LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS FOR

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY VII (EP 329)

NO. OF EXPERIMENT : 6

TITLE OF EXPERIMENT: FOURIER’S LAW OF CONDUCTION

STUDENT NAME : STUDENT ID :

PRATAP KRISHNAN 1001748246

YONG JIA NING 1001748943

BENNETT GOH JIA SHENG 1001643312

IFTEKHAR HOSSAIN 1001852505

GROUP : 4

DATE OF EXPERIMENT : 10 March 2021

TUTOR : Ms.Rafizah Binti Zaiton

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING , ARCHITECTURE & BUILT ENVIRONMENT

UCSI UNIVERSITY

JAN-APR 2021
 Table of Content

No. Subject Page

1 Objective 2

2 Introductions 2-3

3 Material and apparatus 3

4 Procedure/Methods 4&6

5 Results & calculation 4-8

6 Discussion 9-10

7 Limitation of the experiment 10

8 Conclusion 10

9 Reference 11

1
 OBJECTIVES

1. To apply Fourier’s Law of linear heat conduction.

2. To investigate the influence of thermal insulation upon conduction between adjacent
materials.
3. To demonstrate the effect of surface contact on thermal conduction between adjacent
slabs of materials.
4. To investigate Fourier’s law for the linear conduction of a heat along a Homogenous
bar.
5. To study the condition of heat along a composite bar and evaluate the overall heat
transfer coefficient.

INTRODUCTION

Thermal conduction is the transfer of heat energy in a material due to the temperature
gradient within it. It always takes place from a region of higher temperature to a region of
lower temperature. The Fourier’s Law states that the rate of heat transfer through a material
is proportional to the negative gradient in the temperature and to the area, at right angles to
that gradient, through which the heat is flowing. The relationship is as shown below :
q =- kAdT/dx

where q is the conduction heat flow in the x direction, A is the cross sectional area normal
to the x direction and k is the thermal conductivity. The negative sign implies that heat is
transferred in the direction of decreasing temperature. The thermal conductivity k varies
between different materials and can be a function of temperature. Because of the
enhancement of heat transfer by free electrons, thermal conductivity is analogous to
electrical conductivity and hence, metals that are good conductors of electricity are also
good conductors of heat.

According to Fourier’s law of heat conduction: If a plane wall of thickness ( DL ) and

area A supports a temperature difference ( DT ) then the heat transfer rate per unit time
(Q) by conduction through the wall is found to be:

Q = A (T)/(L) where L=(Lb-La)

If the material of the wall is homogeneous and has a thermal conductivity k (the constant of
proportionality) then:
Q = A (T)/(L) where L=(Tb-Ta)

2
 For linear conduction, an electrical heating element, which comprises a heat input
section fabricated from brass fitted with an electrical heater, is bonded to one end of a metal
rod (heat source). Another end of the rod, which is also made of brass, is exposed to heat
discharge (heat sink). The outer surface of the cylindrical rod is well insulated; thus
yielding one-dimensional linear heat conduction in the rod once the heating element is
switched on. Thermocouples are embedded in the rod, along its centerline. A simple mimic
diagram for heat conduction along a well-insulated cylindrical rod is shown as below:

Figure 1.0: heat conduction along a well-insulated cylindrical rod

Therefore in this experiment application of Fourier’s Law of linear in heat conduction,

investigate the influence of thermal insulation upon conduction between adjacent materials
and demonstrate the effect of surface contact on thermal conduction between adjacent slabs
of materials is required to achieve the objectives of this experiment.

APPARATUS & EQUIPMENT

Control Panel, Heater Power Indicator, Heater Power Regulator, Temperature Indicator,
Temperature Selector, Thermocouple Connectors, Thermocouples, Radial Module, Linear
Module

PROCEDURES

A) LINEAR CONDUCTION OF HEAT ALONG HOMOGENOUS BAR

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 1. Make sure the main switch is initially off. Then, a brass conductor (25mm diameter)
section intermediate section is inserted into the linear module and clamped together.
2. The water supply is turned on and the water is ensured that flowing from the free end
of the water pipe to drain. This should be checked at intervals.
3. The heater power control knob control panel is turned to the fully anticlockwise
position and the sensors lead connected.
4. The power supply and the main switch is switched on; the digital readouts will be
illuminated.
5. The heater power control is turned and the heater power is regulated between 0-40
watts. After each change, sufficient time must be allowed to achieve steady state
conditions.
6. The temperature reading is taken from T1 until T9.
7. The temperature, T versus distance, X is plotted.
8. The theoretical and actual thermal conductivity is calculated.

RESULTS AND QUESTIONS (A)

Power Temperature (℃)

(Watt)

T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9

0 28.4 28.0 28.2 28.1 28.0 28.1 28.2 28.2 28.1

10 35.8 33.4 31.6 30.4 28.7 29.5 29.6 29.4 29.1

20 58.5 55.3 47.1 39.7 35.0 34.1 30.3 30.3 30.3

30 70.8 61.0 54.9 44.9 37.6 36.7 30.5 30.4 30.3

40 87.8 76.3 71.6 53.5 42.2 40.7 30.7 30.5 30.6

Distance, 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09
xn (m)

Table 1: Temperature for linear conduction of heat along homogenous bar

4
Figure 1: Temperature (T) vs Distance (X) for linear conduction of heat along homogenous
bar

For the equation, as we know the formula of the Fourier’s Law is:
𝑑𝑇
𝑄 =− 𝑘𝐴 𝑑𝑋

Based on the question to calculate the theoretical thermal conductivity, we can arrange the
formula above to:
𝑄
𝑘 =− 𝑑𝑇
𝐴 𝑑𝑋

For the surface area, A is calculated as, πr2 . Since the brass diameter is given as 25mm, thus
the radius will be 0.0125m, the surface area, A = π(0.0125)2 = 4.908 x 10-4 m2

From the table, Q=0W, the gradient from the graph = -1

0
Therefore, 𝑘 =− 4.908 𝑥 10−4 (−1)
=0

The thermal conductivity for all powers,

𝑑𝑇 𝑊
When Q=0W, 𝑑𝑋
= -1, k = 0 𝑚.𝐾
𝑑𝑇 𝑊
When Q=10W, 𝑑𝑋
= -72.83, k = 279.74 𝑚.𝐾
𝑑𝑇 𝑊
When Q=20W, 𝑑𝑋
= -378.33, k = 107.71 𝑚.𝐾
𝑑𝑇 𝑊
When Q=30W, 𝑑𝑋
= 518, k = 118 𝑚.𝐾

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 𝑑𝑇 𝑊
When Q=40W, 𝑑𝑋
= -768, k = 106.12 𝑚.𝐾

𝑊
Average thermal conductivity, kaverage = (0+279.94+107.71+118+106.12) / 5 = 122.35 𝑚.𝐾

𝑊
However, the theoretical value for brass thermal conductivity is ktheo = 109 𝑚.𝐾

Thus,
𝑘𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜 − 𝑘𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 109−122.35
Percentage Error = | 𝑘𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜
| x 100% = | 109
| x 100% = 12.25%

B) CONDUCTION OF HEAT AND OVERALL HEAT TRANSFER ALONG A

COMPOSITE BAR

1. Make sure that the main is initially off. The stainless steel section or any other metals
(without sensor) is inserted into the linear module and clamped together.
2. The water supply is turned on and ensures the water is flowing from the free end of
the water pipe to drain. This should be checked at intervals.
3. The heater power control knob control panel is turned to the fully anticlockwise
position.
4. The power supply and the main switch is switched on; the digital readouts will be
illuminated.
5. The heater power control is turned. The heater power is regulated between 0-40
watts. After each change, sufficient time must be allowed to achieve steady state
conditions.
6. The reading for T1, T2, T3, T7, T8, T9 is taken.
7. The temperature, T versus distance, x is plotted,
8. The overall heat transfer coefficient, U is calculated based on the knowledge of k
brass and k stainless steel and distances x1, x2, and x3.

RESULTS AND QUESTIONS (B)

Power Temperature (℃)

(Watt)

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 T1 T2 T3 T7 T8 T9

0 72.2 64.5 50.2 30.3 30.3 30.2

10 65.5 62.4 49.3 30.6 30.5 30.3

20 69.4 65.1 50.4 30.7 30.5 30.5

30 75.6 71.4 53.6 30.9 30.6 30.5

40 86.2 81.1 58.6 31.2 30.7 30.6

Distance, 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.07 0.08 0.09

xn (m)

Table 3: Temperature for conduction of heat along composite bar

Figure 2: Temperature(T) vs Distance (X) for conduction of heat along composite bar

For the equation of the overall resistance of heat flow and the materials that are used is brass
1 𝑋𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑋𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑋𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑠
and steel in this experiment. Thus, 𝑈 = 𝑘𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑠
+ 𝑘𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙
+ 𝑘𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑠
whereas the surface area, A =
𝑊
4.908 x 10-4 m2 ; k = 122.35 𝑚.𝐾 ; x=0.03m

From the questions given, to find the overall heat transfer coefficient, U based on the
knowledge of k stainless steel and distances, x1,x2 and x3, U and ksteel need to be calculated.

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U can be calculated by using Q = UA∆T whereas ksteel can be calculated by using the
𝑥
equation of ksteel = 𝐴∆𝑇 2𝑥
𝑄
− 𝑘𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑠

For Q=0W, ∆T = T1 - T3 = 22K

Q = UA∆T;
𝑄 0
U= 𝐴∆𝑇
= 4.908 𝑥 10−4 𝑥 22
=0
𝑥
ksteel = 𝐴∆𝑇 2𝑥 ; since Q=0, thus we cannot find ksteel.
𝑄
− 𝑘𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑠

The thermal conductivity for all power

𝑊
When Q=0W, ∆T = T1 - T9 = 42K; U=0 𝑚.𝐾
𝑊 𝑊
When Q=10W, ∆T = T1 - T9 = 35.2K; U=578.832 𝑚.𝐾 ; ksteel = 24.25 𝑚.𝐾
𝑊 𝑊
When Q=20W, ∆T = T1 - T9 = 38.9K; U=1047.55 𝑚.𝐾 ; ksteel = 64.64 𝑚.𝐾
𝑊 𝑊
When Q=30W, ∆T = T1 - T9 = 45.1K; U=1355.314 𝑚.𝐾 ; ksteel = 121.3 𝑚.𝐾
𝑊 𝑊
When Q=40W, ∆T = T1 - T9 = 55.6K; U=1465.82 𝑚.𝐾 ; ksteel = 156.507 𝑚.𝐾

𝑊
Kaverage = (0+24.25+64.64+121.3+156.507) / 5 = 73.34 𝑚.𝐾

𝑊
However, the theoretical value of stainless steel conductivity is ktheo = 50.2 𝑚.𝐾

1 1
Thus, Uexp= 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 = 0.03 0.03 0.03 = 1111.63
𝑘𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑠
+ 𝑘𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙
+ 𝑘𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑠 122.3174
+ 73.34
+ 122.3174

𝑊
𝑚.𝐾

1 1 𝑊
Utheo = 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 = 0.03 0.03 0.03 = 871.03 𝑚.𝐾
𝑘𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑠
+ 𝑘𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙
+ 𝑘𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑠 109
+ 50.2
+ 109

𝑈𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜−𝑈𝑒𝑥𝑝 871.03−1111.63
Percentage Error = | 𝑈𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜
| x 100% = | 871.03
| x 100% = 27.62%

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DISCUSSION
For Fourier’s law study on part A which is linear conduction of heat along a
homogeneous bar. Firstly, make sure the main switch is initially off. Then, a 25 mm diameter
brass conductor intermediate section was inserted into the linear module and clamped
together. Next, the water supply was turned on and ensured the water was flowing from the
free end of the water pipe to drain. This should be checked at intervals. After this, the heater
power control knob control panel was turned to the fully anticlockwise position and the
sensor's leads were connected. Then, the power supply and the main switch is switched on;
the digital readouts will be illuminated. The heater power control was turned, and the heater
power is regulated between 0-40 watts. After each change, sufficient time must be allowed
to achieve steady state conditions. The temperature reading is taken from T1 until T9 and a
graph of temperature, T versus distance, X was plotted. The theoretical and actual thermal
conductivity was calculated.

The thermal conductivity obtained for 0W, 10W, 20W, 30W, 40W were 0 W/m.K,
279.74 W/m.K, 107.71 W/m.K, 118 W/m.K and 106.12 W/m.K, respectively. As a result,
the average thermal conductivity is 122.35 W/m.K. However, the theoretical thermal
conductivity of brass is 109 W/m.K and the percentage error is 12.25%. The lower the
thermal conductivity, the lesser the material conducts heat energy so the heat is not easily
passed through. Thus, a material with low thermal conductivity which is brass indicates a
good insulating material.

Moreover, Fourier’s law study on part B which is conduction of heat and overall heat
transfer along a composite bar. First and foremost, make sure the main switch is initially off.
Then, the stainless steel section or any other metals which were without a sensor was
inserted into the linear module and clamped together. Next, the water supply was turned on
and ensured the water was flowing from the free end of the water pipe to drain. This should
be checked at intervals. After this, the heater power control knob control panel was turned to
the fully anticlockwise position. Then, the power supply and the main switch is switched on;
the digital readouts will be illuminated. The heater power control was turned, and the heater
power is regulated between 0-40 watts. After each change, sufficient time must be allowed
to achieve steady state conditions. The reading for T1, T2, T3, T7, T8, T9 was taken and a
graph of temperature, T versus distance, X was plotted also the overall heat transfer
coefficient, U was calculated based on the knowledge of k brass and k stainless steel and
distances x1, x2, and x3.

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The overall heat transfer coefficient, U obtained for 0W, 10W, 20W, 30W, 40W were 0
W/m.K, 578.832 W/m.K, 1047.55 W/m.K, 1355.314 W/m.K and 1465.82 W/m.K,
respectively. The value of k stainless steel for 10W, 20W, 30W, 40W were 24.25 W/m.K,
64.64 W/m.K, 121.3 W/m.K and 156.507 W/m.K, respectively. Since the overall heat
transfer coefficient, U obtained for 0W is zero, so the k value of stainless steel cannot be
calculated. As a result, the average value of k stainless steel is 73.34 W/m.K. However, the
theoretical value of stainless steel conductivity is 50.2 W/m.K thus the experimental overall
heat transfer coefficient, U is 1111.63 W/m.K. The theoretical overall heat transfer
coefficient, U is 871.03 W/m.K and the percentage error is 27.62%. The higher the U value,
the shorter the batch times and increased in the production or revenue for a certain heat
exchanger and product. In other words, the larger the U value, the easier the heat transferred
from its source to the product being heated.

LIMITATIONS
The experiment must maintain a steady temperature gradient. This can be done by
ensuring that the cool water flow is turned on and flowing uniformly. The flow is kept
uniform and continuous to ensure that the metal bar does not retain any heat within it. After
subsequently conducting multiple experiments, the metal bar may retain heat from the
experiment prior. That is the reason to ensure a constant flow of cool water.

Gaps between the conductor section and the linear module will interfere and
contribute to additional heat loss. To prevent this from happening, the conductor section
must be inserted and clamped properly and firmly to the linear module. It is crucial to
minimize the gaps as much as possible as the heat loss will affect the accuracy of the results.

CONCLUSION
When considering the data for part A of the experiment, it can be seen that the objectives
were achieved successfully, as percentage error is within the limits of accuracy, whereas in
part B, the error percentage is too significant to ignore. All in all, the experiment is partially
successful, but part B could use some adjustments in terms of precautions.

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REFERENCE

1. Encon.co.uk. 2021. Thermal Values Explained | Encon Insulation & Nevill Long.
[online] Available at:
<https://www.encon.co.uk/support-and-resources/thermal-values-explained> [Accessed 17
March 2021].

2. Globalspec.com. 2021. Copper, Brass, and Bronze Alloys Selection Guide |

Engineering360. [online] Available at:
<https://www.globalspec.com/learnmore/materials_chemicals_adhesives/metals_alloys/nonf
errous_metals_alloys/copper_brass_bronze_alloys> [Accessed 17 March 2021].

3. Energyeducation.ca. 2021. Thermal conductivity - Energy Education. [online] Available

at: <https://energyeducation.ca/encyclopedia/Thermal_conductivity> [Accessed 17 March
2021].

4. Sciencedirect.com. 2021. Fourier Law - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics. [online]

Available at: <https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/physics-and-astronomy/fourier-law>
[Accessed 17 March 2021].

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