1. Ancient history of Britain.

Iberia

The ancient history of Britain dates back to the Paleolithic era, over 800,000 years
ago. However, the recorded history of Britain began with the arrival of the Romans
in 43 AD. Prior to this, the island was inhabited by a series of Celtic tribes, such as
the Britons, Picts, and Gaels.
As for Iberia, which is now modern-day Spain and Portugal, it has a rich and
complex ancient history. The region was inhabited by various tribes and peoples,
including the Iberians, Celts, Phoenicians, Greeks, and Romans.
The Iberians were the earliest known inhabitants of the region and were likely of
Mediterranean origin. They were followed by the Celts, who arrived in the 6th
century BC. The Phoenicians established colonies in the southern coastal region
around the same time, followed by the Greeks, who established colonies along the
eastern coast.
The Romans conquered the Iberian Peninsula in the 2nd century BC and
established a province called Hispania. This marked a significant period of
Romanization in the region, as Latin became the dominant language and Roman
culture and architecture spread throughout the region.
After the fall of the Roman Empire, various Germanic tribes, such as the Visigoths
and Vandals, established kingdoms in Iberia. The Moors, who were Muslim North
Africans, conquered the region in the 8th century AD and established the Al-
Andalus caliphate.
The Reconquista, a centuries-long period of Christian reconquest, began in the
11th century and eventually led to the establishment of the Kingdom of Spain in
1492.

2. The Celtic invasion and its significance for the history and culture of
Britain

The Celtic invasion of Britain occurred during the Iron Age, which lasted from
roughly 800 BC to the arrival of the Romans in 43 AD. The Celts were a group of
Indo-European tribes that originated in central Europe and spread across Europe
during this period.
The Celtic invasion had a significant impact on the history and culture of Britain.
The Celts brought with them new technology, such as iron tools and weapons, and
a new social and political structure. They also introduced the Celtic language,
which is still spoken in parts of the British Isles today.
The Celts were known for their warrior culture and their fierce resistance to Roman
rule. Their bravery in battle and their strong sense of community and identity
continue to inspire modern-day Britons and people of Celtic heritage around the
world.
The legacy of the Celtic invasion can still be seen in modern British culture, from
the use of Celtic symbols in art and design to the celebration of Celtic festivals
such as Beltane and Samhain. The Celtic language also continues to be spoken in
areas such as Wales, Scotland, and Ireland. Overall, the Celtic invasion played a
significant role in shaping the history and culture of Britain, and its influence can
still be felt today.

3. Roman conquest of the British Isles

The Roman conquest of the British Isles began in 43 AD, when the Roman
Emperor Claudius ordered an invasion of the island. The Romans saw Britain as a
potential source of wealth and resources, and also as a strategic location that would
help to expand the Roman Empire.
The initial Roman invasion was successful, and the Romans quickly established
control over much of southern Britain. They built roads, forts, and towns
throughout the region, and introduced their language and culture to the local
population.The Roman occupation of Britain had a profound impact on the island's
culture and society. It introduced new technologies and ways of life, and paved the
way for future interactions with the wider Roman Empire. The Romans also left
behind a rich legacy of art, architecture, and literature, which has influenced
Western culture to this day.
4. Anglo-Saxon conquest.

The Anglo-Saxon conquest of Britain began in the 5th century AD, after the
decline and eventual withdrawal of the Roman Empire from Britain. The Anglo-
Saxons were Germanic tribes from what is now Germany, Denmark, and the
Netherlands, who had been migrating to Britain for several centuries before the
conquest.
The Anglo-Saxon invasion was a gradual process that took place over several
generations. The Anglo-Saxons established small kingdoms throughout the eastern
and southern parts of Britain, such as Kent, Sussex, and Wessex.
The Anglo-Saxon conquest had a profound impact on the culture and society of
Britain. The Anglo-Saxons brought with them their own language, Old English,
which gradually replaced the Celtic languages spoken by the native population.
They also introduced new technologies, such as the wheel, iron tools, and new
forms of agriculture.The legacy of the Anglo-Saxon conquest can still be seen in
modern-day Britain, from the English language to the country's political and social
institutions. The Anglo-Saxon period is also seen as a crucial phase in the
development of English identity and culture.

5. Raids of the Danes on the territory of the British Isles. Conquest of the
country by the Danes.
The Danes, also known as the Vikings, began raiding the British Isles in the late
8th century AD. The Vikings were skilled seafarers and warriors who originated
from Scandinavia, and their raids on Britain were motivated by a desire for wealth
and territory.
The Vikings' raids initially targeted monasteries and coastal towns, where they
would plunder treasure and take captives as slaves. Over time, however, the
Vikings' raids became more organized and systematic, and they began to establish
permanent settlements on British soil.The Viking conquest of England was not
complete, however, and the Anglo-Saxon kings of Wessex were able to push back
against the Vikings under the leadership of King Alfred the Great. Alfred and his
successors were eventually able to reconquer much of England from the Vikings,
and by the mid-10th century, the Viking threat had largely subsided.
Despite the relatively brief period of Viking rule in England, the Vikings' impact
on British culture and society was significant. The Vikings introduced new
technologies, such as the longship, and left behind a legacy of place names, such as
the suffix "-by" (meaning village or town) found in many English place names.
The Vikings also influenced English language and literature, with words such as
"berserk" and "skull" originating from Old Norse.

6. Norman conquest. Feudal England.

The Norman Conquest of England took place in 1066 when William, Duke of
Normandy, invaded England and defeated the Anglo-Saxon king, Harold
Godwinson, at the Battle of Hastings. The Norman Conquest marked a major
turning point in English history, as it brought about significant changes in the
country's political, social, and cultural landscape.
One of the key features of the Norman Conquest was the introduction of feudalism
to England. Feudalism was a system of land ownership and social organization that
was prevalent in medieval Europe. Under feudalism, the king granted land to
nobles in exchange for their loyalty and military service. The nobles, in turn,
granted land to lesser lords and knights, who were responsible for raising armies
and providing military support.Another significant change brought about by the
Norman Conquest was the introduction of the French language and culture to
England. The Normans spoke Old French, and their language and customs quickly
became dominant in the country's ruling class. French became the language of the
royal court, the law, and the Church, while English continued to be spoken by the
majority of the population. In summary, the Norman Conquest of England brought
about significant changes in the country's political, social, and cultural landscape.
The introduction of feudalism, the French language and culture, and the Norman
style of art and architecture all had a lasting impact on English society and identity.
7. Early Middle Ages. The Hundred Years' War and the War of the Roses.
The Early Middle Ages, also known as the Medieval Period, spanned roughly from
the 5th to the 15th century. During this time, Europe underwent significant
political, social, and cultural changes, including the rise of feudalism, the spread of
Christianity, and the development of trade and commerce.The Hundred Years' War
was a series of conflicts fought between England and France from 1337 to 1453.
The war began when King Edward III of England, who had a claim to the French
throne through his mother, challenged the legitimacy of the French king, Philip VI.
The war was fought on French soil and saw a series of English victories, including
the famous Battle of Agincourt in 1415.
However, the tide of the war eventually turned in favor of the French, who were
able to push the English back and ultimately reclaim their territories. The Hundred
Years' War had a profound impact on both England and France, as it solidified the
idea of national identity and sparked a sense of patriotism and pride in both
countries.
The War of the Roses was a series of civil wars fought in England between two
rival branches of the royal House of Plantagenet: the House of Lancaster and the
House of York. The war was fought from 1455 to 1485 and saw a series of battles
and sieges, including the famous Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485, where King
Richard III was killed and the Tudor dynasty was established.In conclusion, the
Hundred Years' War and the War of the Roses were two major conflicts that
shaped the course of English history and had a lasting impact on the country's
identity and culture. These wars marked the end of the Medieval Period and the
beginning of the Early Modern Era, which saw the rise of powerful monarchies,
the exploration of new worlds, and the emergence of new ideas and technologies.

8. The Tudor dynasty and its contribution to the development of the country.

The Tudor dynasty was a royal family that ruled England from 1485 to 1603, and
is widely considered as one of the most influential and significant periods in
English history. The Tudors are known for their contributions to the arts,
architecture, and politics, which helped to shape the country and solidify its
position as a world power.
One of the most significant contributions of the Tudor dynasty was the
establishment of the Church of England. King Henry VIII, the second Tudor
monarch, broke away from the Catholic Church in the 16th century and established
the Church of England as the official religion of the country. This move had a
profound impact on English society and helped to establish a sense of national
identity that was independent from Rome.The Tudor era also saw significant
advancements in architecture and engineering, with the construction of iconic
buildings such as Hampton Court Palace and St. Paul's Cathedral. These structures
helped to shape the landscape of England and showcased the power and wealth of
the Tudor monarchs.
In conclusion, the Tudor dynasty made significant contributions to the
development of England in a number of areas, including religion, the arts, trade
and commerce, and architecture. The Tudor era marked a period of significant
change and innovation in England, which helped to solidify the country's position
as a dominant force in world affairs.

9. Britain during the reign of the Stuart dynasty.

The Stuart dynasty was a royal family that ruled England, Scotland, and Ireland
from 1603 to 1714. The Stuart period was marked by significant political,
religious, and cultural changes, including the English Civil War, the rise of
Puritanism, and the Glorious Revolution.
The early Stuart period was marked by religious conflict between Protestants and
Catholics. King James I, the first Stuart monarch, attempted to reconcile the two
factions with his policy of religious toleration, but ultimately failed to prevent
conflict from erupting. This culminated in the English Civil War, which was
fought between 1642 and 1651, and saw the overthrow of the monarchy and the
establishment of a republic under Oliver Cromwell.However, the Stuart period also
saw significant political upheaval, particularly with the Glorious Revolution of
1688. This event saw the overthrow of King James II, the last Stuart monarch, and
the establishment of the constitutional monarchy. The Glorious Revolution was a
significant event in British history, as it cemented the principles of parliamentary
sovereignty and the rule of law.
The Stuart period also saw significant developments in literature and the arts.
Some of the greatest literary works in English history were produced during this
time, including John Milton's Paradise Lost and John Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress.
The period also saw the rise of the scientific revolution, with major discoveries and
breakthroughs in fields such as physics, astronomy, and biology.
In conclusion, the Stuart period was a significant era in British history, marked by
political, religious, and cultural changes. While the period was characterized by
significant conflict and upheaval, it also saw significant achievements in literature,
the arts, and science. The legacy of the Stuart period can still be seen in modern
British culture and politics, and it remains an important chapter in the country's
history.
10. Industrial revolution and changes in the political life of Great Britain

The Industrial Revolution was a period of significant economic and social change
that took place in Great Britain during the late 18th and early 19th centuries. It was
marked by the emergence of new technologies, such as the steam engine and the
power loom, which transformed the manufacturing process and led to the growth
of factories and industrial cities.
The Industrial Revolution had a profound impact on British society, both
economically and politically. The growth of industry and the rise of the middle
class led to significant changes in the country's political landscape. The power and
influence of the landed aristocracy began to decline, while the middle class gained
greater political influence and began to demand more representation in
government.The Industrial Revolution also had a significant impact on British
society in other ways. The growth of industry led to a significant increase in
urbanization, as people moved from rural areas to the cities in search of work. This
led to the growth of slums and poor living conditions, which led to social and
political unrest.
The growth of industry also had a significant impact on the economy. The
production of goods increased dramatically, and new industries such as textiles and
iron production emerged. This led to a significant increase in economic growth and
prosperity, as well as the emergence of new markets and trading partners.
In conclusion, the Industrial Revolution had a profound impact on British society,
both economically and politically. It led to the growth of industry and the rise of
the middle class, which transformed the country's political landscape and led to
significant reforms in government. The legacy of the Industrial Revolution can still
be seen in modern British society, and it remains a significant period in the
country's history

11. Victorian England and the formation of the British Empire.

Victorian England, which lasted from 1837 to 1901, was a time of significant
transformation for Britain and the world. During this period, Britain underwent
rapid industrialization and urbanization, leading to increased wealth and power. At
the same time, the country expanded its empire to become the largest in history,
encompassing nearly a quarter of the world's population and landmass.The spread
of British influence was facilitated by the growth of the British Empire, which
included colonies and territories in Africa, Asia, and the Pacific. This expansion
was driven by a desire for resources, markets, and power, and was often
accompanied by violence and exploitation. The empire brought wealth and prestige
to Britain, but also created tensions and conflicts, both within the country and with
other nations.
The Victorian era was also a time of significant social and cultural change. The
middle class grew in size and influence, while working-class movements and labor
unions emerged to fight for better conditions and rights. The period also saw
significant reforms in education, healthcare, and social welfare, as well as the rise
of new cultural movements such as the Arts and Crafts movement and the Pre-
Raphaelites.
Overall, Victorian England played a significant role in the formation of the British
Empire, helping to shape the modern world through its economic, political, and
cultural influence. However, this period was also marked by deep social and
economic inequalities, as well as the exploitation of many people and resources
across the globe.

12. Great Britain in the twentieth century.

The 20th century was a period of significant change and upheaval for Great
Britain. Here are some of the key events and developments that shaped the country
during this time:

-World War I: Britain played a major role in the First World War, which lasted
from 1914 to 1918. The conflict had a profound impact on the country, leading to
significant loss of life and economic disruption.

-The interwar years: After World War I, Britain experienced a period of relative
peace and prosperity, but the Great Depression of the 1930s brought economic
hardship to the country. This period was also marked by the rise of fascist
movements in Europe and the threat of war.

-World War II: Britain played a critical role in the Second World War, which
lasted from 1939 to 1945. The country was one of the major Allied powers, and
was instrumental in defeating Nazi Germany.

-The postwar years: After World War II, Britain underwent significant social and
economic change. The country's welfare state was expanded, and the Labour Party
introduced a range of social reforms. However, Britain also experienced economic
decline in the postwar period, with high levels of inflation and unemployment.

-Brexit: In 2016, Britain voted in a referendum to leave the European Union. This
decision has had significant political, economic, and social implications for the
country, and the process of leaving the EU has been marked by uncertainty and
controversy.

Overall, the 20th century was a period of significant change and transformation for
Great Britain, with the country experiencing both periods of prosperity and
economic decline, as well as political and social upheaval.

13. Great Britain at the beginning of the twenty-first century.

At the beginning of the twenty-first century, Great Britain faced a number of

significant changes and challenges. One of the most notable events of the early
2000s was the terrorist attacks in London in 2005, which resulted in the loss of 52
lives and many injuries.
In terms of politics, the early 2000s saw the Labour Party led by Tony Blair in
power, and his government implemented a number of significant policies,
including devolution of power to Scotland and Wales, the introduction of the
minimum wage, and significant investment in public services such as health and
education. The UK also joined the US in the 2003 invasion of Iraq, a decision that
remains controversial and has had long-term consequences.In recent years, Great
Britain has faced continued political and social upheaval, including the ongoing
Brexit negotiations, a rise in nationalism and anti-immigrant sentiment, and
increased attention to issues of social inequality and racial justice. The COVID-19
pandemic also had a significant impact on the country, with the government
implementing strict lockdown measures and facing criticism for its handling of the
crisis.

14. Discovery and colonization of America by Europeans.

The discovery and colonization of America by Europeans began in the late 15th
century, when the Italian explorer Christopher Columbus sailed across the Atlantic
Ocean in search of a new trade route to Asia. Instead, he landed on an island in the
Caribbean Sea, which he called San Salvador. Columbus made several more
voyages to the Americas, and he is often credited with opening the way for
European colonization of the New World.The English, French, and Dutch also
established colonies in North America, primarily along the eastern seaboard. The
English established the first permanent English settlement at Jamestown, Virginia,
in 1607. The French established colonies in Canada and the Mississippi River
Valley, while the Dutch established colonies in present-day New York and New
Jersey.
The colonization of America had a profound impact on both the colonizers and the
colonized. For the Europeans, it opened up new trade routes and markets, and led
to the establishment of powerful empires. For the native peoples of the Americas,
however, colonization often led to violence, displacement, and cultural destruction.
The legacy of European colonization of the Americas remains a contentious issue
today, with ongoing debates over issues such as land rights and reparations.

15. The War of Independence and the formation of the United States.

The War of Independence, also known as the American Revolution, was a political
upheaval in the 18th century that led to the formation of the United States of
America. The war began in 1775 and lasted until 1783, when the British
government recognized the independence of the thirteen American colonies and
signed the Treaty of Paris.
The causes of the war were complex and multifaceted, but they can be traced back
to the early colonial period, when the British government began to exert greater
control over the American colonies through a series of laws and policies. These
measures included the Stamp Act, which imposed taxes on paper goods, and the
Quartering Act, which required colonists to provide lodging for British soldiers.
Many colonists resented these measures and saw them as a violation of their rights
as British subjects.In 1776, the Continental Congress issued the Declaration of
Independence, which declared the thirteen American colonies to be free and
independent states, no longer subject to British rule. The document, which was
written by Thomas Jefferson, is considered a foundational text of American
democracy.
After years of fighting, the British government finally recognized the independence
of the United States in the Treaty of Paris of 1783. The new nation faced
significant challenges in the years that followed, including economic instability
and political division, but it ultimately emerged as a world power and a beacon of
democracy and freedom.

16. Civil War in the USA.

The American Civil War was a major conflict that took place in the United States
from 1861 to 1865. It was fought between the Union states, led by President
Abraham Lincoln, and the Confederacy, made up of southern states that seceded
from the Union and formed their own government. The main cause of the war was
the issue of slavery, with the North opposing it and the South supporting it.
The war began on April 12, 1861, when Confederate forces attacked Fort Sumter
in South Carolina. The conflict quickly spread, with both sides recruiting troops
and engaging in battles across the country. The Union eventually gained the upper
hand, thanks in part to the leadership of General Ulysses S. Grant, and on April 9,
1865, Confederate General Robert E. Lee surrendered at Appomattox Court House,
Virginia.
The Civil War had a profound impact on the United States, leading to the abolition
of slavery and the reunification of the country. It also resulted in the deaths of an
estimated 620,000 soldiers and civilians, making it one of the deadliest wars in
American history. The war also had significant social and political consequences,
including the passage of the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments to the Constitution,
which abolished slavery, granted citizenship to former slaves, and protected their
right to vote.

17. Industrial revolution in the USA.

The Industrial Revolution in the United States began in the late 18th century and
continued into the 19th century. It was a period of rapid industrialization and
technological advancements that transformed the American economy and society.
The early phase of the Industrial Revolution in the US was characterized by the
development of textile manufacturing, particularly in New England. The
introduction of the cotton gin in 1793 revolutionized the production of cotton,
making it a profitable crop and increasing the demand for textile mills.The
Industrial Revolution had a profound impact on American society. It led to the
growth of urbanization, as people moved from rural areas to cities to work in
factories. It also brought about significant changes in labor practices and working
conditions, as well as the emergence of new social and economic classes.
Overall, the Industrial Revolution played a key role in transforming the US from
an agricultural society to an industrial one, paving the way for the country's future
economic and technological growth.

18. The main events of the history of the USA in the twentieth and twenty-first
centuries.

The history of the USA in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries is marked by
several significant events that have had a profound impact on the country and the
world. Here are some of the major events:

-World War I (1914-1918): The US entered the war in 1917 on the side of the
Allies, helping to secure victory.

-Roaring Twenties (1920-1929): A period of economic growth and cultural change,

including the rise of jazz music, prohibition, and women's suffrage.
-Great Depression (1929-1939): The stock market crash of 1929 led to a severe
economic downturn that lasted throughout the 1930s.

-World War II (1939-1945): The US entered the war after the Japanese attack on
Pearl Harbor in 1941. The US played a key role in the Allied victory, including the
use of atomic bombs on Japan.

-9/11 attacks (2001): Terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center and Pentagon led
to a global War on Terror and increased security measures.

-Barack Obama's election (2008): The first African American president of the US,
Obama served two terms from 2009 to 2017.

-Black Lives Matter movement (2013-present): A social justice movement

protesting against police brutality and racial inequality.

These are just a few of the many events that have shaped the history of the USA in
the twentieth and twenty-first centuries.

19. State symbols of Great Britain: flag, coat of arms and anthem.

The state symbols of Great Britain include the flag, coat of arms, and national
anthem.
The flag of Great Britain, also known as the Union Jack, is a combination of three
flags representing the countries of England, Scotland, and Northern Ireland. The
flag features a red cross on a white background representing England, a white
diagonal cross on a blue background representing Scotland, and a red diagonal
cross on a white background representing Northern Ireland.The coat of arms of
Great Britain features a shield divided into four quarters, with each quarter
representing a different country within the United Kingdom. The first quarter
represents England with three golden lions on a red background, the second quarter
represents Scotland with a red lion on a yellow background, the third quarter
represents Ireland with a golden harp on a blue background, and the fourth quarter
represents Northern Ireland with a red cross on a white background. The coat of
arms is typically used by the British government and is featured on official
documents and currency.
The national anthem of Great Britain is "God Save the Queen" (or "God Save the
King" depending on the gender of the reigning monarch). The song has been used
as the British national anthem since the 18th century and is played at ceremonial
and patriotic events. The lyrics of the national anthem include a prayer for the
reigning monarch's safety and success
20. Symbols of the countries that are part of Great Britain.

Great Britain is made up of four countries: England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern
Ireland. Each of these countries has its own distinct symbols that represent their
unique identity and culture.
Some of the symbols of these countries are:
England:
-Flag: St. George's Cross, a red cross on a white background
-Coat of Arms: Three lions on a red shield, known as the Royal Arms of England
-Flower: Tudor rose, a red and white rose symbolizing the union of the House of
York and House of Lancaster during the Wars of the Roses

-Patron Saint: St. George, celebrated on April 23rd

-National Anthem: "God Save the Queen/King"

Scotland:
-Flag: St. Andrew's Cross, a white diagonal cross on a blue background
-Coat of Arms: A shield with a lion rampant, surrounded by thistles, and topped
with a crown
-Flower: Thistle, a prickly purple flower symbolizing the resilience of Scotland's
people
-Patron Saint: St. Andrew, celebrated on November 30th
-National Anthem: "Flower of Scotland"
Wales:
-Flag: The Red Dragon, a red dragon on a green and white background
-Coat of Arms: A red lion on a green and white field, topped with a crown and
surrounded by leeks and daffodils
-Flower: Daffodil, a yellow flower that blooms in spring and symbolizes rebirth
and renewal
-Patron Saint: St. David, celebrated on March 1st
-National Anthem: "Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau" (Land of My Fathers)
Northern Ireland:
-Flag: The Ulster Banner, a red cross on a white background with a red hand in the
center
-Coat of Arms: A shield with a red hand on a white field, surrounded by a six-
pointed star, a harp, and a crown
-Flower: Flax flower, a blue flower that represents Northern Ireland's linen
industry
-Patron Saint: St. Patrick, celebrated on March 17th
-National Anthem: "Londonderry Air" (unofficial) or "A Soldier's Song" (official)

21. Клімат та природні ресурси Британських островів

The climate the British Isles has is called a temperate maritime climate. This type
of climate means that winters are not too cold and summers are not too hot. The
area doesn't experience weather extremes because the Atlantic Ocean cools the
area in the summers and keeps the area warm in the winters.
Prevailing southwesterly winds, influenced by the Gulf Stream, make Britain's
climate temperate and equable year round. Weather patterns frequently change, but
few temperature extremes occur. Temperatures range from a mean of 40°F in
winter to about 60°F in summer. A low of 20°F sometimes occurs in winter, and a
high of 90°F may rarely occur in summer. Average annual rainfall is 30-50 inches,
usually distributed evenly throughout the year. Cloud cover is persistent, however,
limiting sunshine to an average of about 6-7 hours a day in summer and 1-2 hours
a day in winter.
Natural Resources:
coal, petroleum, natural gas, iron ore, lead, zinc, gold, tin, limestone, salt, clay,
chalk, gypsum, potash, silica sand, slate, arable land

22. Демографія Великої Британії. Економіка Великої Британії

The population of England in 2021 was estimated to be 56,489,800.[1][2] This is the
most recent census.[1] In the previous census, in 2011, the population was
53,012,456.
Data for the 2011 census:

 Male: 26,069,148
 Female: 26,943,308
 Total: 53,012,456[3]
 Total Fertility Rate: 1.97[4]

The economy of the United Kingdom (UK) is a highly developed social market
economy. It is the sixth-largest national economy in the world measured by
nominal gross domestic product (GDP), tenth-largest by purchasing power parity
(PPP), and twenty second-highest by GDP per capita, constituting 3.3% of nominal
world GDP
The UK's economy is dominated by services industries. These include retail,
hospitality, professional services, business administration and finance

23. Загальна характеристика політичної системи Британії

The UK’s government has three basic types of power: legislative, executive, and
judiciary.
Legislative power is the power to make new laws or remove old ones. This power
is held by Parliament, which is made up of the House of Lords and the House of
Commons. The Scottish Parliament, the Welsh Assembly, and the Northern Irish
Assembly also have legislative powers; however, they do not have as much
authority as Parliament.
Executive power – the power to implement and enforce laws – is controlled by the
British government, which works on behalf of the Queen, as well as the devolved
governments of Scotland and Wales and the Northern Ireland Executive.
Judiciary power, which is the power to prosecute those who break the law, is kept
independent of the legislature and the executive. The highest court in the UK is the
Supreme Court of the United Kingdom.
There are lots of political parties in the UK, but the big ones are:

 The Conservative Party (currently led by Boris Johnson). The

Conservatives are “right wing,” or conservative. They typically believe
that business shouldn’t be regulated and that we should all look after
ourselves.
 The Labour Party (currently led by Jeremy Corbyn). Labour are “left
wing,” or liberal. People who are left wing believe that the state should
support those who cannot support themselves. Ideas like the redistribution
of wealth, the NHS, and job seeker’s allowance are fundamentally left-
wing ideas.
 The Liberal Democrats (currently led by Jo Swinson). The Lib Dems,
as they’re called, fall between the Conservatives and Labour. Even
though they have “liberal” in their name they are really a mix of liberal
and conservative.
 Scottish National Party (currently led by Nicola Sturgeon). The SNP
is left wing and Scotland is, politically-speaking, more liberal than
England.

24. Функції монарха у політичному житті Великої Британії

In a monarchy, a king or queen is Head of State. The British Monarchy is

known as a constitutional monarchy. This means that, while The Sovereign is
Head of State, the ability to make and pass legislation resides with an elected
Parliament.

Although The Sovereign no longer has a political or executive role, he or she

continues to play an important part in the life of the nation.
As Head of State, The Monarch undertakes constitutional and representational
duties which have developed over one thousand years of history. In addition to
these State duties, The Monarch has a less formal role as 'Head of Nation'. The
Sovereign acts as a focus for national identity, unity and pride; gives a sense of
stability and continuity; officially recognizes success and excellence; and
supports the ideal of voluntary service.

In all these roles The Sovereign is supported by members of their immediate

family.

Although the King does not have political power, he does have a political
responsibility. The monarch's power relies on the social duties of politics. He must
appoint the Prime Minister after the majority of the House of Commons has voted
them in.

25. Парламент Великої Британії, його склад та процес роботи

The business of Parliament takes place in two Houses: the House of Commons and
the House of Lords. Their work is similar: making laws (legislation), checking the
work of the government (scrutiny), and debating current issues.
The House of Commons is also responsible for granting money to the government
through approving Bills that raise taxes. Generally, the decisions made in one
House have to be approved by the other.

In this way the two-chamber system acts as a check and balance for both Houses.

The Commons

The Commons is publicly elected. (The House of Commons is

a democratically elected body, consisting of 646 members, who are known as
" Members of Parliament" or MPs. Members are elected by the first-past-the-post
system of election, holding office until Parliament is dissolved (a maximum of five
years).)

The Lords

The House of (26 bishops of the Church of England sit in the House of Lords: the
Archbishops of Canterbury and of York, the Bishops of London, of Durham and of
Winchester, and the next 21 most senior diocesan bishops (with the exception of
the Bishop in Europe and the Bishop of Sodor and Man))

26. Уряд та опозиція у Британії та США

THE UK
Government ministers and Opposition spokespersons all work in the House of
Commons. Specific Peers also represent government departments and opposition
parties in the House of Lords.

Prime Minister

The Prime Minister is an MP and head of the government. The leader of the party
that wins the most seats in a general election is appointed Prime Minister by the
King.

The Prime Minister is officially responsible for choosing the other members of the
government.

The Prime Minister can decide when to ask the Monarch to dissolve Parliament
and hold a general election.

The Prime Minister answers questions every Wednesday in the House of

Commons from midday to 12.30pm. Questions can come from any MP and on any
subject.

Leader of the Opposition

The leader of the largest opposition party is the Leader of the Official Opposition.
This role commands an additional salary to the parliamentary salary received as an
MP. The Leader of the Official Opposition picks a 'Shadow Cabinet' to follow the
work of government departments.

Cabinet

The Cabinet consists of a maximum of twenty-two paid government

ministers chosen by the Prime Minister. They can be Members of either House of
Parliament. The Cabinet develop government policies and some members head
government departments.

Shadow Cabinet

The Shadow Cabinet consists of members from the main opposition party in the
House of Commons and Lords, currently the Labour party. Its role is to examine
the work of each government department and develop policies in their specific
areas.
THE USA

The politics of the United States function within a framework of

a constitutional federal republic and presidential system, with three distinct
branches that share powers. These are: the U.S. Congress which forms the
legislative branch, a bicameral legislative body comprising the House of
Representatives and the Senate; the executive branch which is headed by
the president of the United States, who serves as the country's head of
state and government; and the judicial branch, composed of the Supreme Court and
lower federal courts, and which exercises judicial power.

The Republican Party and the Democratic Party are the two major political parties
in the United States, and they have different positions on a range of political and
social issues. Here are some key differences between the two parties:

1)Ideology: The Republican Party is generally considered to be a center-right party

that emphasizes individualism, free-market capitalism, and limited government
intervention in the economy. The Democratic Party is generally considered to be a
center-left party that emphasizes social justice, government intervention in the
economy, and a strong social safety net.

2)Taxes: Republicans generally favor lower taxes and less government regulation
of businesses, while Democrats generally favor higher taxes on the wealthy and
more government regulation of businesses to promote social and environmental
goals.

3)Social Issues: Republicans tend to take a more conservative stance on social

issues such as abortion, same-sex marriage, and gun control, while Democrats tend
to take a more liberal stance on these issues.

4)Foreign Policy: Republicans tend to favor a strong national defense and assertive
foreign policy, while Democrats tend to favor a more multilateral approach to
foreign policy and prioritize diplomacy and human rights.

If the Republican Party holds the presidency and a majority in Congress, the
Democratic Party would be considered the opposition. Conversely, if the
Democratic Party holds the presidency and a majority in Congress, the Republican
Party would be considered the opposition.

27. Кабінет міністрів, роль Прем’єр-міністра у політичному житті британії

The Prime Minister is the leader of His Majesty’s Government and is ultimately

responsible for all policy and decisions.
The Prime Minister also:

 oversees the operation of the Civil Service and government agencies

 appoints members of the government
 is the principal government figure in the House of Commons
The Prime Minister is The Rt Hon Rishi Sunak MP.

The Cabinet
The Cabinet is made up of the senior members of government. Every week during
Parliament, members of the Cabinet (Secretaries of State from all departments and
some other ministers) meet to discuss the most important issues for the
government.

There are 125 ministers: 1 prime minister, 24 cabinet ministers and 100 other
ministers.

28. Вибори до парламенту Великої Британії

The government of the day can decide when to call a general election.

The maximum term of a Parliament is five years from the day on which it first met.
The current Parliament first met on Tuesday 17 December 2019 and will
automatically dissolve on Tuesday 17 December 2024, unless it has been dissolved
sooner by the King.

Polling Day would be expected to take place 25 days later, not counting weekends
or any bank holidays that fall within this period.

After the deadline for nominations has passed, a list of the candidates who are
standing - or 'Statement of Persons Nominated' - is usually posted on your local
authority website and on local noticeboards where you live.
The Prime Minister is appointed by the monarch. The monarch's appointment of
the Prime Minister is guided by constitutional conventions.

The political party that wins the most seats in the House of Commons at a general
election usually forms the new government. Its leader becomes Prime Minister.

These conventions, laws and rules are set out in the Cabinet Manual. These affect
the conduct and operation of government. It includes the role of the Sovereign.

The Prime Minister appoints ministers who work in government departments. The
most senior of these attend Cabinet meetings.
29. Політичні партії, їх ідеологія
The United Kingdom has several political parties, but the two main parties are the
Conservative Party and the Labour Party. Here are the main political parties in the
UK and a brief description of their ideologies:

1)Conservative Party: The Conservative Party is a center-right party that supports

free-market capitalism, limited government intervention in the economy, and a
strong national defense. The party also emphasizes traditional values, such as
individual responsibility, law and order, and national sovereignty. The party has
been in power since 2010.
2)Labour Party: The Labour Party is a center-left party that emphasizes social
justice, economic equality, and a strong welfare state. The party supports greater
government intervention in the economy, including higher taxes on the wealthy,
nationalization of certain industries, and stronger worker protections. The party has
historically been associated with trade unions and the working class.
3)Liberal Democrats: The Liberal Democrats are a centrist party that advocates for
individual freedom, internationalism, and social liberalism. The party supports
greater government intervention in areas such as healthcare and education, as well
as measures to combat climate change and promote social equality.
4)Scottish National Party: The Scottish National Party is a left-leaning party that
advocates for Scottish independence and greater autonomy from the UK. The party
supports social democratic policies such as universal healthcare, free education,
and greater investment in renewable energy.
5)Green Party: The Green Party is a left-wing party that prioritizes environmental
issues, social justice, and participatory democracy. The party advocates for strong
action on climate change, the phasing out of fossil fuels, and greater investment in
public transportation and renewable energy.
6)Democratic Unionist Party: The Democratic Unionist Party is a right-wing party
that supports Northern Ireland's union with the UK and conservative social values.
The party is socially conservative, opposes same-sex marriage, and supports the
right to bear arms.
30. Судова система Великої Британії

The judicial system of Great Britain is complex and has evolved over time. Here is
a brief overview of its key components:

1)Supreme Court: The Supreme Court of the United Kingdom is the highest court
in the country and was established in 2009 to replace the Appellate Committee of
the House of Lords. It hears appeals on civil and criminal cases from all parts of
the UK, including England, Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland.
2)High Court: The High Court of England and Wales is a court of first instance and
also has appellate jurisdiction. It is divided into three divisions: the Queen's Bench
Division, the Chancery Division, and the Family Division.
3)Crown Court: The Crown Court is the main criminal court in England and
Wales, and it has jurisdiction over serious criminal offenses. It is presided over by
a judge and may also include a jury.
4)Magistrates' Court: The Magistrates' Court is a lower court that handles minor
criminal offenses and some civil matters. It is presided over by a magistrate, who is
a layperson rather than a professional judge.
5)Tribunals: Tribunals are specialized courts that deal with specific types of cases,
such as employment disputes, immigration cases, and social security appeals.
6)Northern Ireland Courts: The judicial system of Northern Ireland is separate
from that of England and Wales. It includes the High Court of Northern Ireland,
the Crown Court, and the Magistrates' Court.

The judicial system of Great Britain is based on the common law tradition, which
means that the law is developed through judicial decisions rather than legislation.
The system is independent of the other branches of government, and judges are
appointed on the basis of merit and independence, rather than political affiliation

31. Holidays and traditions of Great Britain and the United States
Great Britain and the United States have their own unique holidays and traditions,
as well as some that are shared between the two countries. Here are some of the
most significant ones:
Holidays and Traditions of Great Britain:
- Christmas: Celebrated on December 25th, Christmas is one of the most important
holidays in Great Britain. It is marked by exchanging gifts, singing carols, and
decorating Christmas trees.
- New Year's Day: January 1st is a public holiday in Great Britain, and it is
celebrated with parties, fireworks, and singing "Auld Lang Syne."
- Еaster: This religious holiday is celebrated in March or April and is marked by
church services, egg hunts, and the giving of chocolate eggs.
- Guy Fawkes Night: Also known as Bonfire Night, this holiday is celebrated on
November 5th and commemorates the failed Gunpowder Plot of 1605. It is marked
by bonfires, fireworks, and the burning of an effigy of Guy Fawkes.
- Boxing Day: December 26th is a public holiday in Great Britain, and it is marked
by the giving of gifts to servants and tradespeople.
Holidays and Traditions of the United States:
- Independence Day: July 4th is a public holiday in the United States, and it
commemorates the country's independence from Great Britain in 1776. It is
marked by parades, fireworks, and barbecues.
- Thanksgiving: Celebrated on the fourth Thursday of November, Thanksgiving is
a holiday that originated in the United States. It is marked by a feast of turkey,
stuffing, and other traditional foods, as well as giving thanks for the blessings of
the year.
- Christmas: Like in Great Britain, Christmas is a major holiday in the United
States. It is marked by exchanging gifts, singing carols, and decorating Christmas
trees.
- Halloween: Celebrated on October 31st, Halloween is a holiday that originated in
Europe but has become popular in the United States. It is marked by costumes,
trick-or-treating, and the telling of ghost stories.
- Labor Day: The first Monday in September is a public holiday in the United
States, and it honors the contributions of workers to the country. It is marked by
parades and picnics.
32. The system of secondary and higher education in Great Britain
The education system in Great Britain is divided into primary, secondary, and
higher education. Secondary education typically begins at age 11 and continues
until age 16, when students take their General Certificate of Secondary Education
(GCSE) exams. After completing their GCSEs, students may choose to continue
on to higher education or enter the workforce.
Higher education in Great Britain is typically pursued at universities, which offer
undergraduate and postgraduate degrees. Undergraduate degrees usually take three
or four years to complete, and postgraduate degrees can take one or two years.
Universities in Great Britain are known for their high academic standards and
rigorous coursework.
Admission to universities in Great Britain is highly competitive, and applicants are
generally expected to have strong academic records and test scores. Many
universities also require applicants to submit essays or personal statements and
attend interviews as part of the admissions process.
In addition to traditional universities, there are also vocational and technical
schools in Great Britain that provide training in specific skills and trades. These
schools typically offer shorter, more focused courses of study that prepare students
for specific careers.

33. Religion in Great Britain and the United States

Religion plays an important role in the cultures of both Great Britain and the
United States, although the two countries have different religious landscapes.
Great Britain has a long history of Christianity, with the Church of England being
the established church. However, in recent years, there has been a decline in
religious affiliation and church attendance in Great Britain, with more people
identifying as non-religious or holding alternative spiritual beliefs. Other major
Christian denominations in Great Britain include the Roman Catholic Church, the
Presbyterian Church, and the Methodist Church.
In addition to Christianity, Great Britain is home to significant Muslim, Hindu,
Sikh, and Jewish communities. These minority religions have grown in recent
decades due to immigration and increased cultural diversity.
In the United States, Christianity is also the dominant religion, with the majority of
Americans identifying as Protestant or Catholic. However, there is a greater
diversity of Christian denominations in the United States, including Baptists,
Methodists, Episcopalians, and Mormons.
In recent years, there has been a rise in the number of Americans who identify as
non-religious, with many identifying as atheist, agnostic, or "spiritual but not
religious." Other minority religions in the United States include Islam, Judaism,
Buddhism, Hinduism, and Sikhism.

34. Media in Great Britain

Media in Great Britain has a long and diverse history, and plays an important role
in shaping public opinion and culture. Here are some of the most notable forms of
media in Great Britain:
- Newspapers: Great Britain has a thriving newspaper industry, with national
newspapers such as The Times, The Daily Telegraph, The Guardian, and The
Independent, as well as numerous regional and local newspapers. These
newspapers cover a range of topics, from politics and current events to sports and
entertainment.
- Television: Great Britain is home to several major television networks, including
the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) and ITV. The BBC is particularly
influential, as it is publicly funded and has a mandate to provide impartial news
coverage and programming.
- Radio: Radio is also an important form of media in Great Britain, with the BBC
being the largest provider of radio programming. There are also numerous
commercial radio stations that cater to specific regions or audiences.
- Magazines: Great Britain has a thriving magazine industry, with titles covering a
wide range of topics such as fashion, politics, and current events.
- Online media: In recent years, online media has become an increasingly
important form of media in Great Britain, with many newspapers, television
networks, and other media outlets offering online versions of their content. Social
media platforms such as Twitter and Facebook also play a significant role in
shaping public opinion and discourse.

35. Physical and economic geography of the USA

Physical Geography:
• The United States is located in North America, bordered by Canada to the north
and Mexico to the south. It also has coastlines on both the Atlantic and Pacific
Oceans.
• The landscape of the United States is incredibly diverse, ranging from the rugged
Rocky Mountains in the west to the flat plains of the Midwest and the Appalachian
Mountains in the east.
• The country has several major rivers, including the Mississippi, the Missouri, and
the Colorado, as well as several large lakes, including the Great Lakes in the north.
Economic Geography:
• The United States is the world's largest economy, with a highly diversified and
advanced industrial and service sector. It has a strong capitalist system with a mix
of private and public ownership.
• The United States is a major exporter of goods and services, with exports ranging
from high-tech products and machinery to agricultural goods and natural resources.
• The country is home to several major financial centers, including New York City
and Chicago, and is a hub for international business and finance.
• The United States has a highly educated and skilled workforce, and is a leader in
research and development in areas such as technology, healthcare, and energy.

36. National symbols of the United States: the flag, the Great Seal and the
national anthem
- The American Flag: The American flag is one of the most recognizable symbols
of the United States. It consists of 13 horizontal stripes in red and white,
representing the original 13 colonies, and a blue rectangle in the top left corner,
which contains 50 white stars representing the 50 states. The flag represents the
values of freedom, democracy, and opportunity that the United States was founded
on.
- The Great Seal: The Great Seal of the United States is an emblem that represents
the authority and sovereignty of the federal government. It features an eagle with
outstretched wings clutching an olive branch in one talon and a bundle of arrows in
the other, symbolizing the country's desire for peace but willingness to defend
itself. The eagle is also depicted holding a banner in its beak that reads "E Pluribus
Unum" (Out of many, one), which represents the unity of the United States.
- The National Anthem: The "Star-Spangled Banner" is the national anthem of the
United States. It was written by Francis Scott Key in 1814 during the War of 1812
and is based on the poem "Defense of Fort McHenry." The anthem celebrates the
American flag and the bravery of American soldiers in defending their country
during the war.

37. Climate and natural resources of the United States

• Climate:
- The United States has a diverse range of climate types due to its large size and
varied topography. The climate ranges from arctic in Alaska to tropical in Hawaii
and Florida.
- The western coast of the country is generally mild and wet, while the eastern
coast is more prone to hurricanes and other severe weather events.
- The interior of the country has a continental climate with hot summers and cold
winters, and the Great Plains are prone to tornadoes during the spring and summer
months.
• Natural Resources:
- The United States is rich in natural resources, including oil, coal, natural gas, and
minerals such as copper and gold.
- The country has vast tracts of arable land, making it one of the world's top
agricultural producers.
- The country also has significant forest resources, with large areas of forested land
in the Pacific Northwest and the Appalachian Mountains.
- The United States is home to a wide variety of wildlife, including large mammals
such as bears and bison, as well as many bird species.

38. Demographics of the United States. Largest cities. US economy

• Demographics of the United States:
The United States is a highly diverse country with a population of over 332 million
people. The largest ethnic groups in the country are White Americans (60.4%),
followed by Hispanic or Latino Americans (18.3%), Black or African Americans
(12.6%), and Asian Americans (6%). English is the most widely spoken language
in the country, but there are many other languages spoken, reflecting the country's
diversity.
• Largest cities:
The United States is home to many large and diverse cities. The top five largest
cities in the country by population are:
New York City, NY - population 8.3 million
Los Angeles, CA - population 3.9 million
Chicago, IL - population 2.7 million
Houston, TX - population 2.3 million
Phoenix, AZ - population 1.7 million

• US economy:
The United States has the largest and most diversified economy in the world. It is a
highly developed capitalist economy with a mix of private and public ownership.
The country's GDP was $21.5 trillion in 2019, making it the largest economy in the
world.
The United States has a highly diversified economy, with strong industries in areas
such as technology, finance, healthcare, and energy. It is also a major exporter of
goods and services, with exports ranging from high-tech products and machinery
to agricultural goods and natural resources.
The country's labor force is highly educated and skilled, and the unemployment
rate was 4.2% in 2019. The federal government plays a significant role in
regulating the economy through monetary and fiscal policy, and the country has a
well-developed system of financial markets and institutions.

39. The political system of the United States: a general description

The political system of the United States is a federal democratic republic, meaning
that power is divided between a central government and individual states, with an
emphasis on individual rights and freedoms.
- The Constitution: The Constitution is the supreme law of the land, providing the
framework for the federal government and outlining the rights and protections of
individual citizens.
- The Federal Government: The federal government is composed of three branches:
the legislative branch, which consists of the Senate and the House of
Representatives and is responsible for making laws; the executive branch, which is
headed by the President and is responsible for enforcing laws; and the judicial
branch, which is responsible for interpreting the law.
- The States: The United States is composed of 50 states, each with its own
government and laws. States have the power to regulate areas such as education,
transportation, and law enforcement.
- Political Parties: The United States has a two-party political system, with the
Democratic Party and the Republican Party as the two main parties. Other parties,
such as the Libertarian Party and the Green Party, also exist but have less
influence.
- Elections: Elections are held every two years for the House of Representatives
and every six years for the Senate. The President is elected every four years
through the Electoral College, a system in which each state is assigned a certain
number of electoral votes based on its population.
- Checks and Balances: The system of checks and balances ensures that no one
branch of government has too much power. Each branch is able to limit the power
of the other branches through a system of checks and balances.

40. Three branches of government in the USA. The system of "checks and
balances" in the US state system
• The three branches of government in the United States are the legislative branch,
the executive branch, and the judicial branch.
1) Legislative Branch: The legislative branch is responsible for making laws. It is
composed of the Senate and the House of Representatives, collectively known as
Congress. The Senate has 100 members, with each state electing two senators,
while the House of Representatives has 435 members, with the number of
representatives from each state determined by its population.
2) Executive Branch: The executive branch is responsible for enforcing laws. It is
headed by the President, who is elected every four years through the Electoral
College. The President is responsible for appointing heads of executive
departments, such as the Department of State and the Department of Defense.
3) Judicial Branch: The judicial branch is responsible for interpreting laws. It is
composed of federal courts, including the Supreme Court, which is the highest
court in the country. Judges are appointed by the President and confirmed by the
Senate.
• The system of "checks and balances" is a key feature of the US state system. It is
designed to ensure that no single branch of government becomes too powerful.
Each branch has the ability to limit the power of the other branches. For example:
1) The legislative branch can check the power of the executive branch by
impeaching and removing the President, overriding vetoes, and refusing to confirm
presidential appointments.
2) The executive branch can check the power of the legislative branch by vetoing
laws, issuing executive orders, and nominating federal judges.
3) The judicial branch can check the power of the legislative and executive
branches by declaring laws or executive actions unconstitutional.

41) Congress, its composition and functioning.

Article I of the United States Constitution established the legislative branch known
as the Congress. Congress enacts laws that influence the daily lives of all
Americans and is intended to serve as the voice of the people. Its responsibilities
include funding government functions and programs, holding hearings to inform
the legislative process, and oversight of the executive branch.

Congress is a bicameral legislature divided into two equal institutions: the House
of Representatives and the Senate. Each state sends elected representatives and
senators to Congress. Although the House and the Senate are structured differently
and have their own roles and responsibilities, they work together to pass
legislation. No bill can become a law without passing both houses of Congress.

About The House Of Representatives

There are 435 members of the House of Representatives. Each state is represented
in the House based on its population and has at least one representative. U.S.
territories and the District of Columbia are represented in the House by delegates
who perform many of the same functions as their colleagues but cannot vote on
final passage of legislation.

To be elected to the House of Representatives, a person must be at least 25 years

old, a citizen of the United States for seven years or more, and a resident of the
state that they represent. Members of the House of Representatives serve two-year
terms.

About The U.S. Senate

With each state represented by two senators, a total of 100 members serve in the
U.S. Senate. The U.S. territories and the District of Columbia are not represented
in the Senate.

In order to be elected to the U.S. Senate a person must be at least 30 years old, a
citizen of the United States for nine years or more, and a resident of the state that
they represent. Senators are elected for six-year terms, and every two years 1/3 of
the Senate is up for re-election.
42) US presidential election

The US presidential election is held every four years, and it is a process by which
citizens of the United States elect their president. The election takes place on the
Tuesday following the first Monday in November, and the winner of the election is
inaugurated on January 20 of the following year. The election process includes
several stages, including primary elections, caucuses, and the general election. In
the primaries and caucuses, members of the Democratic and Republican parties
select their respective nominees for president. The general election then pits the
nominees of each party against each other, along with any third-party candidates
who qualify for the ballot. The winner of the presidential election is determined by
the electoral college, a group of 538 electors who are chosen by the states and the
District of Columbia. Each state is allocated a number of electors equal to the
number of its representatives in the House of Representatives plus its two senators.
To win the presidency, a candidate must receive a majority of the electoral votes,
which is currently 270. The US presidential election is one of the most closely
watched and heavily contested elections in the world, and it has a significant
impact on global politics and the economy.

43) Major US political parties

The two major political parties in the United States are the Democratic Party and
the Republican Party. These parties have dominated American politics for over a
century and have been the two main choices for voters in presidential elections.
The Democratic Party is generally considered to be more liberal or progressive,
advocating for policies such as universal healthcare, gun control, and stronger
social safety nets. The party's symbol is the donkey, and its colors are blue. The
Republican Party, on the other hand, is generally considered to be more
conservative, advocating for policies such as limited government, free market
economics, and individual liberty. The party's symbol is the elephant, and its colors
are red.
Both parties have their own platforms, which outline their respective positions on
various issues, and they field candidates for a wide range of elected positions at the
federal, state, and local levels.

There are also several smaller political parties in the United States, such as the
Libertarian Party, the Green Party, and the Constitution Party, among others.
However, these parties typically do not have as much influence or electoral success
as the two major parties.

44) The US judicial system

The US judicial system is a complex system of courts and judges at both the
federal and state levels. The system is designed to interpret and apply the law,
settle legal disputes, and administer justice.

At the federal level, the judicial system is headed by the US Supreme Court, which
is the highest court in the country. The Supreme Court has nine justices who are
appointed by the president and confirmed by the Senate. The court's decisions have
far-reaching implications for the entire country, and it is the final arbiter of the
constitutionality of laws passed by Congress or state legislatures.

Below the Supreme Court, there are 13 US Courts of Appeals, which are
responsible for reviewing decisions made by lower courts. These courts are divided
into geographical regions, with each court covering a specific circuit of states.

At the state level, each state has its own court system, typically consisting of a trial
court, an appellate court, and a supreme court. State courts are responsible for
hearing cases that fall under state law, such as criminal cases, civil disputes, and
family law matters.

In addition to the federal and state courts, there are also specialized courts, such as
bankruptcy courts, tax courts, and military courts. These courts are designed to
handle specific types of cases that fall outside the purview of general trial courts.
The US judicial system is based on the principle of due process, which guarantees
all individuals the right to a fair and impartial trial. Defendants in criminal cases
are presumed innocent until proven guilty, and they have the right to legal counsel
and a trial by jury. The judicial system is an important component of the US
government and plays a critical role in maintaining the rule of law and upholding
the Constitution.

45) Composition and functions of the US Supreme Court

The US Supreme Court is the highest court in the United States and is composed of
nine justices who are appointed by the president and confirmed by the Senate.
Once appointed, justices serve for life or until they choose to retire.

The Supreme Court has two primary functions: to interpret the Constitution and
federal laws, and to resolve disputes between lower courts. When interpreting the
Constitution, the Court has the power to strike down laws that it deems
unconstitutional. This power is known as judicial review and it is a key feature of
the US legal system.

The Supreme Court hears cases on appeal from lower federal courts and state
supreme courts. The cases that the Court hears are typically those that involve
important legal or constitutional questions or that have widespread implications.
The Court has the final say on legal disputes, and its decisions are binding on all
other courts in the United States.

The Supreme Court also has original jurisdiction over certain types of cases, such
as those involving disputes between states or cases involving foreign diplomats.

The Court is headed by the Chief Justice, who is the most senior member of the
Court. The other eight justices are known as Associate Justices. When the Court
hears a case, the justices consider arguments from both sides before issuing a
written opinion. In cases where the Court is evenly split, the decision of the lower
court stands.
The Supreme Court is an important institution in the US government and has a
significant impact on American society. Its decisions shape the interpretation and
application of the Constitution and federal law, and can have far-reaching
implications for issues such as civil rights, free speech, and privacy.

46) The system of secondary and higher education in the USA

The United States has a decentralized system of secondary and higher education,
with each state and territory having its own education system and policies.
However, there are some general characteristics that apply to the majority of
American schools.

Secondary Education:

In the United States, secondary education is typically divided into two levels:
middle school or junior high school (grades 6-8) and high school (grades 9-12).
High school is mandatory for students in all states, and students typically graduate
at the age of 18. Students take a variety of classes in subjects such as English,
math, science, social studies, and foreign languages. In addition to academic
classes, students may also participate in extracurricular activities such as sports,
music, and clubs.

Higher Education:

Higher education in the United States is characterized by a large number of

institutions that offer a wide variety of programs and degrees. There are over 4,000
accredited institutions of higher education in the United States, including public
and private universities, community colleges, and technical schools.

The most common degree offered by American universities is the Bachelor's

degree, which typically takes four years to complete. Students can choose from a
wide variety of majors and areas of study, ranging from the arts and humanities to
business, science, and engineering.

Beyond the Bachelor's degree, American universities also offer graduate and
professional degrees, such as Master's degrees, doctoral degrees, and professional
degrees in fields such as law, medicine, and business.

Admission to American universities is typically based on a combination of factors,

including academic performance, standardized test scores, extracurricular
activities, and personal essays. The cost of higher education can vary widely
depending on the institution, with public universities typically being less expensive
than private universities.

Overall, the American education system is highly regarded internationally and

attracts students from around the world who are seeking a high-quality education.

47) Mass media in the USA

The mass media in the United States is a diverse and influential industry that
includes a wide range of media outlets, such as newspapers, television, radio,
magazines, and the internet. The media plays an important role in shaping public
opinion, informing citizens, and providing a platform for debate and discussion on
key issues.

Newspapers:

Newspapers are one of the oldest forms of mass media in the United States and
continue to be an important source of news and information. There are both
national and local newspapers, and many newspapers have an online presence as
well.

Television:
Television is the most popular form of mass media in the United States, with a vast
array of channels and programming options available. The major television
networks include ABC, CBS, NBC, and Fox, as well as cable news networks such
as CNN, MSNBC, and Fox News.

Radio:

Radio is another important form of mass media in the United States, with many
different types of stations available. There are both commercial and public radio
stations, as well as satellite radio options.

Magazines:

Magazines cover a wide range of topics and interests, from news and politics to
entertainment and lifestyle. There are both national and regional magazines, and
many magazines also have an online presence.

Internet:

The internet has become an increasingly important form of mass media in the
United States, with many news websites, blogs, and social media platforms
providing a wide range of information and opinions. The internet has also made it
easier for citizens to access news and information from a variety of sources, and
has provided a platform for citizen journalism and online activism.

Overall, the mass media in the United States is a diverse and influential industry
that plays a critical role in shaping public opinion and informing citizens on key
issues.

48) Holidays in GB

Great Britain celebrates a variety of holidays throughout the year, including

national holidays, religious holidays, and regional holidays. Here are some of the
most important holidays celebrated in Great Britain:
New Year's Day (January 1st): The first day of the year is celebrated with
fireworks, parties, and parades.

Easter: Easter is a religious holiday that is celebrated in March or April with

church services, Easter egg hunts, and chocolate eggs.

May Day (May 1st): May Day is a traditional spring festival that is celebrated with
maypole dancing, Morris dancing, and the crowning of the May Queen.

Spring Bank Holiday (last Monday in May): This is a national holiday that falls on
the last Monday in May, and marks the beginning of the summer holiday season.

Summer Bank Holiday (last Monday in August): This is another national holiday
that marks the end of the summer holiday season.

Halloween (October 31st): Halloween is a holiday that is celebrated with costumes,

parties, and trick-or-treating.

Bonfire Night (November 5th): Bonfire Night is a holiday that commemorates the
failed plot to blow up the Houses of Parliament in 1605. It is celebrated with
fireworks and bonfires.

Christmas (December 25th): Christmas is a religious holiday that is celebrated with

church services, gift-giving, and traditional meals such as roast turkey and
Christmas pudding.

Boxing Day (December 26th): Boxing Day is a national holiday that falls on the
day after Christmas, and is traditionally a day for giving gifts to servants and
tradespeople.

There are also a number of regional holidays in Great Britain, such as St. Patrick's
Day in Northern Ireland, St. David's Day in Wales, and St. Andrew's Day in
Scotland.
49) Holidays in USA

The United States celebrates a variety of holidays throughout the year, including
national holidays, religious holidays, and commemorative holidays. Here are some
of the most important holidays celebrated in the United States:

New Year's Day (January 1st): The first day of the year is celebrated with
fireworks, parties, and parades.

Martin Luther King Jr. Day (third Monday in January): This holiday
commemorates the birthday of Martin Luther King Jr., and is a day to celebrate his
contributions to the civil rights movement.

Presidents' Day (third Monday in February): This holiday commemorates the

birthdays of George Washington and Abraham Lincoln, and is a day to celebrate
the contributions of all U.S. presidents.

Memorial Day (last Monday in May): This holiday honors the men and women
who died while serving in the U.S. military.

Independence Day (July 4th): This holiday commemorates the signing of the
Declaration of Independence in 1776, and is celebrated with fireworks, parades,
and patriotic displays.

Labor Day (first Monday in September): This holiday celebrates the contributions
of American workers, and is a day to relax and enjoy the last days of summer.

Columbus Day (second Monday in October): This holiday commemorates the

arrival of Christopher Columbus in the Americas, and is a day to celebrate Italian-
American heritage.

Veterans Day (November 11th): This holiday honors all U.S. veterans who have
served in the military.
Thanksgiving Day (fourth Thursday in November): This holiday is a day to give
thanks for the blessings of the year, and is celebrated with a traditional meal of
turkey, stuffing, and pumpkin pie.

Christmas Day (December 25th): This holiday commemorates the birth of Jesus
Christ, and is celebrated with church services, gift-giving, and family gatherings.

There are also other holidays celebrated in the United States, such as Valentine's
Day, St. Patrick's Day, Easter, Halloween, and Hanukkah.

50) The system of preschool education in Britain and the USA

The system of preschool education in Britain and the USA differs in terms of
structure, funding, and curriculum.

In the UK, preschool education is known as Early Years education, and it is

available for children aged 3-4. Children in England can attend state-funded
preschools known as nurseries, which are run by the government or private
providers. Nursery education is free for children aged 3-4 and is usually available
for 15 hours per week during term time. Children can also attend private
preschools or playgroups, which may offer longer hours or more flexible
schedules.

In the USA, preschool education is available for children aged 3-5, and it is not
provided by the government as part of the public education system. Instead,
preschool education is primarily offered by private providers, including preschools,
daycare centers, and Head Start programs. Some states do offer state-funded
preschool programs for children from low-income families, but these programs are
not available in all states.

Preschool curriculum in both countries focuses on providing a foundation for

learning, including basic literacy and numeracy skills, social and emotional
development, and physical development. In the UK, there is also a strong focus on
play-based learning, while in the US, there is a trend towards more structured
academic learning in preschool.