Module 1

1
LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
VIth Semester B.Arch

Teaching Notes
Prepared by,
Assistant Professor. Vineetha.P.S
1
IES College of Architecture
Module 1:
Introduction to landscape architecture; definitions, importance,
need and scope; Role of landscape design in architecture and
their comparison.
Landscape and garden design in history- French, English, Chinese,
Japanese, Persian and Moghul. Study of notable examples.
2
Recommended Reading (Critical Design Discussions)
Landscape Architecture (Simonds)
Notes (M. Shaheer)
The Poetics of Gardens (Moore, Mitchell & Turnbull)
A Place in the Shade (Charles Correa)
Environment Reader for Universities (CSE)
Theory in Landscape Architecture (Ed. Simon Swaffield)
Avant Gardeners (Richardson)
Design with Nature (McHarg)
Recommended Reading (Competency Upgrade)

An Introduction to Landscape Architecture (Laurie)
Landscape Architecture in India (Ed. Shaheer, Dua & Pal)
Site Planning (Lynch & Hack)
Time-Saver Standards for Landscape Architecture (Harris & Dines)
Landscape Architecture Construction (Landphair, Klatt)
The Landscape of Man (Jellicoe & Jellicoe)
Recommended Films
A Strong Clear Vision: Maya Lin (Docurama)
10 Gardens that Changed America (PBS)
Around the World in Eighty Gardens (BBC)
Monty Don’s French Gardens (BBC)
Monty Don’s Italian Gardens (BBC) 3
What is Landscape Architecture?
Landscape architecture encompasses the analysis, planning,

design, management, and stewardship1 of the natural and built
environments.
Types of Projects include:

Residential, Parks and recreation, monuments, urban design,
streetscapes and public spaces, transportation corridors and
facilities, gardens and arboreta, hospitality and resorts,
institutional, academic campuses, therapeutic gardens
4
1Stewardship is an ethic that embodies the responsible planning and management of resources.
NATURE & MAN : LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
Land – one of the basic commodities of the world – its planning

for use and conservation is a central political and social issue.
Landscape - Land becomes landscape when it is described or

seen in terms of its physiographic1 and environmental
characteristics. Landscape varies according to these
characteristics and according to the historical impact of man on
it.
5
1 Physical pattern and processes
‘Landscape is a reflection of dynamic, natural, and social systems.’
Landscape architecture is concerned with the planning and design

of land and water for use by society on the basis of an
understanding of these systems.
‘Planning’ implies a futuristic approach to land : land is regarded as

a resource to be considered in relation to the demands and
predicted needs of society and its values.
‘Design’ refers to the qualitative and functional arrangement of

parcels of land set aside in the planning process for some specific
social purpose such as housing, education, or recreation.
6
The conscious planning and

arrangement of land for
agricultural and social
purposes has been going on
since the earliest civilizations
of China, Egypt, and the
Middle East.
Examples of conscious
landscape manipulation - The
rice terraces of the Orient
and the earliest recorded
domestic garden at Thebes.
7
Our approach to land use

and design today is
inevitable conditioned by
this backlog of experience,
tradition, and practice, and
our perception of landscape
and attitude towards
nature are influenced by
the cultural context from
which each one of us has
grown and the society in
which we presently exist.
8
By definition there is no such thing as an entirely man-

made landscape. There are rather degrees of adaptation
of natural systems by man which can be of two types:
1. Adaptation related to man’s use of land for growing

crops, raising stock, or supplying resources.
2. Adaptation can also take the form of “impressions” made
on the land as an expression of philosophical and artistic
urges, the needs of the soul.
There are evidences of both throughout the history of

civilization.
9
MANMADE OR MAN REGULATED LANDSCAPE
E.A.Gutkind defines two basic relationships between

man and nature
1. I-thou – a mutual adaptation between man and nature
2. I-it – reflects estrangement1
10
1 estrangement: the fact of no longer being on friendly terms or part of a social group.
The four stages in man’s changing attitude towards his

environment:
First stage:
• Characterized by the fear of the unpredictable forces of
nature, along with desire for security.
• General pattern of primitive societies who form hunting
and self-sustaining agricultural groups – need for
cooperation of other individuals to survive.
Example : the layout of tribal settlements is a reflection of this

stage.
11
The I-thou relationship

between man and nature
as seen in the layout of an
African tribal village
12
Second stage:
• Growing self confidence leading to more rational adaptation of
the environment for different needs.
• I-thou relationship persists
• People work with nature on the basis of understanding its
processes and knowing man’s limitations in terms of
manipulating them.
• Landscape was considered as a resource – agriculture
• Examples
• The rice terraces and fields of China and the Orient
• Regulation of rivers for irrigation in the Middle East
• The Pyramids and Temples of Egypt
• Medieval town with its church & castle with organic winding
street pattern closely related to physiographic features
13
MANMADE OR MANREGULATED LANDSCAPE
14
Third stage:
Our present situation – the one advanced technological

societies are still in – a stage of aggression and conquest.
The adjustment to the environment of the second stage are

replaced by exploitation and waste of natural resources.
I-it relationship may be symbolized by the contemporary

automobile-oriented, spreading urban region with its
hinterland of felled forests, worked-out mineral deposits
and polluted rivers.
15
Fourth stage:
Lies in the future.
An age of responsibility and unification.
Transformation of the I-it attitude into renewed understanding

and insight into the workings of nature resulting in social
awareness and more sensitive adjustments to
environmental conditions.
This new attitude depends on the science of ecology.
Examples includes the Sustainability concept, Green

architecture movement etc. 16
According to the optimists, there is evidence that we are

emerging (or atleast can emerge) from a brutal, insensitive,
and ignorant sense of priorities and are approaching a new
age of enlightenment in which the reshaping of the
environment is seen in terms of land and landscape as a
resource.
Landscape as a resource to be planned and designed

• first according to the principles of natural sciences
and ecology and
• second to meet people’s basic needs for physical and
mental health and happiness according to the principles of
the social and behavioral sciences.
17
•Thus in a theory of landscape architecture responsive to this new

approach we must understand the natural process that constitute
and have formed the landscape and the social processes that
result in, or represent, the use of the landscape or environment
and the way in which it is perceived.
•Next we need a methodology for analysis, evaluation, synthesis

and problem solving.
•And finally we need a technology to match the solution so that it

may be implemented.
•The planning technology involves political and economic

procedures; the design involves building and planting. 18
•In addition, landscape architecture must be based on a set of values

and is perhaps the most difficult part of this approach to acquire.
•Natural and social science, methodology, and technology can be

learned; values have to be lived and felt.
•We need to develop a set of priorities and subscribe to a land ethic

related to our belief in the “alternative for survival,” in which short
term profit at the expense of long term regeneration and
conservation of resources would be unthinkable.
19
•Environmental impact must be seen in a regional context.
•We must learn to make judgments in terms of what is considered

best for the common good and the future of mankind.
•The professional must present such considered judgments to the

investment banker, government agency chiefs, and others in
whose hands lie the ultimate decisions- even though his
recommendations may be at variance with their programs.
20
THE PROFESSION OF LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
Landscape- dynamic and ever changing

Architecture- static and finite
•Professionals frequently find it frustrating that their role in

society has been consistently misunderstood.
•Landscape gardening is the usual interpretation, but the

terms site planning, urban design, and environmental
planning are frequently added to the names of landscape
architecture firms as a means of expressing their broader
concerns and capabilities.
21
1858 – Frederick Law Olmsted, designer of New York's Central

Park, coined the term landscape architect.
1900s – vibrant phase with greater emphasis on large estates,
gardens and small scale site planning
1901 – first complete program in landscape architecture was
established in Harvard University.
1907 – the City planning profession emerged out of landscape
architecture
1930s – landscape architects played significant role in various
public works programs
Olmstead was a prolific man and in addition to city parks he also planned complete urban
open space systems, city and traffic patterns, subdivisions, university campuses, and private
estates. In addition, he was active in the conservation movement and in 1865 was largely
responsible for the first area of scenic landscape, Yosemite Valley in California, being set
aside for public use and enjoyment. All this he called landscape architecture, so it is not
surprising that there has been some confusion about what landscape architects do. 22
Since World war II, the work of landscape architects who often
worked as members of a team, has changed to include:
• Restoration of derelict land.

• Regional and urban landscape analysis and planning.
• Site planning for housing, schools and large industrial
plants.
These now form a major portion of the landscape

architecture carried on in public agencies and private
practice.
23
Landscape work does not always have an immediately

perceptible impact and the effectiveness of planting and
land use decisions or policies may not be appreciable for
twenty to thirty years.
The fourth dimension, time is an important aspect of

landscape architecture. Olmstead talked of the far reaching
conception that the designer must have in developing,’” a
picture so great that nature shall be employed upon it for
generations, before the work he has arranged for her shall
realize his intentions.
24
DEFINITION OF LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
Hubbard and Kimball
Refer to landscape architecture as

primarily a fine art whose “most important function is to create and preserve
beauty in the surroundings of human habitations and in the broader natural
scenery of the country; but it is also concerned with promoting the comfort,
convenience and health of urban populations, which have scanty access to rural
scenery, and urgently need to have their hurrying workaday lives refreshed and
calmed by the beautiful and reposeful sights and sounds which nature, aided by
the landscape art, can abundantly provide.”
This definition reflects Olmstead’s belief that contact with natural

landscape was essential to human mortality, health and
happiness.
25
DEFINITION OF LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
Garrett Eckbo (an American landscape architect)
defines landscape architecture as

“that portion of the landscape which is developed or shaped by man, beyond
buildings, roads, or utilities and up to wild nature, designed primarily as space for
human living (not including agriculture, forestry). It is the establishment of
relations between building, surfacing, and other outdoor construction, earth,
rock forms, bodies of water, plants and open space, and the general form and
character of the landscape: but with primary emphasis on the human content,
the relationship between people and landscape, between human beings and
three- dimensional outdoor space quantitatively and qualitatively.”
This definition is essentially concerned with site planning and the

relations between people and design in that context. Eckbo’s
definition is related to the concept expressed by others that
landscape architecture is an extension of architecture.
26
COMPARING LANDSCAPE DESIGN WITH ARCHITECTURE DESIGN
According to the theory by Garret Eckbo, the differences between

architecture and landscape architecture occur in the means, techniques,
and materials.
Brain Hackett points to another essential differences between landscape

architecture and other design professions.
This is the medium in which we work, the landscape, capable of change and
growth, which has existed for millions of years and will doubtless continue
to exist. “All that we can and should do is to modify or adapt the landscape
to fit the new program.”
Thus the constraints inherent in the ecological cycles and environmental

processes of a landscape limit the opportunities for an individualistic
approach to design which is more possible in engineering, architecture or
industry.
27
Kassler challenges the concept that landscape is a form of

architecture and suggests that landscape architecture would do
better to draw its determinants of form from scientific
knowledge and research in ecology and behavioral studies as
well as from painting, sculpture and architecture.
She thus identifies broader responsibilities for the landscape

architect to see beyond the boundaries of his design project and
to become involved with and understand the larger region in
which his project lies, where the impact of numerous projects
and developments represents another level of concern for him.
28
The definition of the profession has varied over the years in an

attempt to match its goals with the problems and needs of
society.
ASLA amended its official definition to include “stewardship of

the land”, as one of its commitments. By its very nature, then,
landscape architecture is a profession of the future; landscape
planning and landscape design are acts of faith. But landscape is
architecture only in a spatial manner and its principles are hardly
related to a profession whose products are very soon obsolete,
with life spans often much shorter than the time it takes for a
tree to reach maturity.
29
ROLE OF LANDSCAPE ARCHITECT
Especially since the World War II, Landscape architecture has diversified and
classified its activities in response to the needs of a changing world. Now
there are 3 clearly defined related types of activity.
1. Landscape planning & assessment

• Strong ecological & natural science base
• Concerned with the systematic evaluation of large areas of land in
terms of the land’s suitability or capability for any likely future use.
• May result in a land use plan or policy, affecting the distribution and
type of development or land use, the alignment of highways, the
location of industrial plants, the conservation of water, soil, and
amenity values etc.
• Study areas might include natural physiographic region such as the
watershed of a major river or some other logical unit of land.
30
2. Site planning
• More conventional kind of landscape architecture - landscape
design lies within this realm.
• Site planning is the process in which the analysis of the site and the
requirements of the program for the use of the site are brought
together in creative synthesis.
• Elements and facilities are located on the land in functional
relationships and in a manner fully responsive to the characteristics
of the site and its region.
3. Detailed Landscape design
• The selection of components, materials and plants and their
combination as solutions limited and well-defined problems:
paving, steps, fountains etc.
• This is the process through which specific quality is given to the
diagrammatic spaces and areas of the site plan.
31
• There is clearly an interrelationship among the 3

aspects of landscape architecture: landscape
planning, site planning, and detailed landscape
design.
• The wider landscape is the context for the site,

which in turn is the framework within which lie the
details. Large scale planning decisions depends on
the an understanding of the details of design and
technology in sitting houses, roads and facilities.
Landscape Architects have to understand both
scales to do either of them with responsibility and
sensitivity.
32
LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
Landscape architecture may, for the purpose of landscape preservation,

development and enhancement, include :
•investigation, selection and allocation of land and water resources for
appropriate use
•feasibility studies
•formulation of graphic and written criteria to govern the planning and design of
land construction programs
•preparation, review and analysis of master plans for land use and development
•production of overall site plans, landscape grading and landscape drainage plans,
irrigation plans, planting plans and construction details
•specifications
•cost estimates and reports for land development
•collaboration in the design of roads, bridges and structures with respect to the
functional and aesthetic requirements of the areas on which they are to be placed
•negotiation and arrangement for execution of land area projects
•field observation and inspection of land area construction, restoration and
33
maintenance
Landscape and garden design in history-
French, English, Chinese, Japanese, Persian
and Moghul
34
History of Landscape Architecture
Garden
•a reflection of the concurrent man/nature relationship
•an ordering of the environment according to an image of an ideal world.
Gardens are
•inseparably linked to the history of agriculture, and are therefore as old as
civilization.
The gardens and urban environments, which were created, reflected both the
relationship of society to nature and the structure of the society itself.
The role of plants and gardens in the city and the surrounding agricultural
countryside varied according to climate and attitude.
In time, tow systems of landscape design evolved, one based on geometry,

and the other on nature, although the reason and meaning has varied with
time and place. 35
Gardens Time Period Examples
India 1400-1700AD Taj Mahal, Agra, Shalimar Gardens-Lahore, Shalimar gardens-
Srinagar
China 3000BC-Present Peking, Hangchow, Ming dynasty
Japan 700AD-Present Kastura Imperial villa, Moss garden of Saijo-ji Temple, Golden
Pavilion, Kyoto
Egypt 3500BC-500BC Official garden at Thebes, Gizeh
Mesopotamia 3000BC Hanging gardens of Babylon
Greece 500-300BC Delphi, Olympia, Athens, Acropolis
Roman 500-60BC Pliny’s villa at Laurentinum, Hadrian’s villa at Tivoli, Pergamon
Medieval 15th century Rievaulx Abbey- Yorkshire, Bingham Melvombe-Dorset, Durham
Renaissance 15th century
Italy Villa d’Tivoli, Villa Medici, Villa D-Este, Villa Lante
France Gardens of Versailles
Baroque 16th century Piazza del Popolo-Rome, Iso Bella, Cascade of the Villa
second half Aldobrandini, Villa Garzoni-Collodi
English 18th century Blenheim Palace, Stove gardens
Persia 500 BC Chehel Souton-Isfahan, Fin garden-Kashan, Eram garden- Shiraz,
Shazdeh Garden-Mahan
Islamic 7th -16th century Alhambra-Spain, The Palace of Balkuwara, Samaria 36
Moghul
•Mughal gardens at Taj Mahal

•Shalimar Bagh, Srinagar
•Shalimar gardens, Lahore
37
HISTORY Moghul Gardens
•The Islamic garden in India is commonly referred to as Moghul garden

after the Moghul emperors of Turkish Origin.
•Attracted by the riches and wealth of the Hindu Temples, the Moslems
followed the Mongols, to whom they are related, in creating a military
presence in India, sacking the cities and temples and removing everything
of value to Persia.
•But, in 1526 the Moghuls, in the form of a prince named Babur, came to
stay and began a dynasty which persisted and controlled more than half of
India through six successive emperors until 1750.
•They settled in the great Northern Plain, subject to heat, humidity and
winds. But they also discovered Kashmir, where summer palaces were
built.
•The Hindu garden was informal and profuse and, as a concept, influenced
the development of the Chinese prototype when Budhism was introduced
to China. 38
HISTORY Eastern (India, China, Japan)
•As one would expect, the Moghuls who were avid garden makers,
adopted the Persian garden as their model.
•In time, differences evolved out of the specific conditions of the region.
For example, the narrow rills of water expanded into large expanses which
helped to modify the heat.
•The ultimate expression of this was a pavilion set on an island in a broad

lake.
•It has been suggested that the Moghul garden was a dwelling place in its
own right, and was an enclosed, protected setting for life, in general and
pleasure, in particular.
•Horticulture was an obsession and the gardens were filled with all kinds of
trees, especially fruit and flowering. Brimming raised channels ran through
the gardens and provided the necessary water.
39
HISTORY Eastern (India, China, Japan)
•The gardens of Kashmir reflected the different geography in the plants

that were grown and being typically linear on sloping sites with more
water in the form of cascades and fountains.
•Another variation on the Islamic garden theme in India was the tomb
garden of the Moghuls.
•The worship of ancestors, adopted by the Moghuls, was a Mongol

concept, not Persian.
•The tomb was built with a garden which was used for pleasure until the
death of the individual.
•It was thus enjoyed by both the living and the dead.
40
Eastern (India, China, Japan)
•The three main components of Mughal landscapes were: the Agra/Delhi

complex; the royal progress to Kashmir; and the Kashmir itself.
•The first was the administrative centre of the emperors, comprising

the huge red sandstone walls of the forts and the elegant white
marble buildings upon them, and the splendid tombs that
perpetuated their memory.
•The second was the gorgeous procession , some fifty thousand

strong, that moved between alternating mile-long rectangular camps
as far as the Great Wall of Himalayas, there to shed its size but not its
splendor to make the passage of the mountains to Kashmir.
•The third represented the realization of the objective of personal

happiness on earth, symbolized by the inscription in the Shalimar
Bagh in Kashmir.
41
The Eastern expansion of Islam: Mughul India Eastern (India, China, Japan)
•Mughal love of gardens and symbolism was

inherited from Persia.
•The miniature of the Feast of the birth of

Humayun contains the classic features of design:
the square tank with fountains, , the watercourse
and the stone chabutra or platform upon which the
Emperor is seated, providing the setting for the life
and growth and vitality in which the garden
abounded.
•The rich carpet echoes the spring flowers, the

chenar, the cypress and the canopy provide shade.
•The oldest Mughul garden now extant, Ram Bagh,

was laid out by the Emperor Babur on the east The miniature of the feast of birth of
bank of the Jumna opposite Agra, his capital. Humayun, contains the square tank with
fountains, the watercourse and stone
42
chabutra or platform upon which Emperor
is seated.
The Eastern expansion of Islam: Mughul India Eastern (India, China, Japan)
A huge well in background of the picture, Water was carried along raised
water for irrigation was fed into the causeways, leading past the stone
garden by a raised canal. chabutras(one is visible in the distance)
In the foreground is a stone chadhar from which the Emperor contemplated
scalloped to break the water surface and the fruit blossom.
create sparkle.
43
Shalimar Bagh, Kashmir Eastern (India, China, Japan)
•The gardens were sited between mountains and lake, to
catch water flow.
•Shalimar Bagh, the site chosen by Jehangir in 1620 and the
gardens were laid out by his son Shah Jahan.
•The plan today has been curtailed, but originally three
fourfold gardens (public audience, private garden an harem)
threaded on canal linked with Lake Dal.
•On both sides of the central chenar avenues were
orchards.
•Each garden was levelled to fit the sloping site and each of
the fourfold parts modelled for irrigation, together giving a
sense of ground sculpture in low relief that was echoed in
Architecture.
Sketch shows the panorama of Lake dal adjoining the capital 44

Srinagar.
The view from below the site of the Hall of Private audience shows the
emperors throne in the foreground and a smaller throne on the cascade
behind, reached by stepping stones. 45
In the middle distance is the Black Pavilion isolated in water. The

fountains were fed by gravity.
46
Within the cascade behind the

pavilion were the chini-kanas,
illuminated niches.
47
Achabal, Kashmir Eastern (India, China, Japan)
While the Shalimar Plan was strictly

traditional, mathematical and symbolic, the
gardens of Achabal varied the water
proportions, but kept to the principle of a
central thread passing through buildings. 48
Taj Mahal, Agra Eastern (India, China, Japan)
•The Taj Mahal at Agra was built 163-54

by Shah Jahan in memory of his most
cherished wife, Mumtaz Mahal.
•The plan breaks with precedent, since

the tomb stands, not in the centre of
the char-bagh but on a terrace to the
north, overlooking Jamna.
49
•The complex is set around a large

300 Sq. M. ‘Charbagh or Mughal
garden.’
•The garden uses raised pathways
that divide each of the four quarters
of the garden into 16 sunken
flowerbeds.
•A raised marble water tank at the
center of the garden, halfway
between the tomb and gateway
with a reflecting pool on a north-
south axis, reflects the image of the
mausoleum.
•Elsewhere, the garden is laid out
with avenues of trees and fountains.
50
•The Taj Mahal garden is unusual in

that the main element, the tomb, is
located at the end of the garden.
•The use of symmetry and pattern
can be seen in the relationship
between sunlight and shade, plants
and water, and light and dark tones.
The effect is that of a Persian rug
leading to the entrance of the
mausoleum.
•Early accounts of the garden
describe its surplus of vegetation,
including abundant roses, daffodils,
and fruit trees.
51
Mumtaz Mahal came of a

Persian family that for many
years had brought to the
Mughal court an elegance
and exquisite refinement
which inspired all
architecture and decoration.
The Taj Mahal was to be a

materialization of her spirit.
The architecture is
evocatively feminine and to
many it is even the concept
of Mumtaz Mahal herself,
for ever seated by the banks
of the Jamuna.
52
Persia
53
Central (Persia, Islamic landscapes)
INTRODUCTION
• The Persian Garden refers to a

tradition and style of garden design
which originated in Persia and which
influenced the design of gardens
throughout the larger region.
• The origin of Persian gardens may

date back as far as 4000 BCE;
• The decorated pottery of that time

displays the typical cross plan of the El Partal in the upper Alhambra,
Persian garden. Granada
54
Features
• These gardens are enclosed.
• The main purpose behind building

such gardens was to provide relaxation
in different manner such as spiritual,
leisurely (e.g. meetings with friends).
• “Pairi daeza” means enclosed space in

Persian language.
• This Christian mythology adopted this

term to describe the Garden of Eden
or paradise on earth.
Gardens Of Eden
55
More Features
• The construction of garden may have an
emphasis either on nature or on structure,
however the main thing this garden should
allow is maximization of function.
• The Persian gardens were built as a retreat
from the harsh landscape.
• These gardens are followed by modern-day
garden, from the sanctuaries and hunting
parks of 5th century B.C., 19th century
magical nightingale gardens of Tehran, etc.
• The Cyrus's garden had a geometrical plan
and stone watercourses.
56
Common features of Persian gardens
• A high surrounding wall

• Straight tile-lined channels of water
• Bubbling fountains
• Trees for shade and fruit
• A Pavilion or gazebo
• Strong emphasis on flowers in beds and pots
57
SQUARE AND RECTANGULAR LAYOUT

What really distinguishes Persian garden
from the gardens of other nations,
however, is the unique and intricate
geometrical design that governs it.
Square and rectangle are the predominant

shapes.
Despite their precise spacing and order,

Persian gardens still manage to create a
range of different spaces within their main
space by using various natural and man-
made materials that differ in shapes and
sizes.
58
The Five Elements
There are five elements which contribute to the geometry of Persian gardens.
• Perspective (or visual expanse of the garden) –

• The greater length of the garden is where its most significant elements are
situated. Known as the spine of the garden, this area helps to create a space
for meditation and enjoyment from the day-to-day.
• Roads stretched into the horizon, little gardens within the main garden,
the natural slope of the land and the difference in vision angle from
different locations in the garden enriches the perspective of the space.
• Also, one of the main principles of Persian architecture is internalization
and this is why gardens are walled and enclosed spaces.
59
Persian-style garden which was layed out in Haifa, Israel.

60
• Water Pathway -The main

issue was to get water
from distance points. For
this purpose, Qanats and
wells were dug and
constructed in the heart of
the garden. Water flowing
from these points would
run into well-spaced
brooks and branch into
different sections of the
garden like water filled
veins. Fin Garden, Bagh-e Tarikhi-ye Fin.
Kashan, Iran.
61
• Overall rectangular geometry of the

garden -This shape made locating a
precise place for planting trees and
implementation of other structural
elements much easier. It also helped
to specifically frame a part of the
earth by imposing a definite
geometrical structure
An overall top view of Pasargadae at Cyrus’ time. Note the canal, water channels;
the two rectangles are gardens.
62
• Symmetry - The granges in the garden were not

only built symmetrical but were also situated
symmetrically. Trees, shrubs and flowers were
also planted this way.
• Centralization of certain structures –

The walkways, garden and pools of the Taj Mahal, seen on top of the
This is manifest in placement of granges, particularly platform on which the mausoleum stood.
granges of the Hasht Behesth (eight paradises)
design where granges are situated at the crossroads
that divide the garden into different sections and
therefore draw more attention
63
TYPES OF PERSIAN GARDENS

Formal
• Hayat (public and private)
• Meidan (public)
• Char Bagh (private)
Casual
• Bagh (private)
• Park (public)
64
HAYAT (PUBLIC)
• Publicly, it is a classical Persian layout
with heavy emphasis on aesthetics over
function.
• Man-made structures in the garden are

particularly important,
with arches and pools (which may be
used to bathe).
• The ground is often covered

in gravel flagged with stone. Plantings
are typically very simple - such as a line
of trees, which also provide shade.
65
HAYAT(PRIVATE)
• Privately, these gardens are often pool-centered and,
again, structural.
• The pool serves as a focus and source of humidity for
the surrounding atmosphere. There are few plants,
often due to the limited water available in urban areas
66
MEIDAN
• This is a public, formal garden
which emphasizes more on
biotic elements than structure.
• Here we see bedding plants,
trees, shrubs, grasses, etc.
• In this garden also the elements
like gravel pathways, pools
divide the lawns.
• The shade providing structures
pavilions are also built.
67
CHAR BAGH
• These gardens are formal and
private.
• The garden structure mainly

consists of four quadrants
divided by pathways and
waterways.
• This garden has a balanced

structure with proper
pathways and greenery or
plants around the periphery of
the pool.
Aram bagh garden at Agra
68
PARKS
• These are casual parks used for
public functions.
• These are full of various plants.
• Here we see pathways and seating

but these gardens are limited in
terms of structural elements.
• The purpose of such gardens is

relaxation and socialization. 69
BAGH
• Like other casual gardens, it focuses on natural
and green aspects of nature.
• These gardens are often attached to houses
consisting of trees, lawns and ground plants.
• It gives less emphasis on waterways and
pathways.
• The primary aim is familial relaxation.
70
NATURAL ELEMENTS OF PERSIAN LANDSCAPING
• The important Persian garden elements are sunlight, shade, water,

buildings.
• These elements provide relaxation in different manners such as

spiritual, leisurely (e.g. meetings with friends) etc. which is the
primary aim of Persian garden which is considered as a paradise on
earth.
• The Persian gardens often connect internal yard gardens with the
surrounding outward gardens.
71
SUNLIGHT
• The important factor to be
considered while designing the
Persian garden is sunlight and its
effects in the garden.
• Architects arranged the samples
and forms from the rays of light
to restrain the sunlight.
• The specific textures and shapes
were chosen by the experienced
architects to harness the light
72
SHADE
• Shade is also an important element
due to heat of Iran
• The Persian gardens includes trees,
shrubs and trellises which work as
biotic shades to provide protection
from strong sunrays.
• In these gardens we can see large
number of big shade trees, fruit and
flower trees as well.
• Walls and pavilions are also
important in blocking the harsh
sunrays.
• Mostly cypress trees are found . 73
WATER
• In desert regions, there are many dry areas beside the many forests,
therefore water comes as the next important element in the Persian
garden.
• The underground water canals are built on slopes to facilitate either
natural or the artificial flow of water (waterfalls).
• It is assumed that this style of irrigation is thousand years old.
• This style works in the best way and widely used even in modern
gardening styles.
• For this purpose of moving water around the surface water systems.
• Trees are planted in a ditch called a jub, to prevent water evaporation
and allow quick access of water to the tree roots.
74
BUILDINGS
• In many of the Persian gardens, buildings of splendour, brick works and
pavilions are seen.
• Here we also get to see the different structural designs like royal palaces,
mansions, temples, etc.
• Iranian architects used to build domes on square buildings very skilfully.
• These enhance the beauty of these gardens.
• In Persian gardens, beautiful arches were constructed.
• In front of many mansions and palaces of these gardens, the water fountains
were placed as the source of cool, peaceful atmosphere and pleasure.
• The beautiful types of glasses (e.g. stain glasses) were used for windows and
other glass works.
75
76
Influence Of Persian Gardens In
India
77
THE TAJ MAHAL
Gardens, as at the Taj, often formed an important
accompaniment to architecture. Without these
gardens, the splendors, visual impact and
symbolism at the Taj Mahal would be greatly
reduced.
The central water tank is a representation of the

'celestial pool of abundance' and the place where
man met God. The corners of the marble pool are
finely decorated with a cusped motif as shown here.
78
The Char Bagh Layout
The rectangular gardens, surrounded by a high red

sandstone wall, follow the Persian chahar Bagh or 'four
gardens' layout. Brought to India by the first Mughal
Emperor Babar, himself a keen botanist, this layout
frequently formed the plan of tomb layouts during the
Imperial era, including Akbar's tomb at Sikandra as shown
here.
79
Itmad-Ud-Daula’s Tomb:
• The garden is on the opposite bank of
the River Yamuna to Agra's Red Fort.
It is a classic tomb garden with stone-
edged flower beds on the lawns. This
is unlikely to have been the original
planting pattern. The garden was
designed by Nur Jahan for her father's
tomb on the bank of the River
Yamuna. Situated in a garden amidst
fountains, it has a square lower storey
with four minarets in the four
corners. 80
The Zenana Garden At Fatehpur Sikri

Typical of Mughal gardens, it was reared in
a char Bagh pattern, divided into four
quarters by shallow water channels
intersecting at right angle. There was a
fishpond in the center of the garden.
Niches were made in the northern wall for
the lamps that illuminated it in night on
festive and ceremonial occasions. There is a
carved sloping stone slab on the southern
side with fish scale to allow the smooth
flow of water in the tank.
81
Some Examples Of Persian
Gardens
82
FIN GARDEN, KASHAN
(Char Bagh)
• It is also called as Bagh-e-Fin located in Kashan, Iran.
• It is a historical Persian garden. The garden might have its origin in Safavid
period.
• It was built near the village of Fin under the reign of Abbas I of Persia (1571-
1629).
• The area of garden is 2.3 hectares consisting of a main yard surrounded with
four circular towers.
• The fin garden is full of water features.
• There was a spring behind the garden on the hillside which was the main
source of water for this garden.
• In this place the water pressure was such that fountains and pools could
easily be constructed without the use of mechanical pumps.
• The garden contains many cypress trees
83
The plan is a sophisticated Char Bagh with grids of canals and

paths.
The canals are lined with blue-green tiles, a colour which
contrasts wonderfully with the desert outside the garden walls.
At Fin, all the channels are lined, sides and bottom, with blue
faience tiles so that the very water seems bright and gay until
it flows into one of the larger pools, lined with great trees
84
Islamic landscapes
85
“The Muslims emphasized the injunctions to dress the garden and

keep it dress the garden and keep it-man the steward
They developed the belief that man could make a garden of nature
make a garden of nature
Paradise could be created on earth by wise men and realized by
artists men and realized by artists”
Design with Nature
Ian McHarg, 1969
86
What is an Islamic Garden?
A landscape which is designed:

•With specific intentions in mind
•Applying certain ideological Principles and objectives
rooted in the Islamic faith and the Muslim culture ‰
•using distinct design elements.
87
When was the typical Islamic garden Developed?
The Islamic Empire spanned from the 7th to the 16th century.
From the establishment of the 1st Islamic State in Medina to the

peak of the Ottoman Empire, the Islamic civilization dominated a
millennium, encompassed half the world, and shaped the history
of the human race.
88
Where can one find examples of the Islamic garden?
Western Asia: Iran, Turkey, and the Arabian

Peninsula.
South-Eastern Asia: India, Pakistan, Kashmir,

Uzbekistan, and Afghanistan.
The Middle East: Syria, Lebanon, Iraq, Palestine,

Egypt, Morocco, and Tunisia.
Europe: Spain (Granada, Cordova, Seville and

Toledo).
89
What are the typical design elements of an Islamic garden?

•Courtyards ,
•Water features, ‰
•Trees, ‰
•Flowers ,
•Calligraphy on Walls
90
For what purpose did the designer of the Islamic garden use
water? ‰
•To emphasize architectural elements

•To add dynamic quality
•To mask outdoor noises
•To provide pleasing sounds
•To irrigate plants
•To moisturize the dry environment
• To sooth the dusty environment
91
Islamic landscapes (SPAIN)
•Islamic garden concept of middle eastern origin was then taken from one empire or
civilization to another and finally brought to North Africa by the Moors and eventually
introduced into Spain in the thirteenth century, where the theme of the paradise
garden was combines with the atrium of Roman origin.
•Thus what we have come to call the Spanish garden is given earliest form at the
Alhambra at Granada, Spain.
•A comparison of Persian Palaces and the Court of the Lyons at Granada illustrates the
similarities in architecture, courtyard design, and the use of water.
•Similar open pavilions permit the free flow of air.
•Water is used symbolically and as a cooling agent.
92
Alhambra ,Spain
•Alhambra was a fortified palace built on high ground.
•It developed in stages between 1350 and 1500
•As a result, its series of chambers and enclosed courtyards is without any
connecting organization.
•The form of the complex is a response to climate.
•The outside is hostile, hot and dusty.
•The inside is shaded, cool, and protected by thick walls.

•Since the entire structure is perched on high ground, the windows which provide
views out over the landscape also permit breezes to blow in. 93
94
Alhambra ,Spain
•Rooms associated with pools of water thus provide a
primitive but successful air conditioning system.
•Channels of water ran not only in the courtyards but

sometimes also actually into and through the
buildings, lowering temperatures and providing the
cooling sound of running water.
95
96
China
97
Location China
Period 551-479 BC
Climate Climate varying from region to region
In northeast the summers are hot and dry and the
winters are freezing cold.
North and central regions have frequent bouts of
rain coupled with hot summers and cold winters
In general warm humid
Terrain Varied landscape with mountains and
valleys
Soil is rich alluvial
Some regions are highly flood-prone
More than half the coastline (predominantly in the
south) is rocky; most of the remainder is sandy.
98
Socio- Political History War infested, morarchic life styles
Expression Natural- Asymmetrical
Architecture Pagoda style, Symmetric Individul Spaces

varying Axial Layout, Pavilions
Landscape Character Natural setting, Orgnic, derived directly from

nature
Elements and materials Lakes, Ponds, Low height Vegetation in the

foreground, rocks, high peripheral vegetation
99
• Enclosed by walls and includes one or more ponds
• Series of carefully composed scenes
• Follows the pattern of scrolls of Chinese paintings
• Concealment and surprise
• “Borrowing scenery”, Time and Seasons
• Two-storey towers (lou or ge)
• Appears organic (intrinsically natural)
100
LANDSCAPE CHARACTER
• Enclosed by walls and includes one or more ponds

• Series of carefully composed scenes
• Follows the pattern of scrolls of Chinese paintings
• Concealment and surprise
• “Borrowing scenery”, Time and Seasons
• Two-storey towers (lou or ge)
• Appears organic (intrinsically natural)
101
ARCHITECTURE OF CHINESE GARDEN
Ceremony Hall (ting or tang)

Building used for Celebrations or Ceremonis, comprising an
Interior Courtyard.
Principal Pavilion (dating)

A veranda around the building to provide cool and shade.
Used for celebrations
Pavilion of flowers (huating)

The building near residences with a rear courtyard filled with
flowers, plants and a small rock garden.
102
ARCHITECTURE OF CHINESE GARDEN
Pavilion facing the four directions (simian ting )
The building has folding, openable or movable walls, for viewing

the garden.
Lotus pavilion (hehua ting)

Built to see the flowers bloom. Located near the lotus pond.
Pavilion of mandarin ducks (yuanyang ting)

The building provided cool air
103
ELEMENTS
Bridges Kiosks
Towers Courtards (yuan) 104

ELEMENTS
Artificial mountains Rock gardens
Flowers and trees Pond or Lake

105
China Eastern (India, China, Japan)
•The second major cradle of civilization and source of garden design was the Orient.
•As a center of civilization, China had reached a climax in its development around
600 BC.
•The effects of deforestation were recognized and there was an established system
of controlling tree cutting and forest management. The tradition of roadside tree
planting dates back to this time.
•The Cities were planned on a grid system with wide tree-planted streets oriented
north-south and east-west.
•The heirarichal, axial and symmetrical organization of rectangular enclosures

represented the cosmos and reflected the teachings of Confucius on which the
society was structured.
•Confucianism provided a code of rules for social behaviour and relationships. The
places of daily routine, e.g. house, palace, temple, were thus organized around the
rules, conventions, and rituals of social and political institutions dealing with the
relation ships between the emperor and the high government officials, parent, wife,
106
children, friends, strangers and so forth.
•The Palace of the Forbidden City in Peking was designed as a series of spaces or
enclosures aligned along a major axis rising up gradually from one level to a higher one
before finally reaching the inner sanctuary of the emperor.
•The ordinary house, although rarely reaching such extremes, was laid out by similar
principles.
•To modify the effect of Confucian order, obsessed with interpersonal relationships,
the Chinese adopted Taoism as a counterface, concerned with the relationship of the
individual to nature.
•In time, Buddhism made strong inroads into Chinese philosophy. Its central reverence
of nature and meditation added strength to the Chinese interest for natural landscape
and the laws of nature.
•Landscape gardening, in the seventh and eighth century BC, attempted to recreate
idyllic scenes of the artist and applied the rules of painting and poetry to the garden.
•The Chinese word for landscape, shansui, means mountains and water. These
opposites were regarded as contrasts, not opposing forces. 107
•The basic elements of a new landscape were that of rock, hill, or mountain (the
yang, the stimulating male force) and still water (the yin, the tranquillizing female
force).
•All perceived forms were thought to be forms of cosmic forces with certain
characteristics combining the yin and yang.
•They were endowed with particular spirit, sometimes human and often animal,
such as tortoise, serpent or dragon.
•Not until these were harmonized were the techniques of design applied.
•Gardens were then planned for every mood and occasion, daylight and moonlight,
all the year round, and for mist, rain and clear skies.
•Boundaries were subdued or eliminated, for the imagination must roam in wordly
space as well as that of spirit.
•Stillness was essential, for the gardens were for meditation, conversation and
poetry-reading; and all were fragrant with trees, flowers and shrubs. 108
•Poetry and painting were both originators and inspirers of early Chinese
landscape design, revealing a deep and often mystical relationship between
man and his environment.
•In painting, the viewpoint is always above ground level, as though the
observer himself were some disembodied spirit, part of a scene already
ethereal through atmosphere.
•Thus he himself seems to be actually inside Ma Yuan’s Landscape with

Willows and Bridge.
•In scroll painting, the disembodied observer moved along as well as above
the landscape.
•Both atmosphere and movement are contained in the section of Tung Yuan’s
River Landscape, which also embodies the oldest of Chinese myths, the
Mystical Islands of the Blest, on whose shores dwelt the immortals, and
which were said to vanish and return.
109
110
Wang Shi Yuan (Master of the Nets Garden) Eastern (India, China, Japan)
•Wang Shi Yuan is an

interesting example of a
private town garden.
•First built in the twelfth
century by a bureaucrat, it
was given its name by the
owner who longed for the
simpler life of a fisherman.
•The house oriented north-
south consists of a series of
axially related formal
reception rooms and a
courtyard on the ground
floor, with living quarters on
the second floor.
•The subdued interiors
contrast with the fanciful
main garden reached
through a side door. 111
Wang Shi Yuan Eastern (India, China, Japan)
•The pond is the main focus

as well as the physical
center of the garden.
•The full extent of the water
is hidden and two streams
like extensions crossed with
stone bridges give the
impression that it continues
into other parts of the
garden.
•Three buildings overhang
the pond offering different
views and cooling proximity
to the water.
112
•Other buildings and walls

further back virtually
enclose the area, but they
are low in height and
masked by rocks and trees
increasing the illusion of
space.
•The entire garden takes up

a mere 1 1/3 acres but its
complexity, division of
space, and control of sight
lines, views, and circulation
gives the impression of a
much larger space in spite
of its many buildings and
walls.
113
•The pond is the main focus

as well as the physical
center of the garden.
•The full extent of the water
is hidden and two streams
like extensions crossed with
stone bridges give the
impression that it continues
into other parts of the
garden.
•Three buildings overhang
the pond offering different
views and cooling proximity
to the water.
114
115
•The ideal Chinese house had an enclosed garden.
•The garden was used for a variety of purposes: recreation, rest, study,
meditation, and appreciation of the processes and aesthetics of nature.
•Privacy and quiet were essential.
•Symbolism was prevalent in every feature and in the arrangement.
•Water, as a balance to land , was essential for perfect harmony, its

constantly changing appearance a reminder of the continual motion of
the cosmos.
•Rocks contained all the creative forces of the Tao and were symbolic of
wilderness and mountains.
•Plants symbolized man’s life in the universe and each one held
traditional meaning for the viewer.
•The entire garden was a symbol of the universe. 116

Hangchow Eastern (India, China, Japan)
•HANGCHOW was the capital of China under the Sung dynasty between 1127 and
1291 and it was here that landscape design, in common with all the arts, probably
reached it zenith.
•Beautifully sited, in relation to an amphitheatre of hills and to the mile-wide tidal

waters of the Ch’ien-T’ang estuary, the city was dependent on an elaborate water
design that separated fresh water from sea.
•The seawater town canals were flushed by the manipulation of tidal sluices.
•The shallow artificial West lake, made in the seventh century AD when the city
was founded, was fresh-water-fed from mountains; and the two systems had to be
kept apart.
•This vast functional water project was the inspiration for a tranquil lake landscape
active with artificial islands and bunds, and an urban scene of water streets that
must have been clean and wholesome.
117
118
•The plan of a medium sized house

shows a typical family complex
with its individual units and
gardens.
119
Former residence of Hu Xueyan,

Hangchow, China
120
Peking Eastern (India, China, Japan)
•Peking was sited on flat wet land
and in evolution has been basically
geometrical.
•The earliest symbolic square town
was followed by a second square,
and under the Chin the space
between became a hunting park.
•Fishing lake were formed and the
excavations used to create an
artificial mound, fully a hundred
paces high, clothed with the most
beautiful evergreen trees.
•The new city of Kubla Khan was
built in the hunting park, the lakes
being retained and embellished
and the axis of the Imperial Palace
aligned on Coal Hill, made from the
canal excavations.
•Under the Ming, the city was
contracted in the north but
extended in the south to include
the Altar of Heaven. 121
•The plan drawn in the eighteenth

century, shows the system of
boxes one within another; the
inmost Imperial Palace, the inner
city with the artificial landscape of
the Sea Palaces, and the outer for
the population.
122
Forbidden city
123
EXAMPLE OF CHINESE GARDEN Humble Administrator’s Garden in Suzhou
124
Summer Palace, Beijing
Front hill
Back hill
Nanhu Island
Eastern Dam
Western Dam
125
126
127
Japan
128
Location Japan
Period 500-1870 AD
Climate Humid climate

15 C Average Temperature
Average Rainfall- 15mm/hr
215 days Sunshine
Terrain Surrounded by Sea

Small scale but varied Landscape with Mountains and Valleys
Plenteous Rivers, Broad and Short- with Rock Bed with No
water at times.
Rich Soil
No permanent grass
129
Socio-Political History War infested, monarchic life styles,, Civil Wars,
Shift towards religious beliefs.
Expression Natural, Kinesthetic experience
Architecture Least building elements, Pagoda style Pavilions,

Modular internal spaces, blending seamlessly
with outdoor with varying Axial Layout.
Landscape Character Predominantly Natural setting, Organic, minutely

crafted out of Natural elements, miniaturized
creative replicative forms
Elements and Materials Lakes, Ponds, Low height Vegetation in he

foregrounds, rocks, high peripheral vegetation,
boundaries with vegetation
130
ARCHITECTURE OF JAPANESE GARDEN
• Buildings were light, extrovert, and assymmetric

• Timber construction
• Tatami mat as a module (3’ X 6’)
• Internal courts
• Pagoda profile of roof
• Shapes evolved in conjunction with Landscape
design
• House and garden- Interlocked and complementary
• Strong influence of Chinese Landscape style
131
LANDSCAPE CHARACTER
• Absolutely asymmetric (except garden of

contemplation)
• Structure is subdued
• Pavilion of contemplation
• Tea house
• Islands- e.g. Crane island, turtle island
• Lakes reflecting the moon and sky
• Thick, low-height, drooping, green dominated tree at
the periphery to provide mystic endless boundary
effect
132
ELEMENTS
• Tearoom
• Pavilion
• Ponds, lakes and koi ponds
• Island
• Water basin
• Garden bridge
• Rocks
• Replicated river with quartzite sand bed
• Stone lantern
• Paving
• Artificial mounds
• Trees
• Pathway
• Dry water fall
133
Japanese gardens
Basic elements in Japanese gardens
• a stone lantern representing four natural elements: earth, water,

fire and wind
• statues of male and female lions, placed at the entrance of the
garden in order to protect the garden from intruders,
representing the two opposite forces: yin and yang (fire and
water, male and female).
• water basin known as a deer chaser, which keep deer away by
making a special sound when filled up
• the koi fish swimming in ponds, which has a decorative meaning
• typical Japanese bridge, called a moon bridge, whose purpose is
to reflect artistic feelings.
134
Japanese gardens
135
Japanese gardens
Elements of
Japanese Gardens
• Ponds, waterfalls, wells,

bridges (real or symbolic)
• Stepping stones, Garden
paths
• Stone water basins, stone
lanterns
• Garden plants and trees
• Fences and walls
• Stones 136
Japanese gardens
WATER OR IKE
•It represents the sea, lake, pond or
river in nature.
•Non geometrical in appearance; in
order to preserve the natural shapes,
manmade ponds are asymmetrical.
• The bank of the pond is usually
bordered by stones
•A fountain is sometimes found at
the bottom of a hill or hillside or
secluded forest.
•Wells are sometimes found in a
Japanese garden.
137
Paths or tobi-ishi
• Usually used in tea gardens.

• flat stepping stones served to
preserve the grass as well as
orient the viewer to a specific
visual experience.
• step- stones are found near the
veranda or entrance of the house
or tea room. The visitor of the
house or room is expected to
place his shoes on the step- stone
before entering.
138
Water basins & lanterns

• Two kinds of stone water basins-
• kazari- chozubachi, which is kept
near the verandah
• tsukubai for tea garden
• Stone lanterns are placed besides
prominent water basins whose
luminance underscored the
unfinished beauty of the tea
aesthetic.
139
Garden Enclosures
 For the garden to be a true retreat, we must first seal it away from
the outside world. Once it is enclosed, we must create a method
(and a mindset) to enter and leave our microcosm. Fences and gates
are as important to the Japanese garden as lanterns and maples.
 As with most things associated with the garden the fence and gates
have deep symbolic meaning as well as specific function. We are
encouraged to view the garden as a separate world in which we have
no worries or concerns. The fence insulates us from the outside
world and the gate is the threshold where we both discard our
worldly cares and then prepare ourselves to once again face the
world.
140
Courtyards include a modern alfresco

(sheltered outdoor living) area with a
lush backdrop of plants.
141
Stones
• Stones are fundamental elements
of Japanese gardens.
• Stones used are not quarried by
the hand of man, but of stones
shaped by nature only
• Used to construct the garden's
paths, bridges, and walkways.
• Represent a geological presence
where actual mountains are not
viewable or present. They are
placed in odd numbers and a
majority of the groupings reflect
triangular shapes
142
Kasan
• They are artificial
mountains usually, built in
gardens.
• Generally between one and
five of the hills are built.
• They are made up of
ceramics, dried wood or
strangely-shaped stones.
143
Suikinkutsu (Water Harp Hollow)

• Refers to a relatively small cave or
hollow set underneath the ground
near a washbasin in the garden.
• The hollow produces a harp-like
echoing sound effect as water
drips into the hollow. Thus, it
provides a mysterious sound for
people strolling through the
garden.
• They are generally located the at
gates of the garden.
• The excess water running over the
edge of the tsukubai drops down
onto polished pebbles below.
• Below the ground is another large
basin, often a ceramic vase.
144
Bonsai and bonseki

•The art of Bonsai involves the training of
everyday shrubs such as pine, cypress, holly,
cedar, cherry, maple, and beech to look like
old, large trees in miniature form.
•The trees are usually less than one meter

high and kept small by pruning, re-potting,
growth pinching, and wiring the branches.
•Bonseki is the art of developing miniature

landscapes which may include smallest of
rock pieces to represent mountains.
145
KARESANSUI/ DRY
GARDENS
• Also known as rock gardens and
waterless stream gardens.
• Influenced by Zen Buddhism and can

be found at Zen temples of meditation
• Found in the front or rear gardens at

the residences.
• No water presents in gardens. raked

gravel or sand that simulates the
feeling of water.
• The rocks/gravel used are chosen for

their artistic shapes, and mosses as
well as small shrubs.
• Plants are much less important (and
sometimes nonexistent)
146
• Rocks and moss are used to

represent ponds, islands, boats, seas,
rivers, and mountains in an abstract
way.
• Gardens were meant to be viewed
from a single, seated perspective.
• Rocks in karesansui are often
associated with Chinese mountains
such as Mt. Penglai or Mt. Lu.
Karesansui.
• Stones are usually off-white or grey
though the occasional red or black
stone were added later.
147
Ryoan – Ji temple, Kyoto
148
JAPANESE LANDSCAPE STYLE
Chisen- shoyil-teien or pond garden

The Paradise Garden
Karesansui dry rock grdens
Roji, or tea gardens
Kaiyyi-shiki teien, or promenade gardens
Tsubo-niwa coutyard garden
Hermitage garden
149
HISTORY
• Origins
• Gardens of the Nara period (710-794)
• Gardens of the Heian period (794–1185)
• Kamakura and Muromachi Periods (1185–1573)
• The Momoyama Period (1568–1600)
• Edo Period (1615–1867)
• Meiji Period (1868–1912)
• Modern Japanese gardens (1912 to present)
150
ARCHITECTURE
•The more monumental groups of buildings under Chinese influence tended to be symmetrical,
with internal courts, apparent in the landscape as a complex of long low lines marked by a great
pagoda.
•Domestic dwellings in principle were single storeyed, able to ride an earthquake but not
fireproof.
•Their shape evolved from landscape design, to which they were at all times subsidiary.
•House and garden interlocked but were complementary in as much as the one was
asymmetrically geometric and the other organic.
•The house, timber framed, was planned on a mathematical module with movable partitions
which were translucent when they formed the outer walls; in the long summer they were
opened to verandhas, often round three sides.
•Within the interior were sometimes wall-paintings echoing, and therefore introducing, the
external landscape.
151
LANDSCAPE
Successive phases can be detected
I.
• In the beginning an empty graveled courtyard for Shinto rites and court ceremonies is
gradually transformed with the introduction of the primary elements of the natural
environment: water, rocks and trees followed by little hills, islands and bridges.
• Chinese influence is overwhelming, creating symbolism in use of natural materials and
symmetry in monumental groups and town-planning.
II.
• Period of unrest and civil strife
• The Buddhist paradise garden, a mandala of specific symbolism, provides an escape
into religion from a temporarily hostile environment.
152
III.
• The secular garden revives and reaches its highest level under the influence of the
Chinese Sung.
• Zen budhism evolves the temple landscapes of (a) the separated ceremonial tea
pavilion, and (b) the static gardens of contemplation.
IV.
• The secular ‘stroll’ garden develops from the stepping- stones of the tea pavilion to
become a garden of movement.
• To the primary elements are now added stone lanterns and lavers (hand-rinsing basins).
V.
• The secular garden expands aesthetically. The ‘borrowed’ landscape appears; plants are
clipped like rocks or as pure abstract form; the proliferating small urban garden, intent
on tradition, calls for a miniature within a miniature; tiny gardens are made in
receptacles with live dwarf trees.
153
• Early garden forms which were adopted by the nobles, were heavily influenced
by religious beliefs, symbolism, and Chinese influence in varying proportions
• Meditation was the garden’s chief purpose, through which the meaning and
purpose of life was revealed.
• Gardens of the Nara period, often built by craftsmen from Korea and China,
included lakes and rocks arranged to resemble nature based on the Chinese
model.
• Subsequent periods, especially those associated with the location of the capital
at Kyoto, saw the refinement of this garden type as a pleasure ground
representing paradise and within which imperial courtiers amused themselves,
boating on the lakes, writing poetry and discussing aesthetics.
• The gardens, too, contained symbols of longevity and purity, as well as allusions
to specific places in Japan.
154
• The importance of Zen Budhism in the Kamakura period brought new concepts
to life.
• The garden was seen more strictly as an aid to meditation.
• For this purpose it was enclosed with wall, and the relationship of the viewer to
the garden was fixed.
• Later, during the Muromachi period (1393-1568) the dry garden of which
Ryoan-ji is a prime example, was produced in a time of nostalgia for the 11th
and 12th centuries.
• The dry garden was the ultimate Zen aesthetic. Temples contained dry gardens
as places to find spiritual peace in turbulent times.
155
• Ryoan-ji is a small, enclosed, inward looking garden made of simple materials

conducive to meditation, viewed from a veranda of a temple building.
• It contrasted to the more lavish gardens of previous periods and ideals.
• This garden forms part of a Zen temple. Over the time buildings have been
destroyed and rebuilt, but the garden has existed since approx. 1500BC.
156
THE SACRED LANDSCAPE: Eastern (India, China, Japan)
•unlike the churches and monasteries of the West, Japanese religious buildings
include, but transcend, the world of nature.
•The torii, or gateway, of the Shinto Itsukushima shrine, extends the shrine over the
water in a way that is consistent with the conception of the divinity of both sky and
earth.
•The coming of Budhism via China in the seventh century introduced new forms to
Japan, but they were soon given a distinctively Japanese character.
157
•Chinese desire for symmetry

normally placed the pagoda on
the same central axis as the
Budha hall, but Japanese
preference for asymmetry
placed them side by side, as at
the Horyu-ji monastery, Nara.
•Later temples relegated the

pagoda to beyond the confines
or dispend with it altogether, the
Budha hall, becoming dominant.
158
•At Nara, aloofness from the material

world is suggested by enclosing walls, at
Itsukushima by the water, and at the
Kiyomizu temple, Kyoto, by a sense of
inaccessibility.
•The building, a seventeenth century

reconstruction of a ninth century original,
extends from the tree-clad slopes on a
gigantic substructure of un-nailed timber.
In the distance is modern Kyoto.
159
THE PARADISE GARDEN Eastern (India, China, Japan)
•Evolved between 1185 and 1332 as part of a return to comtemplative Bhudhism.

•The Moss Garden of Saiho-ji temple, Kyoto was made c.1350 and is composed of
more than a hundred species.
•The plan is basically original.
160
•Saiho-ji marks a definite change in garden

development, with the disappearance of the
old, gay, open pleasure park, while it pres
hadows the new subjective feeling in gardens
of the coming age…
•The curious effect of the moss, the lichen-

marked tree trunks, the dark gleaming water
with its long reflections, all combine to create
a feeling of the centuries rolling over. And
with this has come the mood of great
tranquility that Japanese artists call yugen.
•Yugen is called into being by atmosphere,

one of hazy unreality that creates in a mind
attuned to it the feeling of kinship with
nature, the sense of one’s spirit merging with
the spirits of other natural things and the
eternal behind them all.
161
•By the late fifteenth century, pictorial design technique had become professionalized,
reaching its highest aesthetic level.
•The Golden Pavilion or Kinkaku-ji, Kyoto (1394, rebuilt after a fire in 1950)
was designed under Chinese Sung influence as a place of contemplation for a retired
nobleman.
•The building appears to float above the water.
162
•The lake is divided in two parts

by an island; that beside the
pavilion being enlivened with
lesser islands and tortoise-
shaped rocks, the further being
placid.
•This skilful play on optics

induces vision from the pavilion
to focus on the foreground
complexities, allowing the water
beyond the island (seen through
the stems of trees) to melt into
imaginative distance.
163
STROLL GARDEN Eastern (India, China, Japan)
•The Japanese stroll garden places great importance on the path.
•Stroll gardens usually are quite large and have a pond in the central area encircled
by a path (or several paths), which allows visitors to stroll about.
•These gardens developed after the medieval period, from the 17th to 19th
centuries, when travel throughout the country was severely limited by the central
government.
•Because the lords couldn't travel freely, they created private gardens where such
"excursions" could be undertaken.
• In their gardens they built a number of scenes that reminded visitors of famous
places from around the country, familiar from well-known tales and woodblock
prints, as well as from stories told by those returning from religious pilgrimages
(one of the few kinds of travel for which it was possible to obtain a permit).
•By traveling about the garden path, visitors could take "excursions" designed for
them by their host.
164
•Among the famous scenes depicted in stroll gardens were natural landscapes such
as Mount Fuji, Amanohashidate (a famous spot along the Japan Sea coast), and the
Oi River near Kyoto.
•The scenes also included built objects such as Togetsukyo and Tsutenkyo, both
famous bridges near Kyoto.
•One garden owner even went so far as to have an entire postal town
reconstructed for the pleasure of his guests, who may not have had a chance to
see such an "exotic" out-of-the-way place.
•Some scenes were reminiscent not of Japan but of China, like the Su dike in the
West Lake near Hangzhou; and other gardens contained scenes that were drawn
from poetry rather than actual localities, often poetry of the earlier, Heian period
•The path that meandered about the garden passed these various scenes, hiding
and revealing them in turns (a technique called mie-gakure), allowing the visitor to
take a broad excursion within the confines of the garden.
165
•The scenes were not recreated in miniature, as in a model, but rather were
expressed symbolically.
•The essence of a natural scene was extracted and re-created in the garden.
•For instance, to evoke the feeling of Amanohashidate, which is a narrow, pine-

covered spit of land arcing across a wide bay, all that was needed was one pine
tree planted on a short peninsula in a pond, edged with some well-placed
boulders.
•The paths of the stroll gardens, like those of the tea gardens, elicit the sense of
embarking on a journey. Unlike the tea garden, however, the journey is not an
inward one, but rather one that transcends time and space to allow those who
circumambulate the garden to venture to faraway places in times past or present.
166
KASTURA IMPERIAL PALACE, KYOTO Eastern (India, China, Japan)
•The stroll garden has been so called to suggest a landscape in which the observer
or participant is in movement, in contrast to the static garden of contemplation.
•The climax of this, and of ordered confusion, was the Katsura Imperial Palace,
Kyoto.
167
•The plan show how the

comparatively small area of
eleven acres has been given a
sense of boundlessness by being
turned in upon itself to become a
complex microcosm of nature.
•A path of 1760 symbolic stones

circuits the garden from and to
the palace.
•Basically, the garden is

traditional and at least two
ancient symbols survive in the
landforms; the tortoise shaped
island and the flying crane-
shaped lake in which it is set.
•To these have been added the

newly introduced ceremonial tea
pavilions and other innovations.
168
•The path of stones, each

with its own formidable
personality, leads through
various incidents to cross a
stone bridge, passes the tea
pavilion and continues
through a moss garden until
finally it reaches home. The
experience of this circuit, as
was intended, is mystical.
169
POND
WATERFALL
170
Rock – an important feature
171
Basic rules in the design of Japanese gardens

• Natural: that should make the garden look as if it grew by itself
• Asymmetry: that creates the impression of it being natural
• Odd numbers: It supports the effect of the asymmetry
• Simplicity: that follows the idea of 'less is more'
• Triangle: that is the most common shape for compositions made of
stones, plants, etc.
• Contrast: that creates tension between elements
• Lines: that can create both tranquility and tension
• Curves: that softens the effect
• Openness: that indicates interaction between all elements
172
173
174
175
French
176
•The garden was made for man and dignified him. The proportions gave him peace;
the form was therefore crucial.
•The interior of the house thrust itself outwards, levelled to the rising or falling site,
the shapes made more by intuition than by mathematical calculation.
•The sites were usually on hillsides, because of view and climate; the descending
terraces were carved out of the ground and harmonius with it; the long shapes were
genial to contemplative perambulation.
•The contents were basically evergreens, stone and water-materials that were
permanent rather than ephemeral.
•They included box parterrres,

clipped hedges, the dark cypress
and groves of ilex; sculpture,
stairways, pergolas and arbours;
water in repose and in fountains.
177
•The theory proposed that the garden be strongly linked to the
house by loggias and other architectural extensions into the
landscape.
•Terraces and stairways were recommended to overcome the

difficulties of uneven terrain, and an avenue or axis should link
up all elements and spaces of the plan.
•The gardens of the early renaissance were designed as

intellectual retreats where scholars and artists could work and
debate in the coolness of the countryside away from the heat
and frustations of the cities in summer.
•The Villa Medici, designed by Michelozzo for Cosimo de’Medici

around 1450, is an early expression of Alberti’s principles.
178
179
180
•The banker Medici selected the site on a hillside outside Florence overlooking
the plain where it would catch the breeze.
•Thus it allowed the view which Alberti prescribed.
•Because of the hillside location, several terraces where required to fit the villa
into the land.
•The entire driveway followed the contours along the hillside arriving at the top
terrace in front of the villa.
•The house was connected to the garden by a loggia or arcade.
•However the relationship between the upper and lower terrace is indirect.
•The necessary connection was not celebrated with an elaborate staircase as it

would have been in the sixteenth century.
181
•Behind the house and cut off from the rest
of the garden is the giardino segreto, or
secret garden.
•This was a place in which to be alone,

secret, hidden and quiet as opposed to the
rest of the garden which would be more
public, used by visitors and guests, and
permeated with servants.
182
•Barmante’s plan for the Belvedere Garden of the Vatican
introduced architectural steps as a major garden design
feature to link terraces.
•The great hillside Italian gardens of subsequent dates

developed this new element to its fullest potential.
•The use of water, which was readily available in the hills,
favored for summer villas, was also exploited in elaborate
gardens.
•The greatest example of expertise in stairways and

waterworks is the Villa dÉste, designed by Pirro Ligorio in
1575.
183
184
VILLA DÉSTE
185
VILLA DÉSTE
186
•Water, diverted from a river at a higher point, was directed through the
gardens in the form of cascades, fountains, jets and reflecting pools.
•These provided visual and sensuous delight and also served as an irrigation
system.
•The presence of water together with shade contributed to the much desired
coolness which the garden was expected to provide.
•Boxwood and other shrubs were clipped and arranged in linear patterns to be
seen from above, but the use of flowering plants was rare.
•The entire layout was organized axially.
•Avenues of trees were used to emphasize perspective and to frame views of

the landscape beyond the garden.
•The house and the garden were designed in one process, as a unity.
187
•The entrance is at lower level and the visitor progressed through
the garden with its various sculpture and fountains and other
features and points of interest to the palace above.
•This provided a kinetic and sensuous experience, an unfolding of

events before entering the building.
•A spectacular composition, it was desinged for effect and to

impress those who visited it.
188
Garden of Versailles
189
190
191
192
193
194
English
195
Concept behind it!
William kent
• In the early years of 18th century , the Artist and
Designer William Kent began to compose gardens
look like landscape paintings.
• Kent is recognised as the Father of the English

landscape garden
and a pioneer of picturesque {adjective (of a place or building
visually attractive, especially in a quaint or charming way.)}
196
What these paintings had in them
• SMALL BEGUILING BUILDINGS
197
Attractive groves of trees in which
visitor was an important element
198
• The English landscape garden, also
called English landscape park or simply
the English garden
• It is a style of "landscape" garden which

emerged in England in the early 18th century.
• These English garden replaced more formal,

symmetrical French garden of the 17th
century as the principal gardening style of
Europe.
199
Why did the shift happened
• Before the introduction of English

landscape, nature was viewed as
dangerous , cranky .
• the English landscape completely changed
this view to appreciate and value the
natural world.
200
Before English garden…..
• Before English garden most garden was arranged
in French or Dutch style .
• These French and Dutch gardens have rectangular

subdivision.
• Straight avenues & paths and water contained

symmetrically shaped basin
201
Gardens before English garden
French garden layout 202

dutch garden layout 203
Elements within English gardens:
• Recreations of classic buildings
Temple of Ancient Virtue at Stowe
204
Garden of Rousham House
• Ruins
205
• Bridges
Stourhead English
garden
206
• Natural stone
Dessau-Wörlitz Garden
207
Realm
• Cobblestone
208
• Wattle edging & panels
209
• Bee skep
210
Common characteristics of an English garden
• Lake
There was always a lake in the English gardens, most were man-made but
all appeared to be natural forming basins .
Their edges were meandering and irregular and often had pathways
weaving through the trees and close to the water’s edge.
211
• Rolling lawns
rolling lawn topography allowed visitors for surprises
as they come around mounds or niches
212
1.Tree groves
Tree groves - were spread throughout the landscape with
paths that allowed the gardens users to wander in and out of
the groves and provide a view of rolling lawns against mass
tree plantings.
213
• Ha ha wall
The purpose of ha ha wall was to
separate garden from the
grazing land but was invisible from
a distance .
Cattle could be kept securely in

their fields without the use of
hedges or fences to interrupt the
view
214
• Ha ha wall
215
• Grottos
grottos were used as romantic hide outs.
They were manmade but build to resemble a dark natural
forming cave.
216
Rousham House in Oxfordshire is considered by some
as the most accomplished and significant of William
Kent's work.
The patron was General Dormer, who commissioned

Bridgeman to begin the garden in 1727.
But then brought in Kent to recreate it in 1737
217
• To create the illusion of unbroken landscape
kent has used several technique at the garden
of rousham house.
• One of those technique is ha ha wall
• A wall that separated garden from grazing
land , being invisible from a distance
• Cattle could be kept separated without the
use of hedges or fences
218
Haha wall
219
• At rousham, kent extended the views into the distance
by designing a gothic style alteration to an old mill on
the other side of river.
220
• High up in the hill he created a large triple arch
architectural folly called the eye-catcher
221
• It was made on purpose to direct the view towards
the field above the garden
222
• Kent’s crafted views are best appreciated from the
seat he has designed and scattered throughout his
gardens
this rustic seat provide the view of garden to

watch the river flow beneath the stone bridge
223
• Kent’s garden often announced themselves with
spectacular gates , entrances ,
• He has put those gates and entrances on the
perimeter of the land owner holdings in roushams
224
• After years of experimenting with cascades and
different commissions he created the spectacular
veil of venus at roushams it had fountain at that
time which went up as long as 50 feet in air
225
•The influence of the French garden was enormous, especially in Holland
and England. Their scale and rich design were impressive to all who saw
them.
•Contemporary views show the unsuitability of the rigid forms when

superimposed on the undulating English agricultural landscapes.
•The gardens of Greenwich Palace, Hampton court, Longleat, and

Chatsworth are some of the work which attempted to recreate the essential
symmetry and monumentality of the French style.
226
•In 18th century England the description “landscape garden” came to be
associated with an unambiguously new approach to the design of large
private grounds that made a clean break from the conventions of rigid
formality geometrical design and the clipped and manicured horticulture
that had prevailed in the preceding centuries.
•It was the origin of a revolution in taste and style; Sir William Kent painter,
architect and landscape gardener is widely recognized as its chief originator,
the “first in English gardening to vindicate the natural against artificial”.
•A distinctive feature of the earliest examples of these new landscapes was

their architectural content- finely proportioned pavilions, temples, grottos,
bridges and very carefully placed other small garden structures- as visual
devices to direct the eye and to compose the view.
227
•The statement “all gardening is a landscape painting” is attributed to Kent,
and is a good explanation of the central principles of the new style- first,
that the designed landscape would present a series of carefully composed
views, and second that it would give the illusion of having no boundaries,
the views extending uninterrupted to the horizon, much as depicted in the
new genre of landscape painting that began in the preceding century.
•To that end, an ambiguous blurring of edges sought to blend what was
inside the estate and was therefore carefully designed and what, being
outside, was not.
•It produced a kind of landscape garden so successfully related to its

surroundings.. That it has deceived us all at some stage into believing it to
be England’s natural scenery.
228
•Towards the last third of the 18th century this style which had come to be
known as the “picturesque”- literally, in the manner of a picture- was
brought to another stage of refinement by Lancelot “Capability” Brown
(1716-1783), so called because of his practice of telling clients that their
estates had “capability” for landscape improvement.
•His improvement to estates displayed a bold simplicity in the articulation of

landscape space through the careful placement of belts, groups and
individual specimens of trees to define and punctuate broad sweeps of
gently sloping grass spread over hundreds of acres of land, with generously
scaled water bodies created by controlling the flow of existing streams.
229
•Humphry repton (1752-1818) was the third great master of the English
landscape garden in the 18th century.
•Whereas Brown had worked as a contractor, executing his own designs,

Repton practiced as consultant presenting his proposals, quite innovatively
as an elaborate series of before and after scenes rendered in watercolor, the
actual execution of the work on site was often left to be organized by the
owner.
•Repton’s designs returned to the practice of intermediate garden spaces

between the house and the larger grounds (a characteristic of Brownian
landscapes was that the lawn swept right up to the building) and adopted
earlier conventions of using architectural elements to animate the long view,
indeed to organize or modify planting and thus open “borrowed” vistas to
the countryside.
230
•During this period many estates in England were worked upon by several
landscape designers, to bring about the change from formal patterns of the
late Baroque to this new way creating scenery.
•The Gardens at Stowe are a good example; they were “improved” in the
18th century, first by Charles Bridgeman, then by Kent, and later by Brown,
the changing appearance of the landscape itself physically illustrating the
progress of the new style as it evolved.
231
Prospect- Refugee theory
Prospect-refuge theory was developed by Jay Appleton, an English geographer

and academic in 1975. In his book, the Experience of Landscape, he proposes
that humans seek out to satisfy an innate desire when reviewing a space — to
have opportunity [prospect] whilst being safe [refuge]. This stems from
evolutionary survival, where the predator must be able to see their prey without
being seen.
Prospect-refuge theory suggests that spaces we find most

acceptable to be in present us with great opportunity, yet
we must be in a place of safety at the time.
232
Prospect- Refugee theory
Whilst we are no longer hunters and gatherers, the landscapes we find

aesthetically satisfying is actually rooted in the environment’s capability to
answer a biological drive.
So what is prospect and what is refuge?

Prospect examples:
• a distant vista
• an elevated view
• large natural wonders — mountains, oceans, lakes, sky expanse
Refuge examples: Therefore, in the design of space, provide

• an interior space good quality spaces of refuge where
• a bench seat with a wall behind people can oversee an area of
• a cave or grotto opportunity/activity.
• a physical impediment to hide behind
233

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1

VIth Semester B.Arch

Recommended Reading (Competency Upgrade)

Landscape architecture encompasses the analysis, planning,

Types of Projects include:

Land – one of the basic commodities of the world – its planning

Landscape - Land becomes landscape when it is described or

‘Landscape is a reflection of dynamic, natural, and social systems.’

Landscape architecture is concerned with the planning and design

‘Planning’ implies a futuristic approach to land : land is regarded as

‘Design’ refers to the qualitative and functional arrangement of

The conscious planning and

Our approach to land use

By definition there is no such thing as an entirely man-

1. Adaptation related to man’s use of land for growing

There are evidences of both throughout the history of

E.A.Gutkind defines two basic relationships between

The four stages in man’s changing attitude towards his

Example : the layout of tribal settlements is a reflection of this

The I-thou relationship

Our present situation – the one advanced technological

The adjustment to the environment of the second stage are

I-it relationship may be symbolized by the contemporary

Lies in the future.

An age of responsibility and unification.

Transformation of the I-it attitude into renewed understanding

This new attitude depends on the science of ecology.

Examples includes the Sustainability concept, Green

According to the optimists, there is evidence that we are

Landscape as a resource to be planned and designed

•Thus in a theory of landscape architecture responsive to this new

•Next we need a methodology for analysis, evaluation, synthesis

•And finally we need a technology to match the solution so that it

•The planning technology involves political and economic

•In addition, landscape architecture must be based on a set of values

•Natural and social science, methodology, and technology can be

•We need to develop a set of priorities and subscribe to a land ethic

•Environmental impact must be seen in a regional context.

•We must learn to make judgments in terms of what is considered

•The professional must present such considered judgments to the

Landscape- dynamic and ever changing

•Professionals frequently find it frustrating that their role in

•Landscape gardening is the usual interpretation, but the

1858 – Frederick Law Olmsted, designer of New York's Central

• Restoration of derelict land.

These now form a major portion of the landscape

Landscape work does not always have an immediately

The fourth dimension, time is an important aspect of

Hubbard and Kimball

Refer to landscape architecture as

This definition reflects Olmstead’s belief that contact with natural

Garrett Eckbo (an American landscape architect)

defines landscape architecture as

This definition is essentially concerned with site planning and the

According to the theory by Garret Eckbo, the differences between

Brain Hackett points to another essential differences between landscape

Thus the constraints inherent in the ecological cycles and environmental

Kassler challenges the concept that landscape is a form of

She thus identifies broader responsibilities for the landscape

The definition of the profession has varied over the years in an

ASLA amended its official definition to include “stewardship of

1. Landscape planning & assessment

• There is clearly an interrelationship among the 3