ difficulties developed
2. A means of illustrating ideas and relationship in teaching
3. Important research tool
 Used to suggest theories/hypotheses about human behaviour
Advantages: - tremendous amount of detail obtained
sometimes it may also be only way to get certain/specific kinds of information
Disadvantages: Researchers can’t really apply the results to other similar people
Case studies involve judgements of unknown reliability

 The Correlational Method

Purpose: determine if a relationship exits, what direction the relationship is (direct = positive
/ inverse = negative ), how strong it is.
o We say 2 variables are correlated when change in 1 variable accompanied by
changes in another.
o Correlation indicates possibility of cause-effect relationship, doesn’t prove causation
(shows if related doesn’t mean they cause the other to occur.)
o 3 possible results – positive, negative, zero correlation – usually shown on graphs
 Perfect correlation – correlation coefficient (measure of strength, indicates
directions) = 1/-1
 No correlation – correlation coefficient = 0
 Positive correlation – Both variables increase/decrease at the same time
  Negative correlation – one variable increases and the other decreases

Advantage: shows if 2 variables are related

Allows general predictions

Used in natural and lab settings

Disadvantage: doesn’t permit identification of cause and effect

 The Experimental Method

Subject matter: human behaviour and thought process (cognitive aspects)

- To explain behaviour, psychologists conduct carefully controlled experiments using the

scientific method.
- Experiments start with observations and based on this, psychologists develop specific and
testable hypotheses
- Example: drinking alcohol negatively affects memory // children who are breastfed as infants
score higher on intelligence tests than those who are bottle fed.

Experimentation is a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors

(independent variable) to observe the effect on some behaviour or mental process (dependent
variable).

Experiments in the laboratory and controlled situations enable a researcher to focus on the
possible effects of variable by holding constant those factors not being tested as there is more
controlled in such set-ups.

If behaviour changes when we vary an experimental factor, then we know that there is a cause-
and-effect relationship between 2 variables.

Confounding variables (var – anything capable of change) – without awareness of experimenter

these factors affect the dependent variables – improve reliability, accuracy, credibility of results.

Defining variables is called operationalizing.

 Experimentation method – most scientific and objective for studying behaviour = observation
under controlled conditions – investigator tries to study the cause-and-effect relationships
regarding human behaviour by performing experiments.

- Used to identify CAUSAL links between variables

- Researchers manipulate one variable (I.V) and observe/measure the effect it has on the
other (D.V) variable.

Definitions:

Independent variable: Experimental factor that is manipulated (changed), variable whose effect
is studied.

Dependent variable: What is being measured during experiment, variable may change in
response to the I.V.

To determine whether the change in dependent variable is cause by independent variable 2 groups
segregated:

Control Group – group of subjects not exposed to the IV being studied.

Experimental Group – group of subjects who are exposed to the independent variable

*This is for comparison purposed. The two groups are assumed identical in all respects except
receival of the treatment of the IV  must be ensured.

*In reality, no two groups are identical so all participants are randomly assigned to either the control
or experimental group(s).  Random Sampling  rules out difference between subjects or other
factors that may affect the experiment  assign to groups randomly

Involved procedures like flipping a coin, computer generated list of random number to
assigned individuals to groups by chance so each have equal chances of being in any group of the
experiment.

*One can have more than one experiment group to vary intensity and will give more accurate and
detailed results if corresponding effect.

Control group – no exposed to IV // exposed to the control condition // provides a base line to be
compared to the results of the experiment group.

For studies involving a treatment, researchers often use a PLACEBO to make sure control and
experimental group are similar which allows subjects in both groups to go through the same
experience during the experiment. Example: ‘fake’ alcohol and real alcohol in test for how alcohol
affects the memory.

2 types of bias

1. Experimenter bias – experiment unintentionally or intentionally may influence the subjects’

responses because it improves the chances of proving their hypothesis valid.
2. Participant bias – assumes a certain behaviour is expected of them and behave according
regardless of the independent variable.

Eliminate bias: SINGLE BLIND PROCEDURE – participant is unaware of the condition the subject is
being subjected to.
DOUBLE BLIND PROCEDURE – neither experimenter nor the subject knows which condition the
subject is being subjected to.

Advantages: most systematic and conditions can be completely controlled // data can be analyzed in
objective manner and therefore is reliable // Cause-and-effect relationship of individuals behaviour
can be established. // findings open to critical examination and verification // discards subjective
experiments.

Disadvantages: human behaviour is changeable and therefore identical behaviour of same individual
cannot occur even under identical conclusions at different times // costly and time consuming //
must have specialized skills to conduct experiments // tools used in experiments may not be
satisfactory therefore obtained data may not be reliable // extremely difficult to control all other
causative factors except the one under study // the experimental method can produce results of
probability and not certainty (cannot guarantee 100% accuracy).

Ethics in Research

 Guidelines for researchers so that interests and welfare of participants are protected

APA lists the following ethics:

1. Informed consent
2. Right to withdraw
3. Deception
4. Confidentiality
5. Debriefing

*Characteristics of an ethical research project using human participants

1. Informed consent  designed to explain the research procedures and inform the participants of
his/her rights during the investigation

- before participant begins research sessions.

Possible discussion: purpose of research / procedures / foreseeable risks and discomfort (physical
and psychological injury) / benefits if research to society and possible to the individual human
subject / length of time participation / persons to contact – in case of emergency

*Informed consent may not be requested if participants are taking part in everyday activity.

2. Participants have the right to withdraw themselves or their data from a psychological study at any
time and without being questioned or coerced.

*must be explained right at the beginning of the research

3. Deception is when research participants are not completely and fully informed about the nature
of the research project before participating in it.

Participants are misled and wrongly informed about aims of the research.

Types: 1. Deliberate method: e.g., using manipulations in field settings, deceptive instructions.

2. Deception by omission, e.g., failure to disclose full information about study or creating ambiguity.

4. Confidentiality - Relates to the way data is stored and how it is used (need to know basis only)
Anonymity helps participants answer confidently and honestly

- Participants and data gained is kept anonymous unless given full consent

- No names must be used in research report

When to disclose: trials of homicide // to determine mental competency // in actions against

psychiatrists for malpractice // with expressed consent of client // upon issue as to validity of a
document as a will of a client.

5. Debriefing - Procedure designed to fully explain the purposed and procedures of the research and
remove any harmful after effects of participation.

- Under Code of Ethics, once study Is complete researchers are required to provide accurate and
appropriate information about the nature of the experiment or study.

- Researchers also share with subjects any and all information related to what purpose of all the
research was.

 Happens at the end of research

 Given full explanation and intention of research
 Participants asked about experience to iron out any negative effects
 According to Aronson (1998)
o Experimenter must take steps to ensure that subjects leave the experimental in a
frame of mind that is at least as sound as when they entered

Contemporary Approaches to Psychology

|involves certain assumptions of human behaviour// most common way to view behaviour//
emphasize different influences that shape behaviour

Earlier schools

- Structuralism

- Functionalism

- Gestaltism

 Psycho-dynamic

2nd force of psychology

How behaviour springs from unconscious drives and conflicts.

The underlying assumption is that unconscious forces are important influences on humans.

Sigmund Freud’s assumptions were that human beings are born with unconscious drives that
seek some kind of outlet or expression from the very start.

Repressed drives/desires continue to demand some kind of expression or satisfaction 

manifested indirectly  these urges normally not socially acceptable  come out in different
ways (outlets) that hint of these thoughts (Freudian slip).
*The denial through suppression is unsettled waiting to surface into consciousness and be
expressed.

Sigmund Freud divided human consciousness into three levels of awareness:

the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious. Each of these levels corresponds to and overlaps
with Freud’s ideas of the id, ego, and superego. The conscious level consists of all those things
we are aware of, including things that we know about ourselves and our surroundings.
The preconscious consists of those things we could pay conscious attention to if we so desired,
and where many memories are stored for easy retrieval. Freud saw the preconscious as those
thoughts that are unconscious at the particular moment in question, but that are not repressed
and are therefore available for recall and easily capable of becoming conscious (e.g., the “tip of
the tongue” effect). The unconscious consists of those things that  are outside of conscious
awareness, including many memories, thoughts, and urges of which we are not aware. Much of
what is stored in the unconscious is thought to be unpleasant or conflicting; for example, sexual
impulses that are deemed “unacceptable.” While these elements are stored out of our
awareness, they are nevertheless thought to influence our behaviour.

Structure of Personality (continued) - id, ego, super ego interacts and balances each other
resulting in shaping of personality

- largely unconscious processes - evident in Freudian slips

Id - immoral branch/ basic instinctive drive

- present at birth, based on the pleasure principle, unconscious process to avoid pain, seek
pleasure --> cannot delay gratification of wants and needs

Ego - develops after birth through way of nurture, based on reality principle - sense of reasoning

Super Ego - develops maximum by the age of 12 years internalised moral values, mostly
unconscious, partly conscious morality principle

Healthy personality - strong ego developed to balance the needs between id and super ego.

Id --> immoral, less rational if too high

super ego --> perfectionist ,high moral development if too high

The iceberg model of human personality

Defense Mechanisms

Types of defense mechanisms --> defend ego from anxiety ridden situations

Id continues to conflict with social rules or moral values --> builds tension --> ego - uses
unconscious strategies called defense mechanisms that deny/distant reality but protects us from
conflicts and anxiety.

- If used extensively it causes self-defeating behaviour and emotional problems

Types of defense mechanism

Repression - unconscious forgetting of disturbing material

Regression - reverting to an earlier stage in life

Reaction formation - portrayal of the opposite

Denial - refusal to accept reality.

Projection - ones own feeling repressed and instead attributed to someone else (doubting)

Displacement - redirection of feelings - source of stress and anxiety is something you can't
handle e.g., if friend argues with boss, can't so outlet on others.

Sublimation - catharsis, channelize unexpected feeling, thoughts to socially acceptable manner

Rationalization - finding accepting reasons for our unacceptable behaviour.

 Behavioral
- said to be optimistic - because if behaviour can be learnt, it can be unlearnt --> eg: aversion therapy

- 2nd force of psychology

- study of observable behaviour and what determines it --> not much emphasis on introspection aka
psychoanalytical approach

- study behavioural responses and the way these responses are influenced by stimuli in the
environment.

- John B Watson launched behaviourism

- Edward Thorndike proposed the law of effect.

- B.F Skinner (operant conditioning): founder of modern behaviourism (role reward and punishment
in determining behaviour)/ classical conditioning (Little Albert study)/observational modelling
(imitation/vicarious learning)

Albert Bandura - social cognitive theory - behaviour is influenced by how thoughts modify the effects
of environment on behaviour - imitation.

 Cognitive

--> our nature relies on our cognitivde thinking

- focus on mental processes of thinking, knowing, percieving, attending, remembering, etc.

- how we encode, process, store, and retrieve information (memory)

- the study of cognition, the way we process or transform information about the world around us
(perception, language)

- how we organize, remember, and understand everything we experience (intelligent, thought

processes, problem solving)

Eg: All or none/Black and white thinking --> Dichotomous thinking

- Either best or worst, nothing in between --> puts a lot of pressure on individual because of line of
thinking.

 Socio-cultural

focus on relationship between social behaviour and culture, social and culture influence on
behaviour.

- cultural norm/practices affect thought processes that may be universal. e.g, marriage.

- combination of social psychology (study of groups, social roles, relationships) and cultural
psychology (study of cultural norms/standards of behaviour, values and expectations)

- how behaviour and thinking vary across situations and cultures

 Behavioral Neuro-science
- study of biological bases of behaviour and mental processes

- how the body and brain create emotions, memories and sensory experiences

- combining physiology, the phsiology of the brain with psychology.

- uses of hormones, brain chemicals, tumors, diseases to explawin behaviour.

- the underlying assumption of neuroscience is that for every behaviour, feeling, thoughts and
corresponding physical event takes place in the brain.

 Evolutionary

Charles Darwin - survival of the fittest

- natural selection

- genes are passed over generations

ones that can adapt --> survive

- similar for behaviour. talks about behaviour which has passed on through generations to enable
individuals to survive.

- just as evolution shapes our physical features (natural selection) similarly, psychological dimensions
are affected (emotions, mental processes, behaviour)

 Humanistic

- referred to as the 3rd force

Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow (Maslow Hierarchy of human needs (pyramid)) gave importance to
human beings as individuals.

Humans have the potential to grow and achieve self-actualization.

There is potential for self-understanding and freedom/ability to choose therefore humans aren’t
easily manipulated (according to Humanists)

Refuted behavioral approach

 Positive

(21 century)

Very new/young branch of psychology

- Martin Seligman, Csikszentmihalyi

- made because too much emphasis in psychology on negative side of psychology

- studies problems but also enhance quality of life/increases happiness/enhance life (gratitude,
optimism, self-esteem, responsibility, hope, nurturance) - life above zero (the positive)

- absence of illness doesn't reflect good mental health

- incorporated empirical research and understanding how these factors are linked to our wellbeing --
> based improvements in life on empirical research.