,'~10 Applied mechanics

on the inside of the rails. As the train rounds a curved track, the centripetal force
required to provide the circular motion is provided by the inward thrust of the outer
rail. To reduce the magnitude of this lateral load, a second rail may sometimes be
provided on the inside curve so that the inner wheel flange is contained between two
rails. This second rail then takes some of the side thrust. More generally, the side
thrust may be eliminated completely at a particular speed by suitable banking of the
track. The amount of banking or cant depends on the tightness of the curve and the
speed of the trains using the track. In practice the amount of superelevation is limited
to about 150 mm, i.e. about 60 of cant since 25 mm of superelevation on a standard
gauge line is equal to I 0 of cant. The speed chosen is the average speed at which
a train (usually a freight train) may be expected to take the curve. At any speed higher
than the one suitable for that angle of banking, there will be a side thrust on the outer
rail, so that fast passenger trains have some lateral force; at lower speeds than the
design value there will be a side thrust in all cases on the inner rail. The amount of
extra banking needed at a given speed to remove this side thrust altogether is called
the 'cant deficiency' and this is normally limited to about 110 mm of superelevation.
The banking of a car race track serves a similar purpose to the superelevation of
a rail track, i.e. to eliminate side thrust on the tyres. To serve its purpose for cars
of different speed, the gradient of the banking is increased towards the outside of
the curve. There is a correct angle of banking for any particular speed and this
angle is independent of the weight of the vehicle (see example page 112). Most racing
tracks are now unbanked (except in the USA) so that means have had to be found
to provide an increase in side thrust to allow high speeds round corners. Large, wide
tyres give extra adhesive force but cause extra drag. In order to increase the downward
force on the vehicle without affecting the weight, aerodynamic devices are used (see
page 90).

Example A car of mass 2 t rounds an unbanked curve of 60 m radius at 72 km/h. Calculate

the side thrust on the tyres.
In addition to reducing the side thrust on the rails, superelevation tends to ensure that
the resultant force due to weight and inertia force is normal to the seat. Then if the
superelevation is sufficient, there is no side force tending to slide the passenger across
the seat. However, if a train moves slowly or stops on a curve, the inside rail is subject
to considerable thrust.
A second solution to the problem is to allow the body of the carriage to swing like
a pendulum about a longitudinal axis 0, placed above its centre of gravity G, Fig.
6.11(a). The train in effect leans into the bend, passengers feel more comfortable and
bends can be taken faster. This is passive tilting, limited in practice to about 6° of
tilt at a maximum speed of 120 km/h. The disadvantage is the slow response time
when entering and leaving a bend. In an active system the carriage is tilted by hydraulic
jacks, electronically controlled. In practice there is a combination of banked track
and tilting carriage. Speeds above 200 km/h are possible with a pendulum car subject
to res,trictions for other reasons such as braking requirements.
2
The forces acting on the swinging carriage are: its weight W, the inertia force mu /r
radially outward and the reaction R at the pivot. The three forces are in equilibrium,
hence all three forces pass through G. The line of action of R is therefore from G
to O. The resultant force is always normal to the carriage floor; a similar argument
applies also to any passenger seated in the swinging carriage.
The triangle of forces abc is shown in Fig. 6.11(b). If there is no superelevation
of the track, the angle between the vertical and the reaction R is the angle ex through
which the carriage swings about O. From the triangle of forces: