ES202 – Mathematics for Engineers

Murat Büyük, PhD

Eigenvalues and Corresponding EigenVectors of Square Matrices

Matrix AnXn, acting on a vector, produces same vector with a coefficient. The coefficient (λ) is called
the eigenvalue of matrix A. (corresponding to that eigenvectors of matrix A.)

In solving Eigenvalue problems, we use; ⃗⃗ = 𝒚

𝑨. 𝒙 ⃗⃗ A matrix acting
𝐴𝑥⃗ = λ. 𝑥⃗ λ : eigenvalue ⃗⃗ = λ. 𝒙
𝒚 ⃗⃗ on a vector
(coefficient of produces
𝐴𝑥⃗ − λ. 𝑥⃗ = ⃗0⃗ eigenvector ) What should be another vector if
⃗⃗ = ⃗0⃗
[𝐴𝑛𝑥𝑛 − λ. I𝑛 ] 𝑥 ⃗⃗ ?
𝒙 this vector is
𝑥⃗ : eigenvector
paralel to 𝑥⃗ .

(I𝑛 must be added to λ to have it in matrix form)

𝐴𝑛𝑥𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 I𝑛 𝑚𝑢𝑠𝑡 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒.

𝑥⃗ ≠ ⃗0⃗ (𝑥⃗ 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑𝑛′ 𝑡 𝑏𝑒 ⃗0⃗ ) to have an eigenvector

⃗⃗
If 𝑥⃗ = 0 there is no use of it!

If you find an eigenvector of 𝑥⃗ = ⃗0⃗ , that means there is a mistake.

Because, If 𝑥⃗ = ⃗0⃗ 𝐴𝑥⃗ = λ. 𝑥⃗ 0 = 0 (no solution)

Eigenvalues and eigenvectors are characteristic values.
To have eigenvalues [𝐴 − λ. I ] 𝑥
⃗⃗ = 0 should have solution and therefore |𝐴 − λ. I| = 0
must be satisfied.

λ ∶ The value for which 𝑥⃗ ≠ ⃗0⃗ 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 (𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒)

The test for all eigenvaleus of A is called the spectrum of A. The number of eigenvalues 1,2, ..
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑒𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐴.
𝐸𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑎𝑠 𝑝ℎ𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑐𝑠, 𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔, 𝑔𝑒𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑦, …

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 3 −1
𝒆𝒙: 𝐷𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑒𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 𝐴 = [ ]
−2 4 2𝑥2
𝐴𝑥⃗ = 𝜆. 𝑥⃗ [𝐴 − λ. I ] 𝑥⃗ = 0 |𝐴 − λ. I| = 0

3 −1 𝜆 0 3−𝜆 −1
| | − | | = | |
−2 4 2𝑥2 0 λ 2𝑥2 −2 4−λ

3−𝜆 −1 [ (3 − 𝜆)(4 − λ) − (−2)(−1) ] = 0

| | =0
−2 4−λ
2
12 − 3𝜆 − 4𝜆 + 𝜆 − 2 = 0

𝜆2 − 7𝜆 + 10 = 0 ( the roots of this eqn. are eigenvalues of matrixA)

−𝑏 ± √𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐 7 ± √72 −(4∗1∗10)

𝜆1,2 = = 𝜆1 = 5 𝜆2 = 2
2𝑎 2

|𝐴| = 3 ∗ 4 − (−1 ∗ −2)

|𝐴| = 10 = 𝜆1 ∗ 𝜆2 |𝐴| = 5 ∗ 2 = 10

To find the corresponding Eigenvectors, 𝑥⃗1 , 𝑥⃗2

For 𝝀𝟏 = 𝟓 , we should solve the equation; [𝐴 − λ. I ] 𝑥⃗ = 0 (HLS)
3 −1 5 0 𝑥1 0
[𝐴 − 5. I ] 𝒙
⃗⃗ = [ [ ] − [ ]] [ 𝑥 ]= [ ]
−2 4 0 5 2 0

Scalar vector component

−2 −1 𝑥1 0
[ ] [ 𝑥 ] = [ ]to solve this , we can use
−2 −1 2 0
Gauss Elimination Method

1 1/2 1 1/2
[𝐴 | 0 ] = [ −2 −1]
−𝑅1
= 𝑅1 [ ] 2𝑅1 + 𝑅2 = 𝑅2 [ ] Parametric
−2 −1 2 −2 −1 0 0
Solution RREF
𝑥 𝑥
𝑥 = − 2 − 2
𝑥⃗ = [ 1 2]=[ 2] 𝑥⃗ = [ −1/2] 𝑥2 = 𝛼 𝑢𝑠𝑒 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝛼
𝑥2 = 𝑥2 𝑥2 1
𝑥2 = 1 We cannot use ‘0’ here

Fundamental Eigenvector –
(first eigenvector)

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For 𝝀𝟐 = 𝟐

⃗⃗ 3 −1 1 0 ⃗⃗
[𝐴 − 2. I ] 𝒙
⃗⃗ = 𝟎 [[ ] − 2[ ⃗⃗ = 𝟎
]] 𝒙
−2 4 0 1

3 − 2 −1 1 −1 1 −1
[ ] = [ ] -2 R1 + R2 = R2 [ ]
−2 4 − 2 −2 2 0 0
RREF

𝒙𝟏 − 𝒙𝟐 = 𝟎 , 𝒙𝟏 = 𝒙𝟐
𝒙𝟏 = 𝒙𝟐 𝒙𝟐 𝟏
⃗⃗𝟐 = [𝒙 = 𝒙 ]
So, second eigenvector 𝒙 = [ 𝒙 ] =[ ]
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟏𝑥 =1
2

İf you give 𝑥2 = 0, you obtain ⃗𝟎⃗ for

eigenvector this is false solution!
2nd fundemental eingenvector
In order to check the eigenvectors
𝐴𝑥⃗ = 𝜆. 𝑥⃗ 𝐴𝑥⃗1 = 𝝀𝟏 . 𝑥⃗1
𝐴𝑥⃗2 = 𝝀𝟐 . 𝑥⃗2
For previous example:
3 −1 1 2 1
[ ] .[ ] =[ ] =2.[ ]
−2 4 1 2 1

A 𝝀𝟐 . 𝑥⃗2
𝑥⃗2
So, eigenvector is correct!

5 −4 4
ex) Find the eigenvalues and corresponding eigenvectors of A3x3= [12 −11 12]
4 −4 5 3𝑥3
𝝀 𝟎 𝟎 5−𝝀 −4 4
𝝀I=|𝟎 𝝀 𝟎| |𝑨 − 𝛌𝐈 | = | 12 −11 − 𝝀 12 |
𝟎 𝟎 λ 4 −4 5−𝝀

For determinant, we can use 1st row expansion:

−11 − 𝜆 12 12 12 12 11 − 𝜆
(5 − 𝜆) (-1) (1+1) | | + (-4)(-1)(1+2) | | +4(-1) (1+3) | |
−4 5−𝜆 4 5−𝜆 4 −4
= (5 − 𝜆) |(−11 − 𝜆)(5 − 𝜆) − (−48)| + 4 |(60 − 12𝜆) − 48| + 4 |−48 − (−44 − 4𝝀)| =
= |(5 − 𝜆)(𝜆2 − 6𝜆 − 7)| + (48 − 48𝜆) + (16𝜆 − 16)
= 5𝜆2 + 30𝜆 − 35 − 𝜆3 − 6𝜆2 + 7𝜆 + 48 − 48𝜆 + 16𝜆 − 16

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=−𝜆3 − 𝜆2+5𝜆 − 3 = 0 Integer roots (if any) must be
divisions of the constant term.
3,-3, 1, -1
If there is no constant term,one of
Try (𝜆 − 1) = 0 𝜆1 = 1 the eigenvalues is ‘’0’’.
-(1)3-12+ 5(1) -3 = 0

To find the others divide the equation by (𝜆 − 1)

−𝜆3 − 𝜆2 + 5𝜆 − 3 ( 𝜆 − 1) −𝜆2 − 2𝜆 + 3 roots are 𝝀𝟐 = 𝟏

−𝜆3 + 𝜆2 −𝜆2 − 2𝜆 + 3 𝝀𝟑 = −𝟑

−2𝜆2 + 5𝜆 − 3 (-𝜆 + 1)(𝜆 +3)

−2𝜆2 + 2𝜆
3𝜆−3
3𝜆−3
0
If the constant term is zero (“0”) or one of the eigenvalues is “0” ; Determinant is “0” .

So, A-1 doesn’t exist. 𝐴𝑥⃗ = 𝜆. 𝑥⃗ |𝑨| = 𝟎 𝜆 = 0 𝑖𝑓 𝑥⃗⃗1 ≠ ⃗𝟎⃗

To find the corresponding Eigenvectors, we should find solution of |𝐀 − λI| = ⃗0⃗ for each λ.
𝜆1 = 𝜆2 = 1 (repeated root = not distinct, different)
5 −4 4 1 0 0 4 −4 4 1 −1 1
.-12R1+R2 =R2
[A − λI] = [12 −11 12] − [0 1 0 ] = ⌈12 −12 12⌉ R1/4 = R1 [ 12 −12 12]
.-4R1+R3= R3
4 −4 5 0 0 1 4 −4 4 4 −4 4
1 −1 1
𝑥1 − 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 0 we can’t use 0 for both 𝑥2 an 𝑥3
[0 0 0]
0 0 0 𝑥1 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥3
RREF
𝑥2 , 𝑥2 = 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠

𝑥1 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥3 1 −1
𝑥⃗1 = [ 𝑥2 = 𝑥2 ] 𝑥⃗1 = [1] 𝑥⃗2 = [ 0 ]
𝑥3 = 𝑥3 0 𝑥2 = 1 1 𝑥2 = 0
𝑥3 =0 𝑥3 =1

*** to find the fundamental eigenvectors, we use “0” and “1” in parameters.

You can also check whether the eigenvectors are correct by using last equations.
𝑥1 − 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 0
1-1+0=0
-1-0+1=0
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𝝀𝟑 = −𝟑 ;
R1/8 = R1
5+3 −4 4 8 −4 4 1 −1/2 1/2 -12R1+R2 =R2
[A − λI] = [ 12 −11 + 3 12 ] = [12 −8 12] [ 12 −8 12 ] -4R1+R3 =R3
4 −4 5+3 4 −4 8 4 −4 8
1/2R2+ R1 = R1
1 −1/2 1/2 -R2 /2 = R2 1 −1/2 1/2 2R2 + R3 = R3
1 0 −1
| 0 −2 6 | [ 0 1 −3 ] [ 0 1 −3]
0 −2 6 0 −2 6 0 0 0
RREF
𝑥1 − 𝑥3 = 0 𝑥1 = 𝑥3
𝑥2 − 3𝑥3 = 0
𝑥2 = 3𝑥3 𝑥1 = 𝑥3 1
𝑥⃗3 = [𝑥2 = 3𝑥3 ] , 𝑥⃗3 = [3]
𝑥3 = 𝑥3 𝑥3 = 𝑥3 1
𝑥3 =1

𝑥⃗1 , 𝑥⃗2 , 𝑥⃗3 are fundamental eigenvectors.

❖ If you find any of these fundamental eigenvectors as “0” that shows you made a mistake!

|𝑨| = 𝜆1 . 𝜆2 . 𝜆3 = 1. 1 . -3 = -3
|𝑨| = −3

❖ Hence! an nxn matrix has at least 1 eigenvalue and at most n numerically distinct (different)
eigenvalues and may have n linearly independent eigenvectors.
❖
Also |𝐴𝑛𝑥𝑛 | = 𝜆1 . 𝜆2 . 𝜆3 . … . 𝜆𝑛

(determinant of nxn matrix is equal to multiplication of its eigenvalues).

❖ tr𝐴𝑛𝑥𝑛 = 𝑎11 + 𝑎22 + ⋯ 𝑎𝑛𝑛 = 𝜆1 + 𝜆3 + ⋯ + 𝜆𝑛

(trace of an nxn matrix = summation of the eigenvalues.)

ex: for the following matrix, find eigenvalues and eigenvectors.

−1 0 −1
A= [−2 −2 4 ]
−3 0 1

−1 − 𝜆 0 −1
|A − λI| = 0 | −2 −2 − λ 4 | =0 (−2 − λ) |−1 − 𝜆 −1 | =0
−3 1−𝜆
−3 0 1−λ

(−2 − λ) = 0 λ1 = −2

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(-1- λ)(1- λ) − (−1 − 3) = 0
-1+ λ − λ + λ2 − 3 = 0 λ2 − 4 = 0 λ2 = −2
λ3 = 2
Eigenvectors

λ1,2 = −2 [𝐴 − λ. I ] 𝑥⃗ = ⃗0⃗

−1 − (−2) 0 −1 1 0 −1 R1 (2)+ R2 R2
[ −2 −2 − (−2) 4 ] = [−2 0 4] R1.(3)+ R3 R3
−3 0 1 − (−2) −3 0 3

1 0 −1 1 0 −1 1 0 0
~ | 0 0 2| ~ [ 0 0 1] ~ [ 0 0 1]
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
RREF

0 0
𝑥1 = 0 𝑥⃗ = [1] , ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑥2 = [2]
0 𝑥2 = 1 0
𝑥2 = 2
𝑥3 = 0
𝑥2 = 𝑥2 = 𝛼 (𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟)

-R1.+ R3 R3 -R2.+ R1 R1
−3 0 −1 −3 0 −1 −1 4 −5
for λ3 = 2 [ −2 −4 4 ] [ −2 −4 4 ] [ −2 −4 4 ]
−3 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 58/6
58 7
~ ~ [ 0 1 −7/6] 𝑥1 + 𝑥3 = 0 𝑥2 + 6 𝑥3 = 0
6
0 0 0
𝑥2 = 𝑥3 = 𝛼
−58/6 𝑥3 −58/6
𝑥⃗3 = [ 7/6𝑥3 ] = [ 7/6 ]
𝑥3 1 𝑥3 =1

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 CAYLEY HAMILTON THEOREM
Every square matrix, 𝐴𝑛𝑥𝑛 satisfy its own characteristic equation obtained by |A − λI| = 0

5 −4 4
For last example ; A= [12 −11 12] |A − λI| = 0
4 −4 5
Characteristic equation is ; −𝜆3 − 𝜆2 + 5𝜆 − 3 =0
Acc. to Cayley Hamilton Theorem; characteristic equation:
−𝐴3 − 𝐴2 + 5𝐴 − 3 = 0 Multiply each site by 𝐴−1
𝐴−1 (−𝐴3 − 𝐴2 + 5𝐴 − 3) = 𝐴−1 . 0 = 0
−𝐴2 − 𝐴 + 5I − 3𝐴−1= 0
−𝐴2 − 𝐴 + 5I = 3𝐴−1
−𝐴2 − 𝐴 + 5I
𝑨−𝟏 =
3
5 −4 4 5 −4 4
𝐴2 = [12 −11 12] [12 −11 12]
4 −4 5 4 −4 5
25 − 48 + 16 −20 + 44 − 16 20 − 48 + 20
=[160 − 132 + 48 −48 + 121 − 48 48 − 132 + 60]
20 − 48 + 20 −16 + 44 − 20 16 − 48 + 25
−7 8 −8
=[−24 25 −24]
−8 8 −7

7 −8 8 5 −4 4 5 0 0
[24 −25 24] − [12 −11 12] + [0 5 0] 7 −4 4
−𝐴2 −𝐴+5I 8 −8 7 4 −4 5 0 0 5
𝐴−1 = = = [12 −9 12] / 3
3 3
4 −4 7
7/3 −4/3 4/3
−1
𝐴 =[ 4 −3 4 ]
4/3 −4/3 7/3

A much more expensive way:

5 −4 4
A= [12 −11 12]
4 −4 5
−11 12
𝑎11 . 𝑚11 ∶ (−1)2 . 5. [ ] =5.(-55+48-7) = -35
−4 5
−4 4
𝑎21 . 𝑚21 ∶ (−1)3 . 12. [ ] =12.(-20+16) = 48
−4 5
−4 4
𝑎31 . 𝑚31 ∶ (−1)4 . 4. [ ] =4.(-48+44) = -16
−11 12

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 12 12
𝑎12 . 𝑚12 ∶ (−1)3 . (−4). [ ] = 14.(60-48) = 48
4 5
12 −11
𝑎13 . 𝑚13 ∶ (−1)4 . (4). [ ] = 4.(-48+44) = - 16
4 −4
5 4
𝑎22 . 𝑚22 : (−1)4 . (−11). [ ] = -11(25-16)= -99
4 5
5 −4
𝑎23 . 𝑚23 : (−1)5 . (12). [ ] = -12.(-20+16) = 48
4 −4
5 4
𝑎3𝑖 . 𝑚32 : (−1)5 . (−4). [ ] = 4(60-48) = 48
12 12
5 4
𝑎3𝑗 . 𝑚32 : (−1)6 . (5). [ ] = 5 (-55+48) = -35
12 −11
7 −12 −4
𝐶𝑖𝑗 = [ 4 9 4]
−4 −12 −7

𝑇
−7 4 −4
[𝐶𝑖𝑗 ] = [−12 9 −12]
−4 4 −7
|A| = −35 + 48 + 48 − 16 − 16 − 99 + 48 − 35 = −3
−7 4 −4
[ 𝐶𝑖𝑗 ]
𝑇 [−12 9 −12] 7/3 −4/3 4/3
−1 −4 4 −7
𝐴 =
|𝐴|
= −3
=[ 4 −3 4 ]
4/3 4/3 7/3
−2 4
ex: Let, 𝐴 = [ ] is a nonsingular matrix. The fact that A satisfies its own
−1 3 2𝑥2
characteristic equation can be used to compute A -l as a linear combination of powers of A
The characteristic equation can be found as:
𝐴𝑥⃗ = 𝜆. 𝑥⃗ [𝐴 − λ. I ] 𝑥⃗ = 0 |𝐴 − λ. I| = 0

−2 4 𝜆 0 −2 − 𝜆 4
| | − | | = | |=0 [ (−2 − 𝜆)(3 − λ) − (4)(−1) ] = 0
−1 3 2𝑥2 0 λ 2𝑥2 −1 3−λ

𝜆2 − 𝜆 − 2 = 0 ( the roots of this eqn. are eigenvalues of matrixA)

𝜆1 = 2 , 𝜆2 = −1
|𝐴| = 2 ∗ −1 = −2

C-H-T implies that the characteristic equation:

−2 4 2 0 0 4
𝐴2 − 𝐴 − 2𝐼 = 0 𝐴2 = 𝐴 + 2𝐼 = [ ]+[ ]=[ ]
−1 3 0 2 −1 5
Multiply each site by 𝐴−1
𝐴−1 (𝐴2 − 𝐴 − 2𝐼) = 𝐴−1 . 0 = 0
𝐴 − 𝐼 − 2𝐴−1 = 0

8/ 10
 𝐴 𝐼
− = 𝐴−1
2 2
−2 4 1 0
[ ] [ ] −3/2 2
𝑨−𝟏 = −1 3 − 0 1 = [ ]
2 2 −1/2 1
Powers of matrices:
𝑨𝒎 = ⏟
𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 … 𝑨 , where m is positive integer
𝒎 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒔

A2 =AA
A3 = AA2
A4 = AAAA = A(A3) = A2A2 ….
C-H-T implies that the characteristic equation: (−1)𝑛 𝜆𝑛 + 𝑐𝑛−1 𝜆𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑛−1 𝜆 + 𝑐0 = 0
will be represented and equal to: (−1)𝑛 𝐴𝑛 + 𝑐𝑛−1 𝐴𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑛−1 𝐴 + 𝑐0 𝐼 = 0
−2 4
ex: Let, 𝐴 = [ ]
−1 3 2𝑥2
The characteristic equation can be found as: 𝜆2 − 𝜆 − 2 = 0 or 𝐴2 − 𝐴 − 2𝐼 = 0
Solving for the highest power of A: 𝐴2 = 2𝐼 + 𝐴
Multiply each site by 𝐴 : 𝐴3 = 2𝐴 + 𝐴2 = 2𝐴 + (2𝐼 + 𝐴 ) = 3𝐴 + 2𝐼
𝐴4 = 5𝐴 + 6𝐼
𝐴5 = 11𝐴 + 10𝐼
𝐴6 = 21𝐴 + 22𝐼
Therefore we can write:
𝜆2 = 𝜆 + 2 , 𝜆3 = 3𝜆 + 2 , 𝜆4 = 5𝜆 + 6 , 𝜆5 = 11𝜆 + 10 , 𝜆6 = 21𝜆 + 22
as: 𝐴𝑚 = 𝑐1 𝐴 + 𝑐0 𝐼 = 0 and 𝜆𝑚 = 𝑐1 𝜆 + 𝑐0
we know that: 𝜆1 = 2 , 𝜆2 = −1
−1𝑚 = 𝑐1 (−1) + 𝑐0
2𝑚 = 𝑐1 (2) + 𝑐0
−1 1 𝑐1 −1𝑚
Solving for: [ ] [𝑐 ] = [ 𝑚 ]
2 1 0 2
1 1
𝑐0 = 3 [2𝑚 + 2(−1)𝑚 ] , 𝑐1 = 3 [2𝑚 − (−1)𝑚 ]

Substituting in:

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 1 4 𝑚
[−2𝑚 + 4(−1)𝑚 ] [2 − (−1)𝑚 ]
𝑚
𝐴 =[3 3 ]
1 𝑚 𝑚
1 𝑚+2 𝑚
− [2 − (−1) ] [2 − (−1) ]
3 3
1 4 1 4
[−20 + 4(−1)0 ] [20 − (−1)0 ] [−1 + 4] [1 − 1]
3 3 3 3
Check for 𝐴0 = 𝐼=[ 1 1 ]=[ 1 1 ]=
− 3 [20 − (−1)0 ] [20+2 − (−1)0 ] − 3 [1 − 1] [22 − 1]
3 3
1 0
[ ]
0 1
1 4 1 4
[−22 + 4(−1)2 ] [22 − (−1)2 ] [−4 + 4] [4 − 1]
3 3 3 3
Check for 𝐴2 = [ 1 1 ]=[ 1 1 ]=
− 3 [22 − (−1)2 ] [22+2
− (−1) 2
] − 3 [4 − 1] [16 − 1]
3 3
0 4
[ ]
−1 5
Note: 𝐴𝑚 = 𝑐𝑛−1 𝐴𝑛−1 + ⋯ 𝑐2 𝐴2 + 𝑐1 𝐴 + 𝑐0 𝐼 = 0

1 1 −2
𝑚
ex: A= [−1 2 1 ], find, 𝐴
0 1 −1
characteristic equation: −𝜆3 + 2𝜆2 + 𝜆 − 2 = 0
𝜆1 = −1 , 𝜆2 = 1 , 𝜆3 = 2
Since, 𝜆𝑚 = 𝑐2 𝜆2 + 𝑐1 𝜆 + 𝑐0 ;
−1𝑚 = 𝑐2 − 𝑐1 + 𝑐0
1 = 𝑐2 + 𝑐1 + 𝑐0
2𝑚 = 4𝑐2 + 2𝑐1 + 𝑐0
Solving the system gives;
1 1
𝑐0 = 3 [3 + (−1)𝑚 − 2𝑚 ] , 𝑐1 = 2[1 − (−1)𝑚 ] , 𝑐2 = 6 [−3 + (−1)𝑚 + 2𝑚+1 ]

substituting:
1 1 𝑚 1
[9 − 2𝑚+1 − (−1)𝑚 ] [2 − (−1)𝑚 ] [−9 + 2𝑚+1 + 7(−1)𝑚 ]
6 3 6
𝐴𝑚 = 1 − 2𝑚 2𝑚 2𝑚 − 1
1 𝑚+1
1 𝑚 1
[6 [3 − 2 − (−1)𝑚 ] [2 − (−1)𝑚 ] [−3 + 2𝑚+1 + 7(−1)𝑚 ]]
3 6
−340 341 341
verify 𝐴2 first, and then, check 𝐴10 = [−1023 1024 1023]
−341 341 342

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