11/19/2020 Cp, Cpk, Cm, Cmk, control limits

Statistical Process Control (SPC)

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Cm (capability machine)

The Cm index describes machine capability; it is the

number of times the spread of the machine fits into the
tolerance width. The higher the value of Cm, the better the
machine.

Example: if Cm = 2.5, the spread fits 2½ times into the

tolerance width, while Cm = 1 means that the spread is
equal to the tolerance width.

Note that even if the spread is off-centre, it is still the

same size (Cm index). The figure takes no account of
where the spread is positioned in relation to the upper and
lower tolerance limits, but simply expresses the relation
ship between the width of the spread and the tolerance
width (see Fig. 1).

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Cmk (capability machine index)

If you also want to study the position of the machine’s

capability in relation to the tolerance limits, you use the
Cmk index, which describes the capability corrected for
position. It is not much use having a high Cm index if the
machine setting is way off centre in relation to the middle
of the tolerance range.

A high Cmk index means, then, that you have a good

machine with a small spread in relation to the tolerance
width, and also that it is well centred within that width. If
Cmk is equal to Cm, the machine is set to produce exactly
in the middle of the tolerance range (see Fig. 2).

A normal requirement is that Cmk should be at least 1.67.

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Cp (capability process)
The Cp index describes process capability; it is the number
of times the spread of the process fits into the tolerance
width. The higher the value of Cp, the better the process.

Example: if Cp = 2.5, the spread of the process fits 2½

times into the tolerance width, while Cp = 1 means that
the spread is equal to the tolerance width.

Note that even if the spread is off-centre, it is still the

same size (Cp index). The figure takes no account of
where the spread is positioned in relation to the upper and
lower tolerance limits, but simply expresses the relation

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ship between the width of the spread and the tolerance
width (see Fig. 3).

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Cpk (capability process index)

If you also want to study the position of the process in

relation to the tolerance limits, you use the Cpk index,
which describes the process capability corrected for
position. It is not much use having a high Cp index if the
process setting is way off centre in relation to the middle
of the tolerance range.

A high Cpk index means, then, that you have a good

process with a small spread in relation to the tolerance
width, and also that it is well centred within that width. If
Cpk is equal to Cp, the process is set to produce exactly in
the middle of the tolerance range (see Fig. 4).

A normal requirement is that Cpk should be at least 1.33.

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The six factors

These are the factors that are generally regarded as causing variation in capability
measurements:

Machine (e.g. degree of wear and choice of tooling);

Measurement (e.g. resolution and spread of measuring instrument);
Operator (e.g. how experienced and careful he/she is);
Material (e.g. variations in surface smoothness and hardness);
Environment (e.g. variations in temperature, humidity and voltage);
Method (e.g. type of machining operation).

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Capability

Machine capability
Machine capability is measured in Cm and Cmk; it is a
snapshot picture that shows how well a machine is
performing right now in relation to the tolerance limits.
Figure 6 shows some examples.

When measuring machine capability you must not alter

machine settings or change tools, materials, operators or
measurement methods, stop the machine, etc. In other
words: Out of the six factors, only machine and
measurement are allowed to affect the result.

Read more about The six factors »

Process capability
Process capability is a long-term study, measured in Cp
and Cpk, that shows how well a process is performing in
relation to the tolerance limits while the study is in
progress, as well as indicating likely performance in the
immediate future.

You could say that process capability is the sum of a index

of machine capabilities measured over a period of time
(see Fig. 7).

When measuring process capability, you must include

everything that affects the process, i.e. all six factors.

Read more about The six factors »

Machine capability Process capability

Index Cm and Cmk Cp and Cpk

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Factors influencing result Machine & measurement All six factors

Stoppages Not to be included Included

Adjustments Not to be included Included

No. of components 20–50 in succession 50–250

Time Short Long

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Target value

Imagine a shaft fitted in a round hole.

If the diameter of the shaft is on the large side, it leaves

less-than-optimum room for lubricant between the shaft
and the hole. This results in poorer lubrication, faster wear
and shorter lifetime.

A smallish diameter, on the other hand, means greater-

than-optimum play. The play tends to increase faster,
which also shortens lifetime.

The assembly works best at the target value T, which in

this case is in the middle of the tolerance range (see Fig.
8)

For unilateral properties such as run-out, surface

smoothness or mechanical strength, the target value is
zero (see Fig. 9).

Statistical process control lets you centre your process on

the target value.

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Centring value for target value

This is the distance from the target value T to the mean

value of the machine or process spread (the hump on the
normal distribution curve), expressed as a percentage of
the tolerance width (see Fig. 10).

There is less talk of centring value for target value

nowadays, but the maximum permitted deviation used to
be in the region of TO +15%.

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Normal distribution curve

Also called the bell curve because of its shape, this is the
pattern in which measurement readings are distributed in
most cases as a result of random variations about the
mean value (the highest point on the hump, see Fig. 11).

Note that most of the readings are grouped near the

hump; the farther out toward the edges, the fewer the
readings. In other words it is not very likely that you will
find any components at all giving widely deviant readings
when making normal spot-check measurements. So it is
not enough that the components you happen to measure
are all within the tolerances.

It takes measurements of a large number of components

to determine the size and shape of the bell curve, and that
can be time-consuming. But the standard deviation offers
you a shortcut!

Read about the standard deviation »

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PPM (parts per million)

In a quality control context, PPM stands for the number of

parts per million (cf. percent) that lie outside the tolerance
limits. Cpk 1.00 means that 2 700 PPM (0.27%) of the
manufactured parts are out of tolerance, while Cpk 1.33
means that 63 PPM (0.0063%) are rejects.

Note that the PPM index can be drastically improved by a

relatively small improvement in the capability index (see
Fig. 12).

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Six Sigma

Six Sigma is a philosophy and a mindset for quality

improvement used by companies and organisations. The
method focuses on minimising waste by minimising
variations in processes.

In concrete terms, Six Sigma means that the company's

processes maintain six standard deviations from the mean
value of the process to the nearest tolerance limit. It
follows from this that Cpk 2.0 gives 6 sigma, while for
example Cpk 1.33 gives 4 sigma (see Fig. 13).

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Standard deviation

One standard deviation

This is a statistical function used to calculate the normal
distribution curve, for example. The procedure is that you
measure the distance from the mean value (highest point
on the hump) to the point where the curve changes
direction and starts to swing outward. This distance
constitutes one standard deviation (see Fig. 14).

This means that you do not need to measure hundreds of

components to find out how much the machine or process
is varying. Instead you can calculate the spread using the
standard deviation (see below).

Six standard deviations

To calculate the normal distribution spread, you simply
multiply the standard deviation by 6 to get the total width
of the normal distribution curve. If you had gone on
making measurements you could have plotted the curve,
but now you have calculated it instead (see Fig. 15).

The normal distribution curve is thus derived from one

standard deviation and consists of six of them. These six
account for 99.73% of the actual result. That also means
that 0.27% of the outcome is not included in the normal
distribution curve.

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Control limits

Control limits are an important aspect of statistical process

control. They have nothing to do with tolerance limits,
because they are designed to call your attention when the
process changes its behaviour.

An important principle is that control limits are used along

with the mean value on the control graph to control the
process, unlike tolerance limits, which are used along with
individual measurements to determine whether a given
part meets specifications or not.

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The function of control limits is to centre the process on
the target value, which is usually the same as the middle
of the tolerance width, and to show where the limit of a
stable process lies. This means, in principle, that you have
no reason to react until the control chart signals certain
behaviour.

A commonly used control graph is the XR graph, where the

position and spread of the process are monitored with the
help of sub groups and control limits.

If a point falls outside a control limit on the X graph, the

position of the process has changed (see Fig. 16).

If a point falls outside a control limit on the R graph, the

spread of the process has changed (see Fig. 17).

How are control limits determined?

The correct way is to let the control limits adapt to the
process. That way, a smaller spread in the process gives a
narrower control zone, while a greater spread gives a
wider control zone (see Fig. 18).

It is a widespread myth that this will cause the operator to

adjust the process more often, but in practice the reverse
is true; the process is adjusted less often compared to
operation without SPC. If you let the control limits follow
the process, you will react neither too early nor too late
when the behaviour of the process changes.

Other ways of determining control limits

In some cases there may be difficulties about letting the
control limits adapt to the process. One such case is where
the process uses tools that are not easily adjustable, such
as fixed reamers or punches.

Since such tools often produce very little variation in the

process and therefore allow a narrow control zone without
the possibility of adjusting the tool, it may be better to cut
the control limits loose from the process and lock them to
a given distance from the tolerance limits instead (see Fig.
19).

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Sub group

A sub group consists of a number of individual

measurements (normally three, four or five) made in
sequence from a process. The mean value of these sub-
groups, like the process itself, follows a normal distribution
curve (see Fig. 20).

Mean values show much less variation compared to

individual measurements. This fact, combined with control
limits which follow the process in a control graph, means
that the machine operator no longer over reacts compared
to when adjustment of the process is based on individual
measurements. The operator will therefore, as a rule, both
measure and adjust the process less often, while at the
same time quality will be better.

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