PHYSICAL FACTORS

by ARCH. DIANNE ANGELYNNE LIM SO, M.ARCH

Physical Factors: Outline

➢ CLIMATE

➢ TOPOGRAPHY

➢ GEOTECHNICAL / SOILS

➢ UTILITIES

➢ IMMEDIATE SURROUNDINGS
GOAL:

To become aware of energy efficient

designs and construction that will save
energy, cost less to operate and lesser
negative impact on the natural
environment.
An understanding of the site
and its environment is an
integral part of a building
program and is a
prerequisite for a good
design.
CLIMATE
PREVAILING WIND
▪ Winds that blow predominantly from a single general direction
over a particular point on the Earth's surface.
▪ Wind direction, speed and frequency will influence the building
design including bracing requirements, roof and wall cladding
selection, weather tightness detailing, building entry locations,
window size and placement and provision of shelter for
outdoor spaces.

▪ How prevailing winds might affect a project?

• The distinction between the term prevailing winds and the

amount of time that winds actually occur at a site is
important for assessing wind-related issues such as
pedestrian comfort, air quality, natural ventilation and
etc.
▪ Designing for wind
• Design may deliberately incorporate features or shapes to provide
cooling breezes for a passive cooling effect.

• In remote locations, wind speed and frequency may also be a

factor in selecting wind as a power generation source.

• Make an assessment of wind effects early in the design process.

This should include the speed (average and peak) and direction of
wind, and how it affects the site at different times of year.

▪ Wind Direction
• Most of the locations will have a general major direction from which the
wind comes. However, this will not always hold true and will vary from
location to location. If we are to design a climatologically responsive
building, it will be important to consider the direction of the wind so that
it can be channelized through the interiors. This will play a major role in
placement & size of openings.
• The thing to be remembered is that the wind direction may vary from
place to place inside the site itself and thus have to be checked from a
few different places especially if it is a large site.
Prevailing Wind Systems in the Philippines
are as follows:

1.Northeast (NE) monsoon - from November to

February

2.Southwest (SW) monsoon - from July to

September

3.Trade winds - winds in the tropics. They generally

come from the east. The trade winds prevail
during the rest of the year whenever NE monsoons
are weak.
▪ Special Forces
• Strong Breeze
A wind of force 6 on the Beaufort scale (22–27 knots or 25–31 mph)
where long waves begin to form; white foam crests are very
frequent and some airborne spray is present.
• Gale
A gale is a very strong wind where in some twigs broken from trees;
cars veer on road and progress on foot is seriously impeded.
• Storm
A storm is any disturbed state of an environment or astronomical
body's atmosphere especially affecting its surface, and strongly
implying severe weather.
• Tropical Cyclone
A rapidly rotating storm system characterized by a low-
pressure center, a closed low- level atmospheric circulation, strong
winds, and a spiral arrangement of thunderstorms that produce
heavy rain.
• Tornado
A violently rotating column of air that spins while in contact with
both the surface of the Earth and a cumulonimbus cloud or, in
rare cases, the base of a cumulus cloud.
• an important factor in setting the direction of building construction aerodynamically so
that in the state of heavy winds, light buildings wouldn’t be hit.

• In ancient times, in order to design the direction of wind wards especially in tropical
regions (Yazd and Kerman), the length of wind ward vents was built in the direction of
prevailing wind so that wind could be used in the best way possible to cool the building.
• Wind speed is also important because in the case of high speed winds, there is the
possibility for the detachment and physical damage to different parts of building
especially light ones.

• Knowing about the mean of wind speed at the project site and seasonal and annual
distribution of wind speed are important factors for strengthening against wind power. The
more the mean of wind speed in the region, the more powerful the building must be.

• In projects where there are several choices in terms of region, it is a good idea to pick up
the one in which wind speed is lower than other regions. These regions are identified
through wind pattern plans and measuring wind speed in different points of a region. If
the goal is to use wind power such as establishing wind power plants, the place of the
construction shall be chosen in a way that there is high-speed wind.It is clear that, in this
case, permanent high-speed wind for most of the year or even all the year is an upward.
 SOLAR ORIENTATION
▪ By analyzing the impact of the sun on a site, as well as the building’s
location, the spatial arrangement, orientation, window placement, daylight
access and other design features, the designer can take full advantage of
passive solar design features and increase the energy efficiency and comfort
of the building.

▪ When combined with the wind direction and sun path, would give a good
idea as to how the design should be oriented so as to optimize the design.
The orientation along with the sun path will also determine the placement
of rooms inside buildings.

▪ The sun path direction tells one which will be the side from which the
maximum heat will be coming, especially in the afternoons. In warmer
climates, the design will try to reduce the amount of incident sunlight so as
to reduce the heat intake to a minimum.
▪ Sun paths

• Assessing the passage of sun across a site is important. There are

number of locally-produced tools that can help, but a site visit is still
necessary to identify site-specific conditions such as the impact of a
large tree.

• Sun path diagrams provide a broader overview of sun on a site as they

map the path of the sun across the sky at different times during the
day throughout the year.

• They can help establish the position of the sun relative to a site and
can be used to determine the effect of shadows cast by buildings, trees
and landforms on and around the site.
TEMPERATURE
▪ The average temperature of the area, as well as the
monthly average temperature has to be studied to
determine the temperature range and the fluctuations,
which will impact the design.

▪ The sun path direction tells one which will be the side from which the
maximum heat will be coming, especially in the afternoons. In warmer
climates, the design will try to reduce the amount of incident sunlight so
as to reduce the heat intake to a minimum. The lesser surface area of
the building which is exposed to the sun, lesser will be the conductive
heating. In colder climates, the design will try to maximize the amount
of sunlight incident on the building so as to have maximum warmth as
possible.
▪ MAXIMUMS AND MINIMUMS

• The coolest months fall in January with a

mean temperature of 25.5 oC while the
warmest month occurs in May with a mean
temperature of 28.3 oC.

• Based on the average of all weather

stations in the Philippines, excluding
Baguio, the mean annual temperature is
26.6 oC.
▪ Why does it matter?

• Higher temperatures mean that heat waves are likely to happen more often and
last longer, too. Heat waves can be dangerous, causing illnesses such as heat
cramps and heat stroke, or even death.

• Warmer temperatures can also lead to a chain reaction of other changes around
the world. That's because increasing air temperature also affects the oceans,
weather patterns, snow and ice, and plants and animals. The warmer it gets, the
more severe the impacts on people and the environment will be.

- Agriculture
- Energy
- Water Supplies
- Health
- Plants, Animals and Ecosystems
- Forests
- Recreation
 HUMIDITY
▪ refers to the proportion of the existing amount of humidity in the air to the maximum
amount of acceptable humidity in terms of percent.

▪ The more the rate of relative humidity, the more the possibility for the formation of water
drops on physical objects on the earth surface (including buildings and other constructions
such as bridges, streets,etc.). This means the acceleration of the effect of humidity on
equipment and their rust chemically (corrosion of metals, oxidation of metals, etc.) and
physically (freezing water and causing crack in building design.

▪ In the regions where there is more relative humidity of weather such as coastal areas and
islands, designing and construction of the buildings take place according to high adverse
effects of water. They must be designed and constructed in a way that physical and
chemical adverse effects of water decrease to the minimum level or even zero. This need
is met through the selection of water and corrosion-resist materials and equipment
▪ Sites located near large bodies of water or rivers tend to be more humid than inland areas.
Wind direction also affects humidity. Downwind from the water is more humid than up wind.
▪ Water vapor is a gas that occupies the same space with other gases that together constitute air.
But in some ways, water vapor acts independently of the air. For any given temperature and
degree of saturation, water vapor in the air exerts its own vapor pressure. It flows or migrates
from areas of higher vapor pressure toward areas of lower vapor pressure in air or in materials.
Moisture, driven by vapor pressure, can even travel through porous materials through which air
cannot pass.

▪ Typically this happens in buildings, when warm moist air comes into contact with cooler
surfaces that are at, or below the dew point, such as windows, and water condenses on those
surfaces.

Condensation affects the performance of buildings causing problems such as:

• Mould
• Mildew
• Staining
• Slip Hazards
• Corrosion and Decay
• Poor Insulation
 PRECIPITATION
▪ The amount of rainfall that the site receives and also the time
period during which the rainfall occurs are to be found out. The
average annual rainfall, often measured in mm, gives you an
idea about the precipitation happening throughout the year.

▪ It is also important to study the water drainage pattern in the

site - whether it stagnates, or if it flows following the natural
slope, this has to be analysed to incorporate in the design.
▪ Hydrology, as the name suggests, refers to things related to water.
During the site visit, we need to identify water bodies present in and
around the site like ponds, lakes, rivers etc. The location and size of
these water bodies should be studied so that they can be integrated
into the design scheme. The presence of water can lead to reduction in
the overall temperatures. It will also affect the moisture content in the
atmosphere. One thing to be checked is whether there is any excessive
glare present.

▪ The water table is another very important feature in any site study.
This refers to the level below the soil at which water is present. For
areas close to water bodies, the water table may be very shallow. A
shallow water table will affect the stability of foundations and
additional precautions will have to be taken.
▪ PEAK PERIOD TOTALS
• Type I - There are two pronounced seasons: dry, from November to April;
wet, during the rest of the year.
Average rainfall : 100.58 in.

• Type II - There is no dry season with a very pronounced maximum rain

period from November to January.
Average rainfall : 129.08 in.

• Type III - Seasons are not very pronounced; relatively dry from November
to April and wet during the rest of the year.
Average rainfall : 77.26 in.

• Type IV - Rainfall is more or less evenly distributed throughout the year.

Average rainfall : 101.84 in.

• ANNUAL TOTALS
The mean annual rainfall of the Philippines varies from 965 to 4,064
millimeters annually.
TOPOGRAPHY
TOPOGRAPHY
• The arrangement of the natural and artificial physical features of an area.
the study of the shape and features of land surfaces. The topography of an area
could refer to the surface shapes and features themselves, or a description.

LEGAL PROPERTY DESCRIPTION

• examine the legal characteristics of the residential lot when performing site
analysis.
• examine the nature and extent of public and private restrictions burdening the
property.
• Zoning ordinances
• determine whether the property is burdened by easements and restrictive
covenants.
• Rights of ways (road right of way)
• North indication (reflected in sketch plans and lot title)
TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS AND AERIAL PHOTOS
▪ Contours
• Swale - a broad shallow ditch
• Ridge - linear upland extending from a summit
• Summit - hill or mountain top
• Saddle - transitional ridge between two or
more summits
• Concave and convex slopes - scooped or
protruding slopes:

o The concave slope is steeper at the

top than at the bottom.
o The convex slope is steeper at the
bottom than at the top.
• Contour lines spaced far apart indicate a flat surface
• Contour lines spaced evenly described a constant slope
• Contour lines spaced close together designated a steep
rise/fall in elevation
▪ Slope
• It is a measurement of elevation (slope is
the percentage change in that elevation
over a certain distance).
• Expressed as %, angle, degrees
▪ Escarpments
• Refers to the bottom of a cliff or
a steep slope.(Scarp refers to the
cliff itself.)
• Separates two level land
surfaces.
▪ Erosion channels

• Erosion is the natural process by which

water, wind, waves and other natural
actions wear away the earth’s surface.
o Wind
o Water
o Glacial
• Vegetation clearing and livestock
grazing lead to increased erosion
and cause the soil to wash into
rivers and creeks.
READING A TOPOGRAPHIC MAP:
A. Contour lines: points of equal elevation
• Contour lines cannot cross
B. Contour interval: the difference in elevation between 2 lines
C. Index contour: elevation lines that are labelled and usually
darker than others.
D. What is the contour interval of this map?
(Hint: pretend it’s a thermometer)

E. What is the interval of this map?

F. The closer the lines, the steeper the landform
G. The farther away the lines are, the flatter the landform
The steepest and flattest parts of this map are labelled in
this example:
ANALYSIS OF PHYSICAL FEATURES, MAJOR
FOCAL AND VANTAGE POINTS
When a landscape architect walks a property for the first time, he will note
strengths and weaknesses in the topography. He will make special note and
analysis of the following:

1. location of utility service orientation of the residence

2. prevailing wind direction
3. sun and shade on site
4. changing elevations & grading
5. surface and ground water
6. soil composition
7. condition of trees and plants
8. Natural physical features – actual features of the site such as trees, rocks, topography,
rivers, ponds, drainage patterns.
9. Man made features – existing buildings, walls, surrounding vernacular, setbacks, materials,
landscaping, scale.
10. Focal and Vantage point refers to the location within the site with the best view.
EXISTING ACCESS AND CIRCULATION:
VEHICULAR AND PEDESTRIAN
• VEHICULAR: o This refers to the existing road networks or
vehicular access within the site.

o An architect should consider any existing

vehicular circulation and include in the analysis
(if these circulation can be applicable to the
proposed project, preferably, the existing road
should be retained)
▪ PEDESTRIAN:
o This refers to the existing sidewalks,
pathways and other pedestrian access or
circulation within the site.

o An architect should also consider any

existing pedestrian circulation and include
in the analysis (either these access will be
incorporated in the proposed building and
the building will adjust to the existing
circulation, or the existing circulation will
be modified and adjusted to the proposed
building layout within the site)
VEGETATION
▪ Existing trees and plants on a site should be assessed based on
their value to the site which includes their ability to provide
shade, serve as wind shelters and habitat for birds as well as
their condition as to soil stability.

▪ Vegetation also provide aesthetic value. If removed, it may take

many years to replace.
▪ DESIGN CONSIDERATION:
• The degree of shading – the shade provided may be
desirable in the summer but less so in the winter;
however, for deciduous trees, winter shade is
unlikely to be a problem

• The age and condition of trees – some may

require removal to avoid the risk of damage to
the completed building or they may present a risk
of damage to foundations from root systems.
• The impact of the building’s proximity to an
existing tree – a building too close to a tree
may affect its long-term viability

• the possibility of incorporating a tree or shrub

into the building design, for example,
designing a house or a deck around it

• trees that are protected under the District Plan

or site-specific documents such as an open
space covenant and must be retained.
▪ SPECIFYING PROTECTION:

• Specify protection measures for protected trees or

other critical features.

• Allow space for delivery of materials, service vehicles

(for example, concrete pumps), and waste materials
storage during construction to minimise the effect on
the existing landform, plants and trees.

• Retain existing vegetation to reduce the risk of soil

erosion, slips and sediment run-off from the site. Where
removal of topsoil and planting is necessary, specify
limiting the amount of topsoil stripping to the building
area, careful removal, storage and reinstatement when
building work is complete.
EXISTING WATER BODIES

▪ Any existing
water bodies
within the
site should
be
considered in
the
assessment
and analysis.
WATER QUALITY
It is a measure of the condition of water relative to the requirements of one or more biotic
species and or to any human need or purpose.

CLEAN POLLUTED
WETLANDS : ECOLOGICAL FEATURE

A wetland is a land area

that is saturated with
water, either permanently
or seasonally. Areas where
water covers the soil.
 COASTAL FEATURE

a cliff is a vertical, or nearly

vertical, rock exposure. a steep
rock face, especially at the
edge of the sea.
DRAINAGE CANAL: RIVERS, STREAMS, MARSHES,
LAKES, PONDS, ETC.
DRAINAGE - is the natural or artificial removal of a
surface's water and sub-surface water from an area.
1. NATURAL and BUILT

• NATURAL DRAINAGE - this means that excess water flows

from the farmers' fields to swamps or to lakes and rivers.

• ARTIFICIAL/ BUILT DRAINAGE - employ the help of

pipes, wells, and other constructed materials to achieve
a successful drainage solution.
2. ALIGNMENTS and GRADIENTS

• CANAL ALIGNMENT

a. CONTOUR CANAL
- Contour canals, provide irrigation on one side only as contours of other side
are higher and irrigation water cannot flow under gravity.
- Contour canals have only one bank. Other side being higher does not
require the second bank. These canals are also sometimes known as single
bank canals.

b. RIDGE CANAL
- The canal which follows the ridge of the country
is known as ridge canal.
- It generally takes off from a contour canal.
- It irrigates on both sides.
c. SIDE SLOPE CANAL
- The side slope channels are aligned roughly at
right angles to the contour canals, along the
slope between the ridges and the valleys.
- They are roughly parallel to the natural
drainage of the country.
- They do not intercept any cross-drainage and
hence no cross-drainage works have to be
constructed.
• DRAINAGE GRADIENT - is a term in road design,
defined as the combined slope due to road surface cross
slope (CS) and longitudinal slope (hilliness).
MINIMUM DRAINAGE GRADIENT
- Most road design manuals require drainage gradient to exceed 0.5%, in order to drain water and prevent
excessive skid accidents.
- One exception to the minimum 0.5% DG limit can be found in the Norwegian road design manual, where the
minimum drainage gradient is 2% instead of 0.5%.
TYPICAL VALUES OF DRAINAGE GRADIENT
- Typically, on straight road sections, the drainage gradient is at least 1–3% due to the normal cross slope of
1–3%.
- The road's longitudinal slope contributes to a high drainage gradient. However, longitudinal highway slopes
steeper than 0.5% are surprisingly rare outside hilly or mountainous areas.
3. PATTERN and DIRECTION

• ACCORDANT DRAINAGE PATTERN

- A drainage system is described as accordant if its pattern correlates
to the structure and relief of the landscape over which it flows.

a. DENDRITIC DRAINAGE PATTERN

- are not straight and are the most common form of drainage system.
b. PARALLEL DRAINAGE PATTERN
- is a pattern of rivers caused by steep slopes with
some relief. Because of the steep slopes, the
streams are swift and straight, with very few
tributaries, and all flow in the same direction.

c. TRELLIS DRAINAGE PATTERN

- is similar to that of a common garden trellis along a
strike valley, smaller tributaries feed into from the
steep slopes on the sides of mountains.
d. RECTANGULAR DRAINAGE PATTERN
- Rectangular drainage develops on rocks that are of
approximately uniform resistance to erosion, but
which have two directions of joining at approximately
right angles or 90 degrees.

e. RADIAL DRAINAGE PATTERN

-the streams radiate outwards from a central high
point.
-Volcanos usually display excellent radial drainage.
-They can sometimes also be found on tops of
mountains

f. CENTRIPETAL DRAINAGE PATTERN

- The centripetal drainage system is similar to the
radial drainage system, with the only exception
that radial drainage flows out versus centripetal
drainage flows in.
g. DERANGED DRAINAGE PATTERN
-It is a drainage system in drainage basins where
there is no coherent pattern to the rivers and lakes.
-It happens in areas where there has been much
geological disruption.

h. ANNULAR DRAINAGE PATTERN

- streams follow a roughly circular or concentric
path along a belt of weak rock, resembling in plan a
ring like pattern.

i. ANGULAR DRAINAGE PATTERN

- Angular drainage patterns form where bedrock
joints and faults intersect at more acute angles
than rectangular drainage patterns. Angles are
both more and less than 90 degrees.
• DISCORDANT DRAINAGE PATTERN
- A drainage pattern is described as discordant if
it does not correlate to the topography and
geology of the area.

- Discordant drainage patterns are classified into two

main types: antecedent and superimposed, while
anteposition drainage patterns combine the two. In
antecedent drainage, a river's vertical incision ability
matches that of land uplift due to tectonic forces.
- Superimposed drainage develops differently: initially, a
drainage system develops on a surface composed of
'younger' rocks, but due to denudative activities this
surface of younger rocks is removed and the river
continues to flow over a seemingly new surface, but one
in fact made up of rocks of old geological formation.
EXISTING WATERWAY EASEMENTS
1.SURFACE WATER

- is water on the surface of the planet such as in a river, lake, wetland,

or ocean. It can be contrasted with groundwater and atmospheric water.

2.SUBSURFACE WATER

- All water occurring beneath the earth's surface, including soil moisture,
that in the vadose zone and groundwater.

- Subsurface water includes all water located in the pore spaces of soil and
rocks. Not all subsurface water is groundwater that can potentially be
impacted by groundwater abstraction.
SURFACE DRAINAGE
• Refers to the removal of surface water by
development of the slope of the land utilizing
systems of drains to carry away the surplus water.
• In subsurface drainage open ditches and tile fields
intercept groundwater and carry it off.

Patterns On and Off the Site

• Dendritic

a. Most common form and looks like the branching pattern of

tree roots.
b. It develops in regions underlain by homogeneous material.
c. That is, the subsurface geology has a similar resistance to
weathering so there is no apparent control over the
direction the tributaries take.
d. Tributaries joining a larger stream at acute angle (less than
90 degrees).
• Deranged

a. Found in areas recently disturbed by events like

glacial activity or volcanic deposition.
b. Over time, the stream will adjust the
topography of such regions by transporting
sediment to improve flow and channel pattern.
• Centripetal

a. The opposite of the radial as streams flow

toward a central depression.
b. This pattern is typical in the western and
southwestern portions of the United States
where basins exhibit interior drainage.
c. During wetter portions of the year, these
streams feed ephemeral lakes, which evaporate
away during dry periods.
d. Salt flats are created in these dry lake beds as
salt dissolved in the lake water precipitates out
of solution and is left behind when the water
evaporates away.
• Trellised

a. It is a rectangular shaped drainage pattern that

develops where bands of rocks vary in
resistance.
b. In some areas there are alternate bands of hard
and soft rocks.
c. The flowing water can erode the soft rocks and
thus flows along the bands of soft rock.
d. Many such water channels form a trellis.
e. The streams (called subsequent rivers) cut out
the valleys (called vales) and join the main river
(called Consequent River) at right angles.
f. The main river, by sheer force, cuts the hard
rock and flows down the slope forming an
escarpment and thus a river gap is created.
Proximity to Floodplains
• Naturally attracted human settlement due to their
proximity to water supplies, fertile soils and flat
landscape, which make them attractive for building
and construction.
• As a result, a large proportion of the global
population now lives on river floodplains.

1. Maximum Flood Levels

a. Flood stage is the level at which a body of water's

surface has risen to a sufficient level to cause
sufficient inundation of areas that are not normally
covered by water, causing an inconvenience or a
threat to life and/or property.

b. When a body of water rises to this level, it is

considered a flood event
2. Frequently Flooded Areas
a. Those areas identified on FEMA flood insurance maps
as areas of special flood hazard, which include those
lands in the floodplain subject to a one percent or
greater chance of flooding in any given year.

Local Watershed Areas, Amount of

Runoff Collected and Location of
Outfalls

• A Watershed is a land area whose runoff drains into

any stream, river, lake, and ocean.
• Watershed boundary is the divide separating one
drainage area from another.
Swampy and Concave Areas of Land without
Positive Drainage and other Obstacles that may
interrupt or obstruct Natural Surface Drainage
A road drainage system must satisfy two main
criteria if it is to be effective throughout its
design life:

It must allow for a minimum of

disturbance of the natural drainage
pattern.

It must drain surface and subsurface

water away from the roadway and
dissipate it in a way that prevents
excessive collection of water in unstable
areas and subsequent downstream
erosion.
Potential Areas for Impoundments, Detention/Retention Ponds

• Detention ponds hold water • Retention ponds maintain a pool of water

for a short period of time. throughout the year and hold storm water
• Also known as dry ponds. runoff following storms.
• referred to as wet ponds.
UNIQUE SITE FEATURES

➢ these are existing features within the

site that possess UNIQUE
characteristics which usually make
the site more valuable.

➢ These unique features are usually

retained and incorporated in the
design and development of the site
plan

Kapurpurawan Rock Formation, Burgos, Ilocos Norte

GEOTECHNICAL/
SOILS
▪ Soil is a mixture of minerals, organic matter, gases,
liquids, and countless organisms that together support
life on. It is a medium for plant growth; it is a means
of water storage, supply and purification; it is a
modifier of Earth's atmosphere; it is a habitat for
organisms.

▪ Soil is a product of the influence of climate, relief,

organisms, and its parent materials interacting over
time.

▪ Soil science has two basic branches of

study: edaphology and pedology.
▪ BASIC SURFACE SOIL TYPE

Soil type usually refers to the different sizes

of mineral particles in a particular sample.
Each component, and their size, play an important
role. The ratio of these sizes determines soil type:
clay, loam, clay-loam, silt-loam, and so on.
In addition to the mineral composition of soil, humus
also plays an important role in soil characteristics
and fertility for plant life.
There are many recognized soil classifications, both
international and national.
• Sand
a naturally occurring granular material
composed of finely divided rock and mineral
particles. It is defined by size, being finer
than gravel and coarser than silt.

• Clay
a fine-grained natural rock or soil material that combines
one or more clay minerals with traces of metal oxides and
organic matter. Clays are plastic due to their water
content and become hard, brittle and non–plastic upon
drying.

Clay can appear in various colours from white to dull gray

or brown to deep orange-red.
• Silt
granular material of a size between sand and clay,
whose mineral origin is quartz and feldspar.

It may also exist as soil deposited at the bottom of a water

body. Silt has a typical non-sticky, plastic feel. Silt usually
has a floury feel when dry, and a slippery feel when
wet.

• Rock
is a solid aggregate of one or more minerals or mineraloids.
The Earth's outer solid layer, the lithosphere, is made of rock.

Three major groups of rocks are

defined: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.

The scientific study of rocks is called petrology.

• Shale
a fine-grained, clastic sedimentary
rock composed of mud that is a mix of flakes
of clay minerals and tiny fragments of other
minerals.

Fissility - breaks along thin laminae or

parallel layering or bedding less than one
centimeter in thickness.

• Gravel
Composed of unconsolidated rock fragments that have
a general particle size range and include size classes
from granule- to boulder-sized fragments.

Gravel is categorized by the Udden-Wentworth Scale into

granular gravel, pebble gravel and boulder.
• Loam
Composed mostly of sand, silt and clay at 40%-40%-
20% concentration. These proportions can vary to a
degree, however, and result in different types of loam
soils.

generally contain more nutrients than sandy soils. The

soil's texture, ability to retain nutrients and water are
crucial.

• Limestone
Composed mainly of skeletal fragments of marine
organisms such as coral, forams and molluscs. Its major
materials are calcite and aragonite.

About 10% of sedimentary rocks are limestones.

▪ ROCK AND SOIL TYPE

IGNEOUS ROCKS SEDIMENTARY ROCKS METAMORPHIC ROCKS

IGNEOUS ROCKS
Magmatic rock is formed through the cooling and
solidification of magma or lava.

Melting is caused by:

➢ an increase in temperature
➢ a decrease in pressure
➢ or a change in composition

Solidification into rock occurs either below the

surface as intrusive rocks or on the surface
as extrusive rocks.
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Sedimentation is the collective name for processes

that cause mineral and/or organic particles to settle
in place.

The sediment was formed by weathering and erosion.

Then transported to the place of deposition by agents
of denudation.

The sedimentary rock cover of the continents of

the Earth's crust is extensive at 73% of the Earth's
current land surface.
METAMORPHIC ROCKS

Arise from the transformation of existing rock types, in

a process called metamorphism, which means "change
in form". The original rock “protolith” is subjected to
heat and pressure, causing profound physical and/or
chemical change.

Metamorphic rocks make up a large part of

the Earth's crust and form 12% of the Earth's current
land surface.
ALKALI CLAY PEAT PERMAFROST SERPENTINE VOLCANIC
ALKALI SOILS

Are clay soils with high pH (> 8.5), a poor soil

structure and a low infiltration capacity.

Often they have a hard calcareous layer at 0.5 to

1 metre depth.

Alkali soils has an unfavorable physico-

chemical properties which causes the soil to
swell and difficult to clarify/settle.

Alkaline soils are basic, but not all basic soils

are alkaline.
 CLAY SOILS
Clay is a fine-grained natural rock or soil material that
combines one or more clay minerals with traces of metal
oxides and organic matter. Clays are plastic due to their
water content and become hard, brittle and non–plastic
upon drying.
Clay can appear in various colours from white to dull gray
or brown to deep orange-red.

VOLCANIC SOILS
Soils that have formed where there is a lot of activity
from volcanos. These soils are called Andisols, very
young, and acidic depending on which type of
volcano they come from. These materials can be very
dark in color.
PERMAFROST SOILS

Is ground at or below the freezing point of water

0 °C (32 °F) for two or more years.
Most permafrost is located in high latitudes,
but alpine permafrost may exist at
high altitudes in much lower latitudes.
Ground ice is not always present, as may be in the
case of nonporous bedrock.
A global temperature rise of 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) above
current levels would be enough to start the
thawing of permafrost in Siberia, according to one
group of scientists.
PEAT SOILS

Is an accumulation of
partially decayed vegetation or organic matter that
is unique to natural areas called peatlands, bogs,
or mires.

One of the most common components is Sphagnum

moss, although many other plants can contribute.
Soils that contain mostly peat are known
as histosols.

Peat forms in wetland conditions, where flooding

obstructs flows of oxygen from the atmosphere,
slowing rates of decomposition.
SERPENTINE SOILS

is derived from ultramafic rocks. Serpentinite is

composed of the mineral serpentine.

Mainly by microbial fixation, in practically all soils.

Soils derived from any parent material, including
serpentinite, differ greatly in the amounts of plant-
available nitrogen in them.

Nitrogen spans practically the same range of

concentrations in serpentine soils as in most other
kinds of soils. The low Ca:Mg ratios is the main
plant limiting factor in serpentine soils.

Plants that grow only in serpentine soils are

commonly called serpentine endemics.
Bearing capacity

The bearing capacity of soil is defined as the capacity

of the soil to the loads coming from the foundation the
pressure which the soil can easily with stand against
load is called allowable bearing pressure.
▪ BEDROCK SOILS

Most soils have three major horizons: the surface horizon

(A), the subsoil (B), and the substratum (C). Some soils
have an organic horizon (O) on the surface. Hard
bedrock, which is not soil, uses the letter R.
DEPTH OF BEDROCK
Bedrock can extend hundreds of meters below the surface of the Earth, toward the base of
Earth's crust. In some areas, the bedrock layer is exposed, while in others it is hundreds of
meters below the surface. Scientists believe that bedrock extends to the base of the planet's
crust. The upper boundary of bedrock is called its rockhead.

CLASSIFICATION OF BEDROCKS
Because till is often derived from local bedrock, bedrock geology can often be used as a
good indicator of till composition and texture in cases where no other information exists.

1. Intrusive – granite/granodiorite/diorite/monzonite/syenite/pegmatite
2. Ultramafic – gabbro/pyroxinite/hornblendite/serpentinite/dunite
3. Metamorphic – gneiss
4. Metamorphic – schist/phyllite/amphibolite/slate
5a. Sedimentary (Mesozoic or older) – sandstone/wacke/conglomerate/quartzite
5b. Sedimentary (Cenozoic or younger) – sandstone/wacke/conglomerate
6. Sedimentary – Limestone/dolostone (or dolomite)/marble
7. Sedimentary – siltstone/shale/mudstone
8. Volcanic (andesite or rhyolite) – flows/breccias/porphyries
9 . Volcanic (basalt) – flows/breccias/porphyries/greenstone
10. Volcanic – tuffs/pyroclastics/lahars
▪ SEISMIC CONDITIONS

SEISMIC WAVES

Are waves of energy that travel through

the Earth's layers, and are a result
of earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, magma
movement, large landslides and large man-
made explosions.
Seismic waves are studied by seismologists;
recorded by a seismometer, hydrophone,
or accelerometer.
Earthquakes create distinct types of waves
with different velocities, their
different travel times help scientists to
locate the source of the hypocenter.
SEISMIC HAZARDS

The probability that

an earthquake will occur in a
given geographic area,
within a given window of
time.

With a hazard thus

estimated, risk can be
assessed and included in
such areas as building
codes for standard buildings,
designing larger buildings
and infrastructure
projects, land use
planning and determining
insurance rates.
▪ ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS
An environmental hazard is a substance, state or event
which has the potential to threaten the surrounding
natural environment and / or adversely affect
people's health. This term incorporates topics
like pollution and natural disasters such as storms and
earthquakes.

Hazards can be categorized in four types:

➢ Chemical
➢ Physical (mechanical, etc.)
➢ Biological
➢ Psychosocial
Chemical
• Anthrax • Herbicides
• Antibiotic agents in animals • Hormones in animals destined for
destined for human consumption human consumption
• Arsenic - a contaminant of fresh • Lead in paint
water sources (water wells) • Marine debris
• Asbestos - carcinogenic • mercury
• DDT • Mutagens
• Carcinogens • Pesticides
• dioxins • Polychlorinated biphenyls
• Endocrine disruptors • Radon and other natural sources
• Explosive material of radioactivity
• Fungicides • Soil pollution
• Furans • Tobacco smoking
• Halo alkanes • Toxic waste
• Heavy metals
Physical Biological

• Cosmic rays • Allergies

• Drought • Arbovirus
• Earthquake • Avian influenza
• Electromagnetic fields • Cholera
• E-waste • Ebola
• Floods • Epidemics
• Fog • Food poisoning
• Light pollution • Malaria
• Lighting • Molds
• Lightning • Pandemics
• Noise pollution • Pathogens
• Quicksand • Pollen for allergic people
• Ultraviolet light • Rabies
• Vibration • Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)
• X-rays • Sick building syndrome
UTILITIES
The term utilities can also refer to the set of services provided by these
organizations consumed by the public: electricity, natural gas, water, and
sewage. Broadband internet services are increasingly being included within
the definition.

On-site utilities must be considered along with the governing regulations. If

the property has town services, there is still the question of routing the
trenches to the building. Sometimes the best route will disrupt the existing
vegetation and suggest an alternative access route or building orientation.

➢ POTABLE WATER
➢ ELECTRICITY
➢ GAS
➢ TELEPHONE
➢ CABLE TELEVISION
➢ SANITARY SEWER SERVICE
➢ STORM DRAINAGE (SURFACE, SUBSURFACE)
➢ FIRE PROTECTION
▪ POTABLE WATER

It may be possible to convey alternate local water sources

through functioning portions of the existing water
distribution system. Some cities and business/institutions,
for example, are drilling wells for the purpose of a back-
up supply in case of water outage.

Neighboring Water Utilities

Some water utilities have established interconnections with adjacent

utilities. These interconnections consists of pipeline connections that
allow utilities to share water resources in the event of emergency.

Varying system pressures and water quality parameters are key

considerations associated with the use of interconnections.
Bulk Water

Focuses on transporting treated water, though untreated water could conceivably

be transported as well. Treated water can be from existing treated water
reservoirs, treatment plants, or nearby utilities.

Pre-packaged Water

Bottled water sources can be stored on-hand, transported into the affected
area in the affected area in the event of an emergency, or a combination of
the two.

There are range of possible sizes for packaged water, selection of size will
depend on a number of factors including handling, availability, and cost.
▪ ELECTRICITY

The service entrance location for commercial electrical

power should be determined concurrently with the
development of conceptual design.

Locations of transformers, vaults, meters and other utility

items must be coordinated with the architectural design to
avoid detracting from the building’s appearance.

In the case of large buildings, it may be necessary to have

more than one service. In large office buildings and in
campus situations, it may also be necessary to distribute
medium voltage power.
▪ GAS

Gas – may be piped

in an underground
system similar to
water distribution.
▪ TELEPHONE
• Device that permits two or more users to
conduct a conversations when they are too far
apart to be heard directly.

• The architect shall coordinate with the client

agency to determine the enclosure and
pathway requirements for telecom systems.
The scope of services varies with each project;
it includes as a minimum design of the
infrastructure and may include full design and
specification of the telecom system.

• Telephone lines are placed overhead on electric

power poles or are placed in underground
conduits.

• From the under ground conduits service is

directed into each residence or building.
▪ CABLE TELEVISION

• A system in which television programs are

transmitted to the sets of subscribers by cable
rather than a broadcast signal.

• Contrast with broadcast television, in which the

television signal is transmitted over the air by radio
waves and received by a television antenna
attached to the television; or satellite television, in
which transmitted by a communications satellite
orbiting the Earth and received by a satellite dish
on the roof.
▪ SANITARY SEWER SERVICES

• An underground pipe or tunnel system

for transporting sewage from houses and
commercial buildings to treatment
facilities or disposal.
• Part of an overall system called a
sewage system or sewerage.
• Must be planned thoroughly so that it
will not cause much problem
STORM DRAINAGE

▪ Unit of the plumbing system that conveys rain or storm water to a suitable terminal.
▪ The complete system will be referred to as a storm drain system and will normally consists
of curbs and gutters, inlets or catch basins, lateral or leads, trunk lines or mains, junction
chambers, manholes and ponds.
▪ Most aspects of storm drain design such as system planning, pavement drainage, gutter flow
calculations, inlet spacing, pipe sizing, and hydraulic grade line calculations are included.
▪ DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS OF STORM DRAINAGE
• Effective storm water systems must be able to adequately manage small, minor and major
storm events. They can be designed to do this by considering the management objectives of
each design event and the scale at which the solution usually a single or series of best
management practices) is to apply.

• The design of a drainage system must address the needs of the traveling public as well as
those of the local community through which it passes. The drainage system for a roadway
traversing urbanized region is more complex than for roadways traversing sparsely settled
rural areas. This is often due to:

o THE WIDE ROADWAY SECTIONS, FLAT GRADES, BOTH IN LONGITODINAL AND TRANSERVE
DIRECTIONS, SHALLOW WATER COURSE, ABSENCE OF SIDE CHANNELS;
o THE MORE COSTLY PROPERTY DAMAGE WHICH MAY OCCUR FROM PONDING OF WATER, OR
FROM FLOW OF WATER THROUGH DEVELOPED AREAS;
o THE FACT THAT THE ROADWAY SECTION MUST NOT ONLY CARRY TRAFFIC, BUT ALSO ACT
AS A CHANNEL TO CONVEY WATER TO A DISPOSAL POINT. UNLESS PROPER PRECAUTIONS
ARE TAKEN, THIS FLOW OF WATER ALONG THE ROADWAY WILL INTERFER WITH A POSSIBLE
HALT THE PASSAGE OF HIGHWAY TRAFFIC.
▪ The benefits of sustainable drainage systems can include:

• Reducing flooding.
• Reducing the demand on existing drainage systems (potentially
making a development viable in an area where it might
otherwise not be viable).
• Enhancing water quality.
• Reducing pollution.
• Providing habitats for wildlife.
• Providing local amenity.
• Recharging groundwater and watercourses resulting in a reduced
risk of drought.
FIRE PROTECTION

▪ Designed to offer an acceptable level of fire safety

▪ Minimize the risks from heat and smoke
▪ Primary objective is to reduce to within acceptable limits the potential for
death or injury to the occupants
▪ Protect contents and ensure that as much as possible of a building can
continue to function
▪ Planners and builders have their own contribution in this campaign, by
making their plans and construction conform to the Fire Code Requirements.
▪ There are a number of possible causes of ignition.
• Natural phenomena
• Human carelessness
• Technological failure
• Fuel limitation
▪ PLANNING FOR FIRE PROTECTION

One of the many responsibilities given to the Architects and Engineers by their License to Practice, is the
protection of the building against loss of life and damage to property from fire. The owner on the other
hand, is very much concerned with the preservation of the structure and its contents from the
destructive effect of fire.
Tall building presents variety of unique problems, more particularly on fire safety. Therefore, problems on
fire safety must be addressed at the very start of the planning stage. Because the belief that these
imposing structures of modern technology are totally immune to fatal fire, is hard to accept.
A useful way to consider tall buildings is to define a high-rise building in terms of fire protection.

In the design process, these typical fire-protection system goals for consideration:
• Saving lives.
• Saving property.
• Preserving business continuity.

Components of modern fire-protection systems:

• Detection.
• Alarms and notification.
• Suppression.
Fire protection engineers must be involved in all aspects
of the design in order to ensure a reasonable degree of
protection of human life from fire and the products of
combustion as well as to reduce the potential of fire.

Planning for fire protection in/around a building involves

knowing the four sources of fire: Natural, Manmade,
Wildfire and Incidental.

Therefore, it is necessary to creatively and efficiently

integrate code requirements with other fire safety
measures to provide the desired levels of safety.
IMMEDIATE
SURROUNDINGS
Zoning of the neighborhood is important and information of this type can
typically be found at the municipal planning department of the site.

Features of this sort include architectural patterns, street lighting, and

condition of existing buildings.

The reaction of the surrounding buildings towards the site and people moving
around should be analyzed.

Other important components of the neighborhood context include an analysis

of existing paths (pedestrian, cyclist, and vehicle), landmarks and nodes.

➢ NEIGHBORHOOD STRUCTURES
➢ SHADING AND SOLAR ACCESS
➢ NOISE SOURCES
➢ ODORS
➢ VIEWS AND VISTAS
NEIGHBORHOOD STRUCTURE
▪ IMPORTANCE WHY NEIGHBORHOOD STRUCTURE NEED TO CONSIDER IN SITE PLANNING:

1. Understanding the neighborhood buildings of a site is key to enabling the designer to

weave the new design in with the existing fabric of the site.
2. Allows us to understand the existing opportunities, or problems in the site.
3. Turn away or eliminate certain unwanted site conditions.
4. Impact of future adjacent developments to the site such as solar and mind exposure,
daylighting, ventilation.
5. Respect existing aesthetic view sheds from existing buildings, landscape, features, and
historic sites and to acknowledge the natural and cultural heritage of the site and
surrounding community.
6. Minimize habitat disturbance.
7. Future expansion of the building.

A building's immediate surroundings change its effective weather patterns, as nearby buildings
or trees can block sunlight and change wind patterns. When designing a new building, you’ll
want to take surrounding buildings into account – both so you can understand how they affect
your design, and what passive strategies you can rely on.
A. Neighborhood structures, buildings, satellite dishes, etc.

Neighborhood Structures

-Finding a solution to neighborhood problems such as flooding, nuisance, odors, etc.

-Making use of surroundings for site’s benefit.

Buildings
Satellite Dishes
How your structure may affect the
How high-rise buildings and
building beside it and vise versa.
construction materials affect
signals.
B. Shading and solar
access

Shading Solar Access

The use of the things around or outside Simply means access to sunlight. Usually
the structure to provide shading. it’s uses are for natural lighting and energy
saving.
Shading and Solar Access
Solar access
▪ One needs to access how the surrounding structures affect the solar access of
the site and also shading and vice versa.
▪ To provide protection of a reasonable amount of sunlight from shade from
structures and vegetation whenever feasible to all parcels in the City to
preserve the economic value of solar radiation falling on structures,
investments in solar energy systems, and the options for future uses of solar
energy .
▪ The ability of one property to continue to receive sunlight across property
lines without obstruction from another’s property (buildings, foliage or other
impediment).
▪ Calculated using a sun path diagram.
▪ Source of our vision and energy.
▪ Its movements inform our perception of time and space.
▪ Access to sun is essential to energy conservation and to the quality of our
lives.
▪ Differentiated from solar rights or solar easement
Shading

▪ Shading can be provided by natural landscaping

or by building elements such as awnings,
overhangs, and trellises. Some shading devices
can also function as reflectors, called light
shelves, which bounce natural light for
daylighting deep into building interiors.

▪ The use of sun control and shading devices is an

important aspect of many energy-efficient
building design strategies. In particular,
buildings that employ passive solar heating or
daylighting often depend on well-designed sun
control and shading devices.
▪ To properly design shading devices it is
necessary to understand the position of the sun
in the sky during the cooling season. The
position of the sun is expressed in terms of
altitude and azimuth angles.

• The altitude angle is the angle of the sun above

the horizon, achieving its maximum on a given
day at solar noon.

• The azimuth angle, also known as the bearing

angle, is the angle of the sun's projection onto
the ground plane relative to south.
▪ NOISE SOURCES

Transportation – Aircrafts, Trains, Road Vehicles, Vessels

Industrial Buildings – Factories-Machineries, Air-conditioning Systems
Commercial Buildings – Office Buildings, air-conditioning systems, ventilating systems
Construction Sites - Excavation, Piling, Road Work, Demolition, Renovation
Domestic Buildings - Mahjong Playing, Hi-fi, Musical Instruments
Public Places - Open Markets, Streets, Parks
Products - Intruder Alarms of Buildings ad Motor Vehicles
▪ ODORS
Odors can come from many different sources, but the
typical kinds of odors EPA investigates are from industrial
sources and premises such as sewage treatment facilities,
abattoirs, animal renderers, landfills and composting
facilities.

Odor from domestic sources and some smaller commercial

premises, such as shops and restaurants, should be referred
to local council officers.
SOURCES OF ODORS
Compost and organic waste
Organic waste, is recycled into a number of organic
products that are used to improve soil condition.
Odor is released during the mixing and turning
phases of composting. It is also a problem when
organics start to decompose anaerobically (without
oxygen). The process releases gases including
carbon dioxide and organic sulphides.

Rubbish odors
Landfills that accept putrescible waste have been
known to create odor. These odors are created by
the daily activities of adding new waste to a
landfill and from the aerobic decay of organic
waste exposed to air. The smell is often similar to
that noticed from household rubbish bins.
SOURCES OF ODORS
Landfill gas odors
Landfill gas is a mixture of gases produced as waste
decays within landfills - a process known as
methanogenesis. The mixture is mostly methane
and carbon dioxide produced which are both
odourless. Other gases present can include a range
of sulphide gases. Methane can also be captured as
a valuable energy source.

Anaerobic leachate
Landfill leachate is liquid that moves through or
drains from a landfill. This liquid may either exist
already in the landfill, or it may be created after
rainwater mixes with the waste in the landfill. It is
usually highly odorous and described as having an
ammonia or sewage-type smell.
▪ GOOD VIEWS AND VISTAS
1. Visual protection and enhancement are
added benefits of landscaping. A well
landscaped livestock operation that is
pleasing to see, or even hidden from view,
is more acceptable than one which is not.

2. Good Orientation – facing your vistas to a

much more visually attractive spots.
▪ GENERAL SERVICES

Services that are applicable to the entire firm

and are not confined to any department or
function, such as insurance, medical, payroll,
personnel, and security.

➢ FIRE AND POLICE PROTECTION

➢ TRASH/REFUSE REMOVAL SERVICES
➢ SNOW REMOVAL, INCLUDING ON-SITE STORAGE
▪ FIRE AND POLICE PROTECTION
Fire Station

If a station is located near the high-response section of a community (such

as a heavily populated area of multiple-occupancy or wood-frame
structures) that location will probably be appropriate. Station relocation is
necessary over time if the types of hazards and the locations of most fires
move to a significant distance from the station. This is an important
consideration for selecting a new site for a fire station.

Police Station

When undertaking an important municipal project like a police station, the

best thing to do is to become as familiar with the police process as
possible. Speak with officers who will be working at the new police station
and get some of their thoughts and recommendations. Observe how the
current police station operates and make notes of any inefficiencies and
problems with the design.
▪ TRASH/REFUSE REMOVAL SERVICES

Waste collection and garbage

disposal play an important role site
planning . Garbage and waste can
cause air and water pollution.
Rotting garbage is known to produce
harmful gases that mix with the air
and cause breathing problems in
people. It is necessary to be located
appropriately within the site.
▪ SNOW REMOVAL, INCLUDING ON-SITE STORAGE

As snow builds up and eventually melts, this can easily

accumulate and clog up gutters causing ice dams. An ice dam is
a term used when ice builds up on a roof and in the gutters. This
will trap the water, causing it to find a different route to drain
and may cause water damage to the building and its contents if
the water leaks through the roof. This can be prevented by
making sure the heating system of the building has proper
ventilation and does not trap the heat under the roof.