International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 171 (2019) 184–193

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International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijpvp

The effect of temperature, CO2, H2S gases and the resultant iron carbonate T
and iron sulfide compounds on the sour corrosion behaviour of ASTM A-106
steel for pipeline transportation
M. Asadiana, M. Sabzib, S.H. Mousavi Anijdanc,∗
a
Young Researchers and Elite Club, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
b
Young Researchers and Elite Club, Dezful Branch, Islamic Azad University, Dezful, Iran
c
Department of Materials Engineering, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: In this investigation, extracted products corrosion behaviour of sour environment in oil and gas industry was
Sour corrosion studied. Of the important aspects of these products is the presence of significant amounts of CO2 and H2S in the
H2S solution of the sour products. The corrosion mechanism could also be involved during the extraction, trans-
ASTM A-106 steel portation and purification of the sour products. Therefore, the corrosion behaviour of ASTM A-106 Grade A
Potentiodynamic polarization
carbon steel, used for the transportation of oil and gas, in the presence of H2S and CO2 and at different tem-
Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy
Temperature
peratures, was studied by potentiodynamic polarization, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy techniques,
and Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) equipped with Electron Dispersive Spectroscope (EDS). Corrosion tests
were conducted on the alloy in solutions with 3 wt% NaCl saturated with CO2 gas in the presence/absence of
200 ppm H2S gas at temperatures of 25 °C, 45 °C, 65 °C, 85 °C. Results showed that increasing the temperature of
the solution substantially increased the corrosion rate of the steel under investigation. As well, the presence of
both gases of CO2 and H2S enhanced the corrosion rate. EDS results also showed that iron carbonate and iron
sulfide compounds do not have sufficient stability at high temperatures to protect the metal surface against
corroding agents. And they could not form a uniform coating on the steel surface.

1. Introduction worldwide is estimated to be more than 3.3 trillion dollars. Usually, in

With the depletion of good quality oil and gas in the current oil
wells, the extraction of these materials is moving towards harsher en-
vironment. Of the main characteristics of these environments is the
presence of CO2 and H2S gases. These gases and other impurities of oil
and gas would critically influence the transportation of these products
as well as being environmentally toxic. Therefore, safe transportation of
these products to refineries, which often occurs for thousands of kilo-
meters, is of critical importance [1–4]. The corrosion behaviour of steel
at the presence of CO2 and H2S gases has been an issue in oil and gas
industries since 1940s. This issue has recently reoccurred as CO2 in-
jection is employed for the extraction of natural gas. Generally, the
presence of CO2, H2S and water leads to a very severe corrosion be-
haviour in the oil wells and in the pipelines transporting oil and gas as
well. Such a corrosion phenomenon is affected by temperature, the
amounts of CO2 and H2S, impurities in water, liquid velocity and the
chemical composition of the steel. The cost for corrosion problem
the presence of CO2 and H2S gases, corrosion occurs inside the pipeline
and, as a result, it is hard to detect before a major damage is done. Also,
since the corrosion resistant alloys that can be used for transportation
purposes are expensive and make the whole process economically un-
tenable, low carbon steels are favorably used for pipeline applications
[4–7].
Based on ASTM D1945 standard, the chemical composition of nat-
ural gas should contain about 0.01–20 mol% CO2 and 0.01–30 mol%
H2S. Low carbon steels have been widely used in oil and gas industries
due mainly to their good mechanical properties [8,9] together with low
cost of production. The main drawback of these steels is their weakness
against CO2 corrosion [10–14]. Such a corrosion was observed in sev-
eral formats including uniform corrosion, localized corrosion and even
erosion-corrosion. For example, pitting corrosion was reported in the
oil wells under low fluidity and in dew point conditions. In such con-
ditions the pitting corrosion tendency increases with increasing the
temperature and the pressure of CO2 gas. As well, CO2 corrosion in the

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: hashemmousavi@gmail.com, hashemmousavi@srbiau.ac.ir (S.H.M. Anijdan).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpvp.2019.02.019
Received 10 November 2018; Received in revised form 23 January 2019; Accepted 25 February 2019
Available online 01 March 2019
0308-0161/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M. Asadian, et al.
presence of water is the most common type of corrosion in oil and gas
industry as the dry CO2 would not lead to corrosion. The mechanism of
CO2 corrosion in the presence of water was explored extensively
[15–18]. For this corrosion to occur, several steps should be taken.
Firstly, the CO2 gas dissolves in water and forms H2CO3 acid, which is a
comparatively weak acid, as follows [11–16]:
CO2(aq) + H2 O = H2 CO3 (1)
H2S gas can dissolve in water, oil and alcohol. It is a weak acid, but
very dangerous for human due to its toxicity. When dissolved in water,
it can cause corrosion of metals. Oil wells with higher than 10 ppm H2S
are considered as sour. When the acidic gas is H2S, the corrosion pro-
ducts will be iron sulfide which is a film with very low adhesion
properties. Although protective characteristics of FeS layer is better
than iron carbonate, for the FeS to be protective, sufficient amount of
H2S needs to be available [19–23]. Corrosion of low carbon steels in the
presence of H2S causes significant damages to the oil and gas equipment
as well as the pipeline. In such a condition, the formation of a surface
layer is critical to achieve low corrosion rate. And the growth of the
layers is dependent on their formation kinetics. Various types of iron
sulfides can be formed in the presence of H2S. They are Cubic ferrous
sulfide, Mackinawite, Amorphous ferrous sulfide and Troilite.
Perdomo et al. [24] investigated the corrosion behaviour of API 5L
X52 and API 5L Grade B in NaCl solution in an environment containing
CO2 and H2S gases. They found that at constant partial pressure of H2S,
increasing the partial pressure of CO2 increases corrosion rate. Schmitt
et al. [25] investigated the effect of temperature, Cl ion concentration,
anions, cations and also preventives on the pitting corrosion arising
from 5 bars CO2 gas on low alloy steels. They reported that the steels
are prone to pitting corrosion in such a condition and concluded that
adding Pb element could acceptably reduce pitting corrosion in these
steels. Videm et al. [26] showed that pitting corrosion of carbon steel in
CO2 environment is independent of Cl ion concentration. Ma et al. [27]
observed that under the condition of low concentration of H2S, pH
between 3 and 5, and a relatively long immersion time (more than 2 h),
a good protection can be made. Abelev et al. [28] reported that only
5 ppm H2S gas together with CO2 is sufficient to prevent corrosion from
occurring. Sun and Nesic [29] investigated corrosion mechanism in the
presence of H2S by weight reduction method. They found that Mack-
inawite is the main corrosion product which forms due to the direct
reaction of H2S with Fe. Their model predicts that corrosion rate is a
function of the concentration of H2S, temperature, the velocity of the
fluid and the Mackinawite layer characteristics. The amount of layer
formed is dependent on the corrosion or precipitation rate and the layer
can be destroyed due to mechanical damage or chemical reaction.
Schmitt et al. [25] investigated the effect of temperature, Cl ion con-
centration, anions, cations and also preventives on the pitting corrosion
resulting from 5 bar CO2 gas on low alloy steels. Subsequently, they
reported that these steels are prone to pitting corrosion. They also
showed that adding Pb element could prevent localized corrosion, of
which pitting corrosion is a type of, from happening. As well, Videm
et al. [26] showed that the pitting corrosion of carbon steels in CO2
environment is independent of Cl ion concentration.
Although numerous investigations were performed on the sour
corrosion and their associated problems, there is still shortages of
comprehensive understanding of sour corrosion in pipeline steels. This
is particularly the case when both CO2 and H2S gases are present in the
environment. Therefore, it was one of the objective of this research to
investigate the effect of temperature, H2S and CO2 on the sour corrosion
behaviour of ASTM A-106 Grade A pipeline steel. The research was
intended to be performed through various electrochemical techniques
as well as EDS spectroscopy and SEM microscopy analyses.
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International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 171 (2019) 184–193
Table 1
Chemical composition of the steel used for corrosion analysis (wt%).
C Si Mn P S Fe
ASTM A-106 Grade A 0.25 0.1 0.27–0.93 0.035 0.035 Balance
Analyzed sample 0.11 0.07 0.72 0.021 0.013 Balance
2. Materials and experimental procedure
2.1. Sample preparation
Samples were prepared based on ASTM G1 standard. ASTM A-106
Grade A steel samples, used mainly for oil and gas transportation, were
employed for the corrosion experiments. Quantometery analysis was
performed to confirm the chemical analysis of the samples. Table 1
gives the chemical analysis of the steel based on the standard and also
its quantometer results. In this table 0.1% Si was put as the minimum
amount for the standard condition. Instead, a range of composition was
defined for Mn. For the rest of alloying elements, the maximum amount
from the standard are written in this table. Table 1 shows that the
quantometer results are similar to the standard composition.
Samples with 1 cm by 1 cm dimensions were cut to satisfy ASTM G1
standard, and a copper wire, used to transfer the current, was soldered
on the surface of the samples. Extra surfaces were covered by cold
mount. Samples were grinded by different sand papers and rinsed with
ethanol. Samples were then dried to prevent surface oxidation.
2.2. Solution preparation
Solutions with different concentrations of acids were prepared. For
this purpose, first of all, distilled water was used to prepare a 150 ml
solution. Since salt always exist during the extraction of oil and gas
products, and to consider its adverse effect on the corrosion behaviour,
3 wt% NaCl were added to the solutions. High purity nitrogen injection
were added to the solution for 60 min. This nitrogen injection removed
oxygen content of the solution and reduced its effect on corrosion
characteristics. In the next step, CO2 gas was injected for 2 h to reach a
saturated state. This CO2 gas injection reduced pH of the solution. In the
saturated condition, the pH value would be stabilized. The pH was
measured during and after reaching the saturation condition. The pH of
the saturated condition was in the range of 3.8–4. The pH was measured
with the precision of ± 0.01. The same procedure was employed for
temperatures of 25 °C, 45 °C, 65 °C and 85 °C.
In the next step, 200 ppm H2S was added to the solution to explore
the effect of both CO2 and H2S gases on the corrosion behaviour. For
safety consideration, it was not possible to add more than this amount
of H2S. Previously, due to the toxic nature of H2S gas, it used to be
added to the solution under pressurized autoclave by direct injection of
this gas to the solution. To avoid this process, a simpler process of
producing H2S in the solution by chemical reaction was employed. The
key point for this reaction is to have it completed fully in a way that all
reactants are transformed to the products. Due to its high decomposi-
tion constant, sulfuric acid (H2SO4) was chosen as a suitable candidate
to react with Na2S. The reaction to produce the required H2S gas as
follows:
H2 SO4(aq) + Na2 S(s) Na2 SO4(aq) + H2 S(aq) (2)
The calculations below give the required ingredient to produce
200 ppm H2S as a solution in 150 ml electrolyte.
1 mol Na2 S 1 mol H2 S 34.08 g H2 S
1g Na2 S × × × = 0.4367 g H2 S
78.04 g Na2 S 1 mol Na2 S 1 mol H2 S
M. Asadian, et al.
0.4367
× 106 = 2911 ppm H2 S
150
1 g Na2 S 2911 ppm H2 S
= x = 0.0687 g Na2 S
x g Na2 S 200 ppm H2 S
1 g Na2 S 2911 ppm H2 S
= x = 0.0687 g Na2 S
x g Na2 S 200 ppm H2 S
The coefficient of 1.1 was used in the above equation as it was as-
sumed that all H2SO4 were consumed and H2SO4 was the rate con-
trolling factor. Since 98% purity acid was used in this investigation,
8 ml H2SO4 of 0.1 M together with 0.068gr Na2S were added to the
electrolyte. Electrochemical analyses were performed at 1 atm and at
temperatures of 25 °C, 45 °C, 65 °C, 85 °C to understand the effect of
temperature on the corrosion rate.
2.3. Electrochemical tests
A three electrode potentiometer set up was used for the polarization
of the samples. ASTM A-106 Grade A carbon steel with the surface area
of 1 cm2 was used as the working electrode (WE). A platinum electrode
was used as the auxiliary, or counting electrode (CE) and a fixed po-
tential electrode of Ag/AgCl type was used as the reference electrode
(RE). Firstly, open circuit potential (OCP) test was performed in the
electrolyte to reach a stabilized condition. Then, electrochemical im-
pedance spectroscopy was performed sequentially with respect to OCP
of the steel electrode in the electrolyte based on ASTM G106 standard
in the voltage range of ± 10 mV and in the frequency range of 10 KHz
to 10 mHz. Finally, potentiodynamic tests were carried out. ZView™
version 2.70 software was used to model the data obtained from the
impedance tests. Potential range of ± 300 mV with respect to OCP with
the scan rate of 1 mV/s was used for potentiodynamic tests. Corrosion
density and corrosion rate were defined based on ASTM G102 standard
from tafel polarization corrosion curves and investigating their linear
section by extrapolation method. It is important to mention that for the
purpose of repeatability of the electrochemical tests, all OCP,
Potentiodynamic polarization and EIS tests were repeated three times.
In each case, the average of three tests is reported. Also, considering the
fact that the polarization test is a destructive one, EIS test and then
polarization test were performed continuously.
2.4. Microscopic analysis
The samples were removed from the electrochemical cell and their
surfaces were rinsed by distilled water then dried by hot air. Surface
morphology of the samples were investigated by Scanning Electon
Microscope, model Phlips XL 30, equipped with EDS analyzor.
Corrosion products were analyzed by energy dispersive X-ray spectro-
scopy (EDS).
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Electrochemistry test results
Generally, in all electrochemical tests, a thin electrical layer is
formed in the electrolyte on the metal surface from the available ions.
The formation time of this layer may vary from few minutes to few
hours depending on the available ions, electrical conductivity of the
electrolyte, and the metal type. For this reason, OCP test was initially
performed on the sample to make sure of the stability of the steel in the
environment. This OCP varies by time as it takes some time for the layer
on the surface to be a double electrical layer. The way OCP an electrode
varies by time depends on many factors. Even to reach a constant OCP,
the type of the electrode and the chemical composition of the electro-
lyte are important [30]. Usually for plain carbon steel it is expected for
this OCP to reach a constant value very fast in an environment
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International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 171 (2019) 184–193
Fig. 1. OCP of ASTM A-106 Grade A steel in a solution of 3 wt% NaCl saturated
with CO2 gas.
containing CO2 and H2S, which was the case in this investigation. The
later potential tests were conducted after reaching this constant value of
OCP. Fig. 1 shows OCP of ASTM A-106 Grade A steel in electrolytes
containing CO2 gas. As can be seen in this figure the OCP values became
more negative as the temperature of the electrolytes increased. This is
an indication of more active role of the steel immersed in the electrolyte
at higher temperatures. In fact, this shows that the steel is more excited
at higher temperatures and more prone to corrosion as well. This is
clear by moving the potential of the steel surface to more active ones.
The main cause of this behaviour is due to the fact that temperature
changes the structure of the electrical double-layer and also changes the
concentration of the redox in the periphery of the electrode surface.
Sensible changes of the potential for the samples could also be due to
more active ions of carbonate or bicarbonate on the surface which
moves the ions in the solution to more active potentials. Changes in the
concentration of the redox in the solution is highly dependent on the
temperature. Any temperature changes can significantly affect the
concentration of the electrode surface and as the result increases the
surface activities and metal dissolution. The downward trend in the
OCP curves is indicative of the lack of passive layer formation at the
interface of steel/electrolyte. Since the elements forming the passive
layers, such as Cr and Mo, did not exist in the chemical composition of
this steel, the passive films, therefore, were not form.
Similar to the above method, OCP of the electrode immersed in the
electrolyte was performed prior to the electrochemical tests to measure
the effect of H2S gas on the corrosion behaviour as well. Fig. 2 shows
the results of this test for ASTM A-106 Grade A steel in a 3 wt% NaCl
electrolyte saturated with CO2 and containing 200 ppm H2S for tem-
peratures of 25 °C, 45 °C, 65 °C and 85 °C. Similar to the above test, in
this condition too, the higher temperatures results indicate more ac-
tivities on the metal surface. The changes of OCP to the more negative
potential is more clear at higher temperatures. Comparing the results of
Fig. 2 with Fig. 1 implies that adding H2S moves the OCP of the elec-
trode to more negative values. This trend is observed at all tempera-
tures and the ratio of OCP potential decrement for all four temperatures
is the same and irrespective of the temperature. Adding H2S gas to the
solution increases positive and negative ions in the electrolyte. As well,
due to the presence of more redox in the electrolyte close to the surface,
lower OCP of the plain carbon steel was predictable.
To measure the corrosion rate, tafel polarization tests were per-
formed by potentiostat equipment in a way that selective current causes
cathodic or anodic polarization on the electrode's surface. To measure
the corrosion rate, first of all, corrosion current or corrosion current
M. Asadian, et al. International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 171 (2019) 184–193

Table 2
Parameters obtained from tafel polarization curves of the steel in the solution
saturated with CO2 gas and without H2S.
Temperature (oC) Corrosion Icorr (μA/cm2) Anodic Cathodic
potential (V) slope (V/ slope (V/
dec.) dec)

25 −0.601 ± 0.006 249 ± 2 0.117 0.151

45 −0.681 ± 0.005 453 ± 4 0.112 0.088
65 −0.742 ± 0.008 2739 ± 3 0.397 0.206
85 −0.794 ± 0.007 5517 ± 5 0.696 0.799

Fig. 2. OCP of ASTM A-106 Grade A pipeline steel in 3 wt% NaCl saturated with
CO2 and 200 ppm H2S gases.

Fig. 4. Corrosion rate for ASTM A-106 Grade A carbon steel in the solution
saturated with CO2 gas at different temperatures of the solution.

equation (3) as follows [31,32]:

M
Corrosion Rate = 3.268 × Icorr ×
n (3)

Where M is atomic weight of Fe which is equal to 55.85 gr/mole, n is

the number of electrons exchanged in the corrosion reaction which was
two, ρ is the density of Fe that is equal to 7.38 gr/cm3. Fig. 4 gives the
Fig. 3. Tafel polarization curves for ASTM A-106 Grade A carbon steel in 3 wt%
corrosion rates obtained based on mpy.
NaCl saturated with CO2 and without H2S.
Also, Fig. 5 and Table 3 give the effect of temperature on the cor-
rosion behaviour, obtained from tafel polarization tests, of the steel at
density is measured. The method is applicable only when corrosion
evenly occurs on the surface of the electrode. Otherwise, localized areas
of anodic polarization should be considered for the calculation of real
corrosion rate [31,32]. Fig. 3 shows the results of tafel polarization tests
for the conditions of the solutions explained above. The general trend is
in a way that the curves move to the bottom right as the temperature of
the solution rises. Also, in these curves, up to the anodic potential, in
which the samples were polarized, no sign of passivation is observed.
Generally, increasing the temperature increases the kinetics of the
electrochemical reactions. Therefore, with increasing the temperature,
the corrosion reaction will be faster and corrosion resistance will be
lower. This is the reason as to why with increasing the temperature of
the environment, polarization curves shifted towards higher corrosion
current density.
Polarization tests give useful data about the surface of the samples
immersed in the electrolyte. Table 2 gives, based on analysis of ASTM
G102 standard, such useful electrochemical data. They are corrosion
potential, anodic current density, anodic and cathodic slops. As can be
seen in this table, with increasing the temperature, the corrosion po-
tential moved to more negative region which is an indication of high
activity of the metal. Corrosion current density was obtained from the Fig. 5. Tafel polarization curves for the steel in the 3 wt% NaCl solution satu-
extrapolation of the tafel area in the polarization curves based on rated by CO2 and 200 ppm H2S gases.

187
M. Asadian, et al.
Table 3
Parameters obtained from tafel polarization curves for the steel in the 3 wt% NaCl solution saturated by CO2 and 200 ppm H2S gases at different temperatures.
Temperature (oC) H2S (ppm) Corrosion potential (V)
25 200 −0.681 ± 0.005
45 200 −0.732 ± 0.004
65 200 −0.795 ± 0.005
85 200 −0.822 ± 0.006
the presence of both gases of CO2 and H2S. As can be seen in Fig. 5,
similar to the previous case (Fig. 4), increasing the temperature in-
creased corrosion current density. It can also be seen in this figure that
only active behaviour from anodic half reaction is obtained for tem-
peratures below 65 °C. While at 65 °C a small amount of passive-active
behaviour can be seen and at 85 °C more of this behaviour is observed.
In fact, in the presence of both gases and at higher temperatures, a
passive layer is formed on the metal surface when the potential is in-
creased. This passive layer prevents, to a great extent, corrosion rate
increment. There is a possibility that this layer is not stable and will be
detached from the surface after some time [31,32]. This is due to the
fact that with increasing the concentration of the sour gases, the
number of attacking ions increased and the surface of the steel was
under attack more than before. Therefore, the corrosion rate after the
polarization tests was increased at higher concentrations of the sour
gases.
Another point in the polarization curves is in the cases of with and
without H2S, both anodic and cathodic branches of the tafel curve move
towards higher current densities with increasing the temperature. This
implies a higher exchanged current density at higher temperatures. It
can therefore be deducted that temperature plays a significant role on
anodic and cathodic reactions. Indeed, with increasing the temperature
the dissolution rate of Fe in the electrolyte increases together with
higher cathodic reactions on the steel surface. Moreover, increasing the
temperature of the solution increased the slopes of anodic and cathodic
tafel curves. The slope is higher when 200 ppm H2S was present in the
solution, hence the limit of cathodic current is observable. The presence
of H2S produces oxidation agents such as HS− and S2− in the electro-
lyte in a two steps process. Although HS− is weaker than acids such as
HCl or H2SO4, it is capable of reacting with Fe ions to form an iron
sulfide layer. The formation of this iron sulfide layer increases the
chance of corrosion by HS− compared to other agents that provide
protons. Consequently, the corrosion rate is only dependent on the
amount of H2S, HS− ions, free metal (uncoated surface of the metal)
and temperature. Therefore, the formation of surface layer is one of the
most important factor on the corrosion rate. The growth of the layer is
dependent on the kinetics of the formation of the layer [34,35]. Only
iron carbonate precipitates are formed in case merely CO2 corrosion is
present. However, when H2S is present, different types of Fe sulfides
such as amorphous Fe sulfide, Mackinawite, Cubic ferrous sulfide,
Greigite, FeeS phases, pyrrhotite, Troilite, pyrite (FeS2) form. Among
these products, the Mackinawite layer is firstly formed on the surface by
a direct reaction. When there are several agents in the solution, a
competition is present among them to form as the surface layer. If the
amount of H2S gas is lower than CO2, the formation of iron sulfide layer
will be mixed with the formation of FeCO3 layer. Not only the forma-
tion of the layers from these two gases is dependent on the solubility of
carbonate and sulfide layer, but also the competition between these two
layers is important as well. The iron sulfide layer is an insulator which
can prevent corroding ions from entering the metal surface. In fact, it
can play a detective layer and reduces the bared metal surface from
being exposed to the corroding environment. Generally, the adhesion
and protective properties of iron sulfide layer is higher than FeCO3
layer. In spite of this, the iron sulfide layer cannot be used to fully
prevent corrosion. One of the main problems with this layer is the
mixing of Fe and S by non-stoichiometric ratio in the crystalline
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International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 171 (2019) 184–193
Icorr(μA/cm2) Anodic slope (V/dec.) Cathodic slope (V/dec)
1662 ± 4 0.125 0.238
3518 ± 6 0.687 0.606
7447 ± 5 0.117 0.146
33373 ± 7 0.099 0.054
structure of iron sulfide. Consequently, there are many defects in this
non-uniform layer [32–34].
Overall, H2S gas is three times more soluble than CO2 gas. But the
acid formed by H2S gas in the solution is three times weaker than the
carbonite acid. Therefore, the effect of H2S in reducing pH is almost
similar to CO2. Another issue is, unlike CO2 dissolution, H2S gas does
not need to be hydrated for the acid formation, hence for the faster
kinetics of its reaction [35]. It was claimed that the level of surface
protection against corrosion in the presence of H2S gas is highly de-
pendent on the pH of the electrolyte. In very low pH condition (below
2), free iron ions are available in the solution and iron sulfide has a high
solubility in the electrolyte. Therefore, in this pH range, iron sulfide
does not precipitate on the metal surface and H2S only plays an ac-
celerating role for the iron dissolution reaction. Whereas, if the pH is
between 3 and 5, due to the formation of iron sulfide layer, part of the
surface would be covered and there will be higher corrosion resistance
for the metal. Though, if H2S concentration increases, such an increase
in concentration would increase bisulfide (HS−) ions in the solution
and eventually weakens the film formed on the surface [32,34]. Fig. 6
clearly shows such an increase in the corrosion rate with changing the
temperature. For example, at 85 °C, the corrosion rate is 93.55 mpy,
which is a relatively high value.
Since electrochemical reactions are dependent on temperature, it
can be said that the main effect of temperature is to enhance the ki-
netics of anodic and cathodic reactions on the surface of the electrode.
Such an enhancement leads to an increase in the anodic and cathodic
currents and subsequently increases total current as well. This increase
in current, in the circuit from the corrosion reaction, means higher
corrosion rate at higher temperature [36,37]. As well, equilibrium
constant (K) for the reactions on the metal surface is another important
factor. The constant of a reaction is dependent on the temperature of
the surrounding environment. Therefore, it is expected that a reaction
will be non-equilibrium as the temperature rises and consequently its
Fig. 6. Corrosion rate of the steel in 3 wt% NaCl solution saturated with CO2
and 200 ppm H2S at 25 °C, 45 °C, 65 °C, 85 °C.
M. Asadian, et al. International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 171 (2019) 184–193

constant increases [37].

In electrochemical impedance spectroscopy method, a broad range
of polarization voltage with low frequency, in the range of 5–10 mV, is
used for the analysis of the coatings, oxide layers and surface reactions.
Such a method also uses cyclic AC voltages in the anodic and cathodic
regions while the system is agitated around the corrosion potential of
the metal. Therefore, useful information is obtained from impedance
curves about the electrical resistance of the solution (Rs), storage ca-
pacity, corrosion resistance (Rp), electrical behaviour of the metal
surface immersed and finally the behaviour of the surface layers, such
as oxides, and coatings, in each frequency. These would enable a true
assessment of the corrosion behaviour together with the surface coat-
ings properties [38].
The interface between the electrode and the electrolyte is assumed
as a double-layer with electrical properties. During the dissolution of
the metal, positive ions get detached from their own crystal structure
and enter the solution. Water molecules of the electrolyte encircle these
free ions and make them hydrated. As the result of the collection of
excess electrons on the other side of the metal surface, a negative Fig. 7. Nyquist plot for ASTM A-106 Grade A carbon steel in 3 wt% NaCl so-
charge is created on the surface which absorbs metal cations dissolved lution saturated with CO2 gas at different temperatures.
in the solution. Therefore, a percentage of these cations get positioned
close to the surface instead of diffusing into the electrolyte. The water
molecules that hydrates the metal cations prevent a direct contact be-
tween the dissolved cations and the metal surface. This condition can be
assumed as an electrical double-layer in the interface of the metal and
the electrolyte. This situation is indicative of the formation of a capa-
citor on the metal-solution interface. As well, active anions, which
electrochemically have tendency for the formation of reduction reac-
tions, are capable of diffusing to the metal surface and taking free
electrons. This is how corrosion reactions advance on the surface.
Therefore, the electrical double-layer has a capacitance capability to-
gether with a resistance capability. And this condition creates a time
constant for the interface of the metal and the electrolyte. As a result,
for the presence of this capacitance layer, the metal-electrolyte inter-
face can be studied by electrochemical impedance method [39,40].
Corrosion reactions under the control of uniform diffusion and
corrosion on a homogenous surface are among the simple corrosion
systems that can be analyzed by a simple equivalent circuit. The com-
patibility between the parameters of the electrochemical system and the
impedance test is defined by such an equivalent circuit. The correlation
between icorr and corrosion resistance can be obtained as follows Fig. 8. Nyquist plot for ASTM A-106 Grade A carbon steel in 3 wt% NaCl so-
[38–41]: lution saturated with CO2 and H2S gases at different temperatures.

B
icorr = imperfect semi-circular rings with temperature is indicative of the effect
Rp (4)
of temperature rise and the presence of H2S gas in the corrosive en-
Where B = 2.3(ba +c b ) and ba and bc are tafel slopes for cathodic and
b b
vironment on the reduction of solution resistance (Rs) as well as on
a c
anodic reactions. lowering the corrosion resistance (Rp). It is clear from these curves that
And the impedance for the circuit is obtained as follows: no other temperature constant is added to the equivalent circuit.
2
Direct Loop Extrapolation, Fitting Curve and Equivalent Electrical
2
Rp Rp Circuit methods are used to obtain various parameters of impedance. In
Z Rs + (Z ) 2 =
2 2 (5) equivalent electrical circuit method, by assuming an equivalent circuit,
Rp wCRp2 a mathematical model that describes the kinetics of corrosion reaction
Where Z = Rs + and. Z = is build and the laboratory data are assessed based on this equation.
(wCRp)2 1 + (wCRp)2
Equation (5) is for the half circle of Nyquist plot. Rp, which is called ZPlot and ZView softwares, produced by Solarton Inc., were used in this
polarization resistance, is the diameter of this half circle [40–43]. research for this purpose.
The information obtained from electrochemical impedance tests are The Nyquist curve obtained is in the form of depressed semi-circle
shown in different ways. One of the most common ways is by Nyquist with the center of the circle below the actual axis. Usually, this beha-
curve where virtual impedance (Z″) versus real impedance (Z′) for each viour is related to the non-uniformity and roughness of the surface. To
frequency is plotted. Fig. 7 shows the Nyquist plot for virtual im- fit the data in this condition, a circuit with the maximum compatibility
pedance (Z″) versus real impedance (Z’) for each frequency of the steel and minimum error should be employed. Therefore, a Constant Phase
in the 3 wt% NaCl solution saturated with CO2. Fig. 8 also shows Ny- Element (CPE) was used instead of a capacitor in the equivalent circuit.
quist plot for the steel in the 3 wt% solution saturated with both gases at A Constant Phase Element (CPE) is considered as a parallel capacitor
different temperatures of 25 °C, 45 °C, 65 °C and 85 °C. with a resistance and its equation as follows:
As can be seen in Figs. 7 and 8, all curves obtained from the im-
ZCPE = Y 0 1 (j ) n
(6)
pedance test consist of a semi-circular one capacity ring which extends
from high frequencies to low frequencies. The changes of these Where Y0 is the representative of the capacitor characteristic in the

189
M. Asadian, et al. International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 171 (2019) 184–193

Fig. 9. Equivalent circuit for the assessment of electrochemical impedance

curves.

Table 4
Parameters obtained from electrochemical impedance curves of the steel in the
3 wt% NaCl solution saturated with CO2 gas at different temperatures.
Temperature (oC) RSolution (Ω.cm2) RSteel (Ω.cm2) Y × 104 (sn/cm2 Ω) n

25 0.029 ± 0.002 2229 ± 8 1.85 0.92

45 0.017 ± 0.002 1458 ± 7 2.06 0.84
65 0.009 ± 0.001 932 ± 6 2.88 0.79
85 0.002 ± 0.001 563 ± 4 3.31 0.71

Table 5 Fig. 10. Bode curves for the steel in 3 wt% NaCl saturated with CO2 gas at
Parameters obtained from electrochemical impedance curves of the steel in the different temperatures.
3 wt% NaCl solution saturated with CO2 and H2S gases at different tempera-
tures.
Temperature (oC) H2S (ppm) RSolution (Ω.cm2) RSteel (Ω. Y × 104 n
cm2) (sn/
cm2.Ω)

25 200 0.022 ± 0.002 886 ± 6 8.34 0.90

45 200 0.014 ± 0.002 582 ± 4 11.32 0.83
65 200 0.008 ± 0.001 351 ± 4 15.09 0.76
85 200 0.001 ± 0.001 187 ± 3 23.79 0.70

equivalent circuit, and n is a depressed factor that is dependent on the

characteristics and geometry of the surface etc. As a result, based on the
impedance curves, the equivalent circuit of these curves should be
consisted of a constant phase element and two resistances (one as
parallel resistance of the constant phase element and another one in a
series) in the form of Fig. 9. The parameters obtained from the assess-
ment of the curves with such an equivalent circuit are given in Tables 4
and 5. The single ring feature of the Nyquist curves is due to the fact
that the passive layers did not form on the surface of the steel of this
research [38–43]. This, as explained above, is due to the absence of
passive layer forming elements such as Cr and Mo in the chemical
composition of the steel, making the Nyquist curve a single ring char-
acteristic.
As can be seen in the impedance test curves of Figs. 7 and 8, the
diameters of the curves are small which indicate a low corrosion re-
sistance of the steel in the electrolyte. It can also be seen in Tables 4 and
5 that both resistances (solution resistance and polarization resistance)
reduce by increasing the temperature. It can also be seen in these data
that the value of the resistance is lower in solutions with H2S compared
with the solutions without H2S. In fact, the conductivity and electrical
solution activity is higher in solutions containing H2S, which leads to a
higher corrosion rate in the electrolyte. These results confirm the results
obtained from tafel polarization test. Other than this issue, in other
aspects, the behaviour is similar to the one before and no divergence is
seen.
Other methods of expressing impedance data are Bode curves
(logarithm of impedance versus logarithm of frequency) and Bode-
Phase curves (the angle of phase versus logarithm of frequency).
Usually these curves are shown with Nyquist curve to complete them
and to not confuse the number of time constants from the impedance
data. This is due to the fact that there might be several indistinguishable
time constants in a Nyquist plot. However, with Bode curves and Bode-
Phase curves, all time constants can be recognized correctly and better
assessment of the corrosion reaction can be made. Figs. 10 and 11 show
Fig. 11. Bode-Phase curves for the steel in 3 wt% NaCl saturated with CO2 gas
at different temperatures.
the Bode curves and Bode-Phase curves for the steel in 3 wt% NaCl
saturated with CO2. Also these curves for the solution containing both
gases of CO2 and H2S are shown in Figs. 12 and 13.
As can be seen in Figs. 10 and 11, with the help of Bode curves and
Bode-Phase curves, the presence of a time constant in the related
equivalent circuit was confirmed in all electrolytes and at all tem-
peratures. All Bode curves (Figs. 10 and 12) have a negative slope due
to the existence of a double-layer capacitor behaviour. And the pre-
sence of only one negative slope in these curves confirms that a time
constant exists. In addition, in the Bode-Phase curves (Figs. 11 and 13),
a curvature is seen at the minimum value of phase angle due to the
capacitor behaviour. The uniqueness of this curvature is another con-
firmation for the presence of only one time constant. It is important to
emphasis that, based on the Bode and Bode-Phase curves, the electrode
in these electrolytes only has one time constant since there is only one
negative slope observable in the curve. The double-layer on the surface
has a capacitor behaviour and is shown as a constant phase element
(CPE) in the equivalent electrical current. As a general rule, for the
double-layer and the capacitance, the more capacitance that the
double-layer has, the more charge would be accommodated on the
surface of this layer. In fact, in such a situation, the layer would have

190
M. Asadian, et al.
Fig. 12. Bode curves for the steel in 3 wt% NaCl saturated with CO2 and H2S
gases at different temperatures.
Fig. 13. Bode-Phase curves for the steel in 3 wt% NaCl saturated with CO2 and
H2S gases at different temperature.
more capability to exchange electrical charges [38–41]. It can therefore
be concluded that the higher tendency of the metal to participate in the
corrosion reactions (charge carrying reactions) on the surface is cor-
related to the increase of double-layer capacitance on the surface of that
metal. All impedance curves and parameters indicate that with in-
creasing the temperature and at the presence of H2S, electrolyte re-
sistance and polarization resistance reduce. This condition would in-
crease corrosion rate. Eventually these results would match with the
results obtained from the tafel polarization curves for all temperatures.
3.2. Corrosion products analysis
SEM was used to observe corroded surface of ASTM A-106 Grade A
pipeline steel in the solution with 3 wt% NaCl and saturated with CO2
gas. Also EDS analysis was used to analyze the corrosion products
formed on the surface. The sample was put under tafel polarization test
at 65 °C. Fig. 14 shows SEM micrographs and EDS data obtained from
this sample. These analyses show that after performing the corrosion
test, a weak and unproductive film is formed on the surface. As well,
based on the previous analyses and the EDS results, the chemical
compositions of these products were determined. Such analyses showed
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International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 171 (2019) 184–193
Fig. 14. a) SEM micrograph of the morphology of the steel surface after cor-
rosion test in a 3 wt% NaCl solution saturated with CO2 gas at 65 °C, b) EDS
spectra for this sample.
the presence of elements such as C, O, Fe and a small amount of Cl in
the corrosion products. Correlating with the results of the literature
[36], and considering the elements present on the corroded surface, it
can be deduced that the corrosion products are mixed of FeCO3 and
Fe3C. These products can usually be found in the corrosion of steels in
CO2 environment [1–6,10]. The micrographs and the corrosion pro-
ducts show that corrosion by CO2 is dominant in the system which is
mainly due to the saturation of the environment from CO2 gas.
Iron carbide is a composition of a carbon steel that is detached from
the steel structure and remained on the surface after the corrosion of
steel. The iron carbide film is electrically conductive and highly porous.
It does not have any corrosion resistance capability. Not only this film
cannot reduce corrosion rate, but also it increases the corrosion rate by
increasing active locations on the surface by forming a conductive
bridge between the counting electrode and the sample. Moreover, the
formation of this film leads to the formation of a galvanic couple be-
tween the film and the metal surface. This is a dangerous situation
which could be the main reason for localized corrosion phenomenon
[36].
Iron carbonate film is formed during the reaction of iron ions and
carbonate ions. The precipitation rate of iron carbonate is very slow.
The precipitation of this film occurs only when iron and carbonate ions
are present in the solution above a certain limit. As well, the con-
centration of the carbonate ions is dependent on the pH of the elec-
trolyte which can affect the precipitation of this layer. Therefore, the
concentration of carbonate ions, temperature and pH are the main
factors affecting the precipitation rate of iron carbonate film. The for-
mation of this film coincides with the lower corrosion rate due to the
M. Asadian, et al.
Fig. 15. a) SEM micrograph of the morphology of pipeline steel after corrosion
test in 3 wt% NaCl solution saturated with CO2 and H2S gases at 65 °C, b) EDS
analysis of the sample.
barrier that it makes to prevent corroding agents from entering the
metal surface. Indeed, this layer is an effective one in preventing further
electrochemical corrosion reactions [36].
Fig. 15 shows SEM micrograph together with EDS analysis of the
steel in a 3 wt% NaCl solution saturated with both CO2 and H2S gases at
65 °C. As can be seen in this figure, a non-adhesive film is formed on the
surface of the steel. The composition of this steel contains elements such
as C, Fe, O, and S together with small amount of Na and Cl. The pre-
sence of S on the surface film is indicative of H2S corrosion. As the
amount of H2S was lower than CO2, it is hard to say that H2S corrosion
was the dominant mechanism. Generally, the structure and the cap-
ability of the iron sulfide protective film is dependent on the con-
centration of H2S [41,42]. As well, the capacity of the surface layer for
protection is dependent on the pH of the solution. In low pH regime,
pH < 2, Fe has more tendency to dissolve in the solution. Therefore,
iron sulfide does not precipitate on the metal surface. In this situation,
the presence of iron sulfide leads to a higher dissolution rate of iron.
But, for the pH in the range of 3–5, H2S would have a protective role on
the surface of the electrode due to the formation of iron sulfide. In this
situation, the concentration of H2S has a significant effect on the pro-
tective role of the sulfide layer. On the other hand, the concentration of
H2S is also very important as with the increase of the H2S concentra-
tion, the film would weaken and even the pH in the range of 3–5 cannot
protect the film [36,42].
It is reported that temperature variation does not have much an
effect on the H2S corrosion. Previous findings show that this is due to
the formation of iron sulfide layer and in fact the corrosion rate is
controlled at the presence of iron sulfide in the surface film [43].
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International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 171 (2019) 184–193
The structure and the composition of iron sulfide film is highly
dependent on the concentration of H2S gas in the system and the pH of
the solution. For the pH close to the neutral range and at room tem-
perature Mackinawite film would form. While iron sulfide precipitates
for the pH between 5 and 7. The kinetics of iron sulfide formation is
more complex than the one for iron sulfide film [41–44]. If both gases
are present in the solution, the corrosion mechanism of the carbon steel
would be different than the situations explained above. In such a con-
dition, a competition is formed between the two gases to participate in
the corrosion. Generally, H2S gas is three times more soluble than the
CO2 gas. While the acid formed from H2S is three times weaker than the
one formed from carbonic acid. As a result, the effect of H2S on the
reduction of pH is almost similar to the effect of CO2 on the pH. Another
difference is, unlike CO2, the H2S gas does not need to be hydrated to
produce an acid in the solution. The participation of each of these gases
in the corrosion reaction leads to the formation of their precipitates in
the solution. Direct reduction of H2S occurs only when the amount of
H2S is dominant in the solution. In case when the amount of H2S is
lower than CO2, the formation of iron sulfide will be mixed with the
FeCO3 layer. It seems that the iron sulfide detaches from the surface
easier than the FeCO3.
Overall, the kinetics of the layer formation at the presence of H2S
and CO2 is very complex and has not be fully understood yet. The
formation of the layer is not just dependent on the solubility of the
carbonate and sulfide layers; it is rather the competition between the
formation mechanisms of these layers that is very important [41–44]. It
is, however, important to understand that higher concentration of H2S
can lead to higher or lower corrosion rate in the carbon steel. In fact,
the formation of iron sulfide layer is highly dependent on the con-
centration of H2S gas in the solution. Although, the topic is being in-
vestigated in recent years, there are still ambiguity about the formation
mechanism of iron sulfide and it is the subject of the current authors’
ongoing research focus. Therefore, it can be said that any change in the
microstructure of a piece or working environment can affect the cor-
rosion and mechanical properties of the pieces [45–48].
4. Conclusions
The following conclusions were obtained by conducting corrosion
investigation of ASTM A-106 Grade A pipeline steel in 3 wt% NaCl
solution saturated with CO2 and 200 ppm H2S gases at various tem-
peratures.
1 The sour corrosion behaviour of ASTM A-106 Grade A pipeline steel
and the kinetics of surface reactions are highly dependent on the
temperature and its changes. Increasing the temperature of the so-
lution from 25 °C to 85 °C substantially increased corrosion rate of
the steel.
2 EDS analysis showed that FeCO3 and FeS compounds do not have
sufficient stability to protect the metal surface at higher tempera-
tures and cannot form a uniform coating on the surface.
3 Equivalent circuit of the electrical double-layer for the investigated
pipeline steel in an environment containing CO2 and H2S sour gases
consisted of polarization resistance, solution resistance and a con-
stant phase element with capacitance behaviour.
4 Potentiodynamic polarization curves for the investigated pipeline
steel in the environment containing CO2 and H2S sour gases showed
that with increasing temperature, both cathodic and anodic bran-
ches of the tafel curve moved towards higher corrosion current
density.
5 The presence of H2S in the corrosive environment of the pipeline
steel formed oxidation agents such as bisulfide (HS−) and S−2 sul-
fide in the electrolyte. Due to this phenomenon, the corrosion rate of
the steel in the environment was increased five times.
6 All curves and parameters related to the electrochemical impedance
spectroscopy (Nyquist plot, Bode and Bode-Phase curves) indicated
M. Asadian, et al.
that the resistance of the solution is reduced by increasing the
temperature and the presence of H2S in the environment. These
conditions led to a reduction in corrosion resistance of ASTM A-106
Grade A steel in the environment containing sour gases.
Acknowledgment
The authors are grateful of Dr. Siavash Isazadeh's constructive dis-
cussion during the preparation of the manuscript.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpvp.2019.02.019.
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