METHODS AND RESULTS

3.1 Testing methods

ASTM standard was used to perform laboratory test. Test methods for fresh concrete and other
properties of concrete are included in table 3.1 and table 3.2 .And also dimensions of laboratory
apparatus and testing time are given in table 3.2.

Table 3.1 - Test Methods for Fresh Concrete Properties

Property Test method

Slump ASTM C 143

Density ASTM C 138

Air content by pressure method ASTM C 231

Concrete temperature ASTM C 1064

Table 3.2 - Test Methods for Other Properties of Concrete

Property Test Specimen Number Test ages

method tested
each time
Time of initial ASTM C 403 6" diameter × 5" 2 Until time of initial setting
setting high
sieved mortar
Autogenous UWMCBU* 4" × 4" × 13 ¾" 3 Time of initial setting and between
shrinkage beam 15 to 18
hours (≈ 0.7 days); and
1, 3, 7, 14, 28, and 56 days.
Compressive ASTM C 39 4" diameter × 8" 3 1, 3, 7, 14, 28, 91, and 182 days
strength high
cylinder
Splitting-tensile ASTM C 496 4" diameter × 8" 3 1, 3, 7, 14, 28, 91, and 182 days
strength high
cylinder
Drying ASTM C 157 3" × 3" × 11 ¼" 3 1- and 28 - days during water
shrinkage beam storage. Subsequently after 4, 7,
14, 28, 56, 112 days during air
storage at a relative humidity of
50 ± 4%.
3.2 Calculation of Autogenous Length Change
Autogenous shrinkage is measured by using a strain in concrete. When calculating autogenous
shrinkage, it needs to deduct the thermal strain from the concrete strain. In the study coefficient
of thermal expansion was taken as 10 × 10-6/°C. During the test autogenous length in a concrete
beam was taken from two dial gauge readings where the dial indicators are placed in certain
points which need to measure the autogenous length of concrete beam. Xoa and Xob were taken
from dial gauges at the initial setting of the concrete. Other readings recorded from the dial
gauge were Xia and Xib.Autogeneous shrinkage was considered as a linear strain and
autogenous shrinkage was calculated using the equation given below.

[( X ia+ X ib) – ( X 0 a+ X 0b)]

ΔL= −ε t
L
where,
L = distance between two gauge points where the autogenous lengths are measured (between
little plates of the gauge points)
εt = Thermal strain calculated as dT × α where, dT = temperature difference in concrete and α =
coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete.

3.3 Results obtained from past investigations

Several solutions were suggested to the drying shrinkage problems in concrete structure. These
suggestions varied from mixture proportions to cement type. In mixture proportions water
content and aggregate quality can be changed. In cement type, shrinkage compensating cement
can be used. In some situations, drying shrinkage can be reduced using a proper mix design. In
addition it can be reduced by following recommendations of concreting and curing practices. It is
difficult to avoid drying shrinkage in concrete structures due to the reasons such as high ambient
temperature, high wind velocity and low humidity in air.Using locally found materials is a major
reason for the occurrence of shrinkage cracking. At present one of the highly accepted methods
to prevent shrinkage crack is the use of shrinkage compensating cement. It was used in many
applications. Other methods were also found to prevent the shrinkage cracking. Those methods
are highly accepted by the concrete construction market.
There are advantages as well as disadvantages of the use of shrinkage compensating cement.
These disadvantages affect largely to the properties of concrete. One of the main reasons when
using shrinkage compensating cement is the loss of slump. Slump loss is taken place due to the
abundance of ettringite which is formed at early hydration stage. And also, better curing method
needs to be used so as to facilitate the mixing of the cement and water which leads to an
advanced concrete hydration process. Finally, proper formwork and reinforcement steel design is
needed to prevent the shrinkage. Having proper formwork and reinforcement steel design will
prevent the inadequate expansion in concrete structures. Due to the above mentioned reasons
shrinkage compensating cement is not universally accepted. Nowadays, the commonly used
method is the use of shrinkage reducing admixture. By using shrinkage reducing admixtures,
long term ad short term shrinkage in concrete structures can be reduced. Shrinkage reducing
admixture is a chemical so a complicated reaction is taken place in the concrete mixture. Many
publications have discussed the characteristics, properties and uses of shrinkage reducing
admixtures. Following sections will describe the process takes place when shrinkage reducing
admixture is used with a water reducing admixture.

3.4 Effect of shrinkage reducing admixture with different dosages on concrete

The investigations by Y Yao et al. (2019) have found the effects of the dosage of shrinkage
reducing admixture (SRA) on the shrinkage of the structure and crack properties of cement. This
investigation found that SRA plays a major role in preventing the cracking. For the study,
Portland cement (reference cement) type CEM P.I 42.5 (according to the china standard) had
been used. As fine aggregate, the sand with the fineness modulus is 3.1. The particle size
distribution of coarse aggregate was 5 - 20 mm. A shrinkage reducing admixture (SRA) had used
with 0% to 5% wt by mass of cement. A naphthalene sulfonate water reducing admixture (WRA)
had used and it has a water reducing rate of 20 wt.%. WRA had used at a dosage of 0.75 wt.% by
mass of cement.
The volume of concrete was 50L and the mixing proportions are given below. The dosage of the
SRA was 0%, 1%, 2% and 5% respectively.
Table 3.3 – Concrete proportioning for adiabatic temperature rise and compressive strength test.

Item Cement Silica Fume Sand Aggregate WRA SRA W/C

(kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3)

Ref 470 80 669 1091 9.41 0 0.3

SRA - 470 80 669 1091 9.41 5.50 0.3

1%
SRA - 470 80 669 1091 9.41 11.00 0.3
2%
SRA - 470 80 669 1091 9.41 27.50 0.3
5%

According to the China Civil Engineering Society Standard (CCES 01 – 2004) the crack
properties were observed by the ring method. Shrinkage crack properties of concrete with age
were further studied. It was found that the shrinkage reducing agent had reduced the shrinkage
value of each sample compared to the reference concrete. And also, the shrinkage value was
decreased with the increasing of SRA dosage under the same testing time. However, the growth
rate of shrinkage value was decreased with the extending of testing time. Following figure shows
the variation of the
shrinkage value with
testing time.
 Figure 3.1 – Variation of the shrinkage value with testing time
in different dosage of SRA

The maximum crack of the concrete with SRA 5% dosage was 0.342 mm. It was compared with
the reference sample. It was 0.875 mm. the reduction as high as 61%. After 28 days, because of
the internal curing effect of the SRA, the defects and cracks in the concrete structure were
reduced. Variation of the minimum crack with testing time is given below.

Figure 3.2 - Variation of the minimum crack with testing time

 in different dosage of SRA

In this study, adiabatic temperature rising with the different dosages was determined. According
to the results of that study, it was investigated that SRA was not only reducing the rising
temperature in about 8°C during the hydration process of concrete, but also it had delayed the
appearing time of initial balance temperature peak, and the appearing time can extend to about
five hours when the SRA dosage of 5 wt.%. Meanwhile, these effects were obviously enhanced
with the increase of SRA dosage. Faster the hydrations rate of cement in early age. And also,
rapider the temperature rises of concrete. The effect of SRA has been improved by the resistance
of cracking of mass concrete. And also, it has been improved by the volume stability of mass
concrete. That was mainly attributed to the effect of hydration heat of cement, specific heat
capacity of concrete, cement content, and hydration process of cement on the adiabatic
temperature rise of concrete.

Figure 3.3 Variation of rising temperature with hydration time

in different dosage of SRA

3.5 Determine the effect of shrinkage reducing admixture with HRWRA for high
performance concrete properties and shrinkage cracking.
Following study has discussed how the newly developed shrinkage reducing admixture affects to
the high performance concrete. In the study high performance concrete mixture has been
prepared with silica fume. Test was conducted by applying shrinkage reducing admixture and not
adding shrinkage reducing admixture. This test has found the drying shrinkage of the
concrete.Resistace of concrete to shrinkage cracking was tested and finally the results indicated
that when adding shrinkage reducing admixture to high performance concrete, the shrinkage is
reduced.And also it was found that the restrained shrinkage cracking is significantly reduced.
The experimental program of Kevin J. Folliard et al (1997) had considered the properties of
high-performance concrete, with parameters improve the proper use of shrinkage reducing
admixtures. Relevant ASTM standards were followed in all of the applicable cases.

In this study, ASTM Type I cement was used and also fine aggregate was used according to the
ASTM C 33 standard.Natural was used in this study and it was found that the Fineness Modulus
(FM) was 2.65. According to ASTM C 33 (Size 67) standard coarse aggregate was used. Coarse
aggregate type was a crushed quartz diorite. In this study, by using above mentioned two types of
aggregate, high performance concrete mixture was made. Main material of the shrinkage-
reducing admixture was blend of propylene glycol derivatives.

There are two set of mixtures which were made for the study. And also, one of sets has two
mixture proportions with and without SRA. And another set of mixtures was made without silica
fume and other was made with a constant weight of silica fume. Cement and aggregate weights
were constant at all time when making the mixture proportions. It was a fully activated liquid. Its
specific gravity was 0.95 and it is capable of properly dissolving in water. The amount of
ingredients used in the study are given below.

Table 3.4 Concrete Mixture Proportions

Mixture Cement Silica Coarse Fine HRWR SRA Water
Description (kg/m3) Fume Aggregate Aggregate (ml/100kg (kg/m3) (kg/m3)
(kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) of binder)
Control 457 0 1090 779 1080 0 160
Concrete
Concrete with 457 0 1092 779 1030 6.9 153.1
1.5% SRA
 Silica Fume 423 34 1092 766 1175 0 160
concrete
Silica Fume 423 34 1092 766 1110 6.9 153.1
concrete with
1.5% SRA

In the mixtures, Mass of binder was mixed to 1.5% SRA. And also, target slump was 150 – 200
mm. Therefore, HRWRA dosage was changed to achieve the target slump. This dosage range is
mostly used in high performance concrete. Mixing water is absorbed by concrete with HRWRA
or concrete with silica fume. When adding SRA to the mixture, there is a certain water content
which can be removed by SRA and this amount of water is reduced from the concrete. Due to
this,W/C ratio was decreased up to 0.34.The initial W/C ratio was 0.35. The Following fresh
concrete properties were obtained from the study.

Table 3.5 - Fresh Concrete Properties

Mixture Slump Air content Unit Weight Initial Set Final Set
Description (mm) (%) (kg/m3) (H:M) (H:M)
Control 190 1.6 2526 5.48 8.27
Concrete
Concrete with 190 1.6 2515 7.44 10.56
1.5% SRA
Silica Fume 190 1.7 2501 7.24 10.07
concrete
Silica Fume 190 1.6 2496 10.07 12.14
concrete with
1.5% SRA

The dry shrinkage of concrete was measured in 28 days and in 120 days. It is shown in figure 3.4
.In both cases of with and without silica fume in high performance concrete, drying shrinkage is
reduced by the shrinkage reducing admixtures.However,in the case of adding silica fume the
shrinkage is high. Results indicated the reduction of drying shrinkage as 52% and 43% in 28
days and 120 days respectively. This comparison was done with a concrete without SRA.For this
comparison, SRA was added to control concrete to have shrinkage reduction of 35% ,29% at 28
days and 120 days respectively.

Table 3.6 - Dry shrinkage in 28 days and 120 days

Figure 3.4 - Drying shrinkage of High-Performance Concrete with and without SRA
(ASTM C 157, l - day moist-cure).

Compressive strength of concrete results are given in Table 3.7. The reduction of compressive
strength was one of the results of the addition of SRA.When testing the strength at the first day,
Mixture Description 28-Day Drying Shrinkage 120-day Drying Shrinkage main
(%) (%)
Control Concrete 0.049 0.070 reason
for the
Concrete with 1.5% 0.032 0.050
SRA
Silica Fume concrete 0.051 0.077

Silica Fume concrete 0.024 0.044

with 1.5% SRA
strength loss was the SRA.Early hydration of cement was the reason for the strength loss.At the
latter age of concrete, compressive strength was lower from 8-9% in concrete mixture with SRA
than the mixture without SRA.As previously stated, the HRWRA dosage in concrete mixtures
was reduced to observe the water reducing effect of SRA.However low changes were done to the
water cement ratio.If HRWRA dosage was constant the amount of water needed to add was
reduced to get the target slump.But with the change of compressive strengths, effectiveness of
HRWRA dosage in concrete can not be evaluated.

Table 3.7 - Hardened Concrete Properties

Mixture Compressive Strength (MPa)

Description 1 - day 7 - day 28 - day 90 - day
Control 31.2 51.9 63.9 74.1
Concrete
Concrete with 25.0 48.2 58.7 67.6
1.5% SRA
Silica Fume 30.6 56.0 76.4 83.6
concrete
Silica Fume 25.5 50.7 71.7 76.9
concrete with
1.5% SRA

3.6 Effectiveness of Shrinkage reducing admixture for self-compacting concrete

Impact of Shrinkage reducing admixture on the plastic shrinkage cracking self-compacting

concrete was studied by A. Leemann et al. (2013). The density of produced concrete was 460
kg/m3.The blended cement used for this concrete has 15% of limestone and 15% of fly ash by
mass of concrete(CEM II/B-M (V-LL 32.5 R according to EN 197 - 1).And also the water
content was 202 l/m3 (w/c of 0.44).As fine aggregates , alluvial sand was used and as coarse
aggregate gravel was used.They were added separate fractions (0 – 1 mm: 35% by mass, 1 – 4
mm, 21% by mass, 4/8 mm: 19% by mass, 8–16 mm: 25% by mass).Main material of the
superplasticizer (SP) was polycarboxylate. Organic hydroxyl compounds based shrinkage
reducing agent (SRA) was used. Curing compounds were sprayed for the curing process.
Pendant drop method was used to find the effect of the SRA on the surface tension in
capillaries. This method can be used only for the concrete which consists of the admixture and
deionized water in amounts similar to those employed in the concrete. The surface tension of the
SRA solution was 0.0432 ± 0.001 N/m (average and standard deviation of 4 independent
measurements), Mixing proportioning of the concrete is given below.

Table 3.8 - Mix design of the SCC mixtures with and without SRA

Name Reference mixture Mixture with SRA

Aggregate (kg / m3) 1660 1635
Water (kg / m3) 202 202
Cement (kg / m3) 460 460
Superplasticizer (kg / m3) 2.3 2.3
Admixture (kg / m3) 0 9.2
w/c 0.44 0.44

According to ASTM C1579-06 plastic shrinkage cracking was determined. The self compacting
concrete was filled into two molds with standard dimensions (355 x 560 x 100 mm 3) and
containing an insert. This insert had two parallel ridges and they were placed parallel and near to
the shorter sides of the mold.One ridge was placed at the middle of the mold.These ridges are
placed to fix the concrete rigidly when conducting the test.The purpose of middle ridge is the
occurrence of plastic shrinkage at the middle of the beam. The specimen were placed in a climate
chamber at a temperature of 30 ± 1 C and a relative humidity of 60 ± 5%. And also,wind tunnel
was placed with a wind speed of 7 ± 0.5 m/s. Respective sensors and an anemometer were used
to determine the temperature, relative humidity and wind speed inside the tunnel.Readings of
 sensors were obtained after 10 minutes of concrete mixing.Two specimens were prepared.In this
test ,testing time is calculated after the 10 minutes of concrete mixing.Because it is considered
that the plastic shrinkage is starting to occur after 10 minutes of mixing the concrete. Condition
of the surface was observed in every 30 minute. And also, cracking behavior of concrete surface
was determined in every 30 minute.In this manner the test was conducted for seven hours.Finally
the crack width was determined using a ruler and loupe.The distance interval of crack width was
10 mm and the least count of the measurement was 0.05 mm.

Dosage of the superplasticizer was constant. Due to the addition of SRA workability was
increased but a segregation was not taken place. But due to adding SRA, 28 days compressive
strength of concrete was reduced by about 7 – 11% with respect to the reference concrete. The
comparison of concrete properties is summarized in the table below.

Table 3.9 - Concrete properties with and without SRA

Name Reference mixture Mixture with SRA

Flow (cm) 60 72
Bulk density (kg / m3) 2360 2325
Air void content (%) 1.6 1.6
Compressive strength f28 (MPa) 50.7 46.4

Cracks has not been formed in SCC with SRA during the test. But cracks were formed in
reference mixture. In the reference mixture time taken to form crack was about 4.0 to 4.5 h .
SRA reduces the surface tension of water in concrete pores.Due to this capilliary pressures of
concrete was reduced.Reduction of capilliary pressure was the main reason for the prevention of
cracking .By using this specific SRA type ,surface tension of deionized water was reduced by
about 40%. For this a certain amount of SRA was used in the concrete mixture. pendant drop
method was used to determine the surface tension.Capilliary pressure was increased at the latter
age in SCC with SRA compared to the reference mixture.Critical point of capilliary pressure
was reduced and a tensile strength was developed in concretet to prevent the cracking. Concrete
settlement was compared with the reference mixture and reduction of mass loss was steady in
first 2h. As it was steady, bleeding was constant.SEA has reduced the transporting rate of pore
fluid to the surface after the critical point mentioned above.