SPOR tt ne ie nn, onnemn encse emma Haan PEG 03 | CONCISE LECTURE NOTES In | UNDERGRADUATE Dea! > MECHANI REE PROGRAM , pAP ee | heart co pd - yn Contest Oy rent Compt ft ‘autrights reserved ‘WHA’ CADCAM: CAN f vanufacturing (CAM). CADCAM means comy jided mi \puter-aided and computer-aides As a result of the identified ‘sit peelt bomeen, CADCAM is a word coined TA the combination of CAD ara GAM: I is used (0-suawthe-folaooSy? between dlesign-and manufacturing. CADCAM is one of the ‘ve identified forms of concur engineering approscnes kas boon coined in such a way that ries alerts of integration between product design and manufacturing. The integration ct. and CAM (CADCAM) allows the passage sign_ data into the proms - ante ign data_of ction for operating and manufacturing phase without manually re-entering geometry. The transferred design data is used as instru controlling manufacturing machinery. (CAD MODEL & GEOMETRIC MODELING Geometric Modeling is a process of representing a parts geomelry with a CAD model. A 80 model isa virlual representation of @ part as an image in the ‘computer. There are three types of models used in CAD: ar os wee OS oF nse we vi - 2D model Be PF HO Cent i. = 23-D mod 4D i: = 3Dmodel ‘A significant difference exists between the three types of CAD models. 2D noel nl i -P model is used to, represen ao and ‘are very similar to orthographic pl nt various single views of a 3-D,part. 2-D, models appear very rojectionss produced traditionally. High. of Se joni roqued 10 visual the +O. object represented with several 2-D mod 21. model 2 ® of models ae different from a 2-D model in that hey shew more than one view : These Ft that they represent. They aro very similar to 2D models because they are obec nroe dimensions. However. the length that represents the tid dimension of BD models is simply an extrusion of a 2-D model profile of the 2¥4-D model inthe direction | BAN Jenath only. Hence, 22D models have constant cut across section view. ; | ra ee Cok AROS ep hm W's j1 sente Smee like 2%D models, are also repre to t veral feature’ rf jels due to the se Extrusion. Most engineering objects appear as 3-D mod x jodels: , A» for 3-D CAD m o operations that exist in them. There are three representations 3-D wireframe model 3-Dsurface model 3D solid model sD wir fe interpretation 3D wicane neo erento in the computer by wana ra cles cross Of Some 3-D wireframe models presents a certain level of difficul there are disadvantages Nature of the edge line representation of the models. Inasmuch as ‘see Table 1. fusing 3-D wietrame models however, they also offer some advantages, [Tait Advantages and Disadvantages of wirame model ‘Advantages: Low storage space requirement Disadvantages: [7 | Difficult to interpret [2 [Easy to manipulate Very ambiguous when used for complex objects [3 ‘No surface an 4 rior Nol useful for engineering analyses to their surface design, no'mass properties (pros and cons in Table 2 ) : Advantages and Disadvantage of 3. surface models Aan Disadvantages: T_| Easy to visualize Undefined interior 2 [Can be shaded or rendered Limited analysis can be performed | it] sou L | Ths is panel stat in. CAD. Unlike the wireframe OF Surface mi model face models, @ 3D sold, i Presenting an object. This is because 3D soiig models represent objec inthe virtual environment of the computer just as they exist in the ee ee tier aia Surfaces and edges, The Inieror of 3D song objects are et in the model, a8 well as the outer surf re faces. AS @ result of3D solig roblem of the undefined intetior nature of 3D surfac pl Models, the @ Models became ‘solved, i ling stated with a technique caled constructive i (CSG) of 90 sold ‘rose a This type of modeling tI Seen me Combination of primitives exch aa aa ae ne rg Oder Hasien is and sphres, One priming ea oy SI pieced som primitives to produce a ad ». One pri d be translating ito ty te Object usuaily by ‘Scaling ‘ the desired size, transiating it to the desireq Position, and rotating it tothe cock: ptralve fo ion CSG tes a Weakness In hat he ment proce ne ae dest ae bee on geometric primitives fs very more abstract ‘compared to the mental, solid | = ” “i jimensions. However, unlike .” ed In three dime i . ke ‘oss-sectional views along thei length 2D is, 3-D models do not have. constant cr ional view "%-D models, 3-D models.requited for design overcomes this weakness," SHlSc8 in realty, Consisintbased sold modeling ig together geometric primitives, the constraint- creation of 2D “sketch* of an the modelling pracess more natural. It begins with the bbut should reflect the basic geomet Far ee apne afschiesaly nood rol he, rece try of the object's cross | shape. The profile Is then comple sectional shape. constraints fea ba size by adding dimensional, geometric and parametric, nstraint-t i y revolving or extruding the 2b Sern bilan modelling.) Finally a 3D object is created by ‘SOME USES OF SOLID MODELS. 4. Computer-aided ‘manufacturin, i 19 (CAM) or Rapid Manufacturing (RM) 2, Assembly Operations eee G sh noe 3. Motion Simulation/Analysis ya wS 4, 2D Drawing or Drafting i Land "y 5. Rendering aa Productivity gains of solid modelling _ The promise of productivity gains for 3D solid modelling was delivered as a result of five key characteristics of high — end CAD software. These five characteristics are: 1. Feature-based modelling few 2. Constraint-based modeling eas 3. Parametric modeling pw 4. History-based modeling 5. 5. Associative modeling KS Feature-based modelling character A feature is defined as the building block of a solid model. The combination of various features result in a complete model. Features in a solid model have direct comparison to geometries that can be manufactured or machined. As a result ofthis comparison, feature- based modelling tries to make the modelling process more efficient by creating and modifying geometric features of a solid model in a way that represents how geometries are created using common manufacturing processes. A base feature Is defined as a solid model ‘that is just about the size and shape of the part that is to be modelled. The base feature is created by revolving or extruding the profile of a cross section to obtain a 3D solid model. In succession, all other features reference the base feature either directly or indirectly. The base feature could be likened to an initial work block which is shaped by the subsequent features or operations. Constraint-based modelling character | This characteristic allows the engineer or designer to satisfy design intents through the incorporation of “intelligence” into the 3D solid model design. In constraint-based modelling, the initial sketch of @ 2D profile does not need to be created with a great deal of accuracy, eksection. The exact ae the 20 profile just needs to represent the basic geomety of i ameter to fully oa and shape of the 20 prof is dfined by assioning 2409.° iy et the profile. Some of these constraints are applied automat act, Tis 5 one oF He traditional CAD software, the sketch of the 2D profile needs to competitive advantage in areas, in this characteristic, where high: fare ofr gn intent ofthe engineer fulfling its promise of gaine in productivity, Another is thatthe d28'0" 7 modeling: remains intact as the part ls modified. The folowing constraints are 1, Dimensional constraints 2. Geometric constraints 3. Assembly constraints Dimensonal constraints are used to specify distances between the elements of 2 a model skotch protie, Geometric conetreinis are used io express postonal real 9°80 7 betwoen entities inthe modal in relaon to the geomely. Geometric, consrain's © particularly useful in bullding assemblies of individual solid objects. Dimensional and geometric constraints are typically combined to fully constrain a ‘solid object. Assembly Constraints are used to maintain the design intent of assembled products. They are used f0 keep the components of assemblies in the desires position and orientation. Parametric modelfing character Parametric characteristic of a solid mode! Is defined as the modification of a parameter of the solid model in order to effect a change in the geometry of the model, A parameter could be defined as a variable limit or boundary in which a solld model exists. Dimension is a simple example of a parameter. When the dimension of a solid model is changed, the geometry of the model updates accordingly. Hence, the parameter of a model drives the geometry of the model. This feature of parametric modelling differentiates it from other modelling systems, in which the dimension updates Itself to reflect a change in the geometry. Another feature of parametric modeling is that the parameters can reference other parameters through Felations or equations and this is often used in assembly applications of some high-end CAD software. History-based modelling character ‘The order In which parts ara created within CAD software ip very cial in enginaoring design. Leading high-end CAD systems records the creation history of apart. This history is seresord of the order of operaions used 10 create the part, not why they were used, Frowever, when the order of oreetion ofa parts srctured in logical sequence, it makes it vrover tor other engineers (who were not part ofthe design team for that particular pat) to sarerd make informed decisions onthe design intent of the part ether for inovative or 17 eufacturing purposes. In high-end CAD software, the, design intent of part is rorafaned by the feature ofthe history based modeling known as parent-child relation. The Mragntchid relation is all ebout the principe that some features cannot eit without other aareos. The child feature cannot exst without the parent feature existing fst. For the ease roatiding subsequent features and making modficatons, a serious reasoning and planning Sha base feature and the inal additional features is necessary,Associative character This character ensures th; at a chay associated ge in a part i Sigiial Tan eae example when a dimension of toma reece scosngy Ina is immediately updated. gag tctlet eprlcalon ofa GAD sonwers tha dnaraich drension wil be automatcaly rete on any sos rasoray hat pot he drawing or accombiy a dimension inthe part model wil automaticly be refecod inthe ala te mein ‘cluding the part. This attribute of high-end solid modelling software tion of parts easier, faster and less prone to error. File Exchange Formats between CAD Systems See mn usually involves . collaboration. As the world becomes linked conreneaty ta e-mails, intranet and the internet, engineering graphics are routinely ferred as intra-company or intercompany electronic documents within and across geographical locations. Occasionally this involves the need to import or export drawings created using one CAD systems to another CAD system. This would not ordinarily be possible as each CAD system usually saves a part's geometry and feature-based design intent in its own format. Some neutral formats exist that can be used to transfer documents between different CAD software. They include: 1. Initial Graphics Exchange Specification (IGES) 2. Standard for the Exchange of Product data (STEP) 3. Computer Aided Acquisition and Logistics Support (CALS) 4, Standard d'Exchange et de Transfer (SET) 5. . Drawing eXchange Format (DXF) Itis to be noted, however, that the problem with many of the standard file exchange formats ig that the design intent buil into the model through the constraint-based modeling is often Tost in the standard formal, As a result, modifying the standard format after it has been xported to different CAD software becomes dificul,To soe this problem, sofware is now svaitable to interpret not only the geometry of solld models, but also the full constraint sased design intent between major CAD systems. How Do WE CREATE 3D SOLID OBJECTS? inorder to use a CAD system effectively, itis helpful to understand the design principles that proved the interface as well as what is going on behind the Interface. When working with BAD systems, itis recommended to think in terms of functionality rather than the icons (that appear on the screen). This way it helps to switch between systems. For one starting joumey into CAD systems, It would be advantageous in many circumstances to put effort in understanding the principle behind CAD systems while learning a particular system. Often there are a number of different approaches for modeling 4 given part. The approach adopted will depend on the following factors: |The experience and skill of the CAD user The complexity of the part The possibilty for a redesign The design intent The preference of the CAD user. FRO ‘THE FOUR BASIC STAGES IN CAD MODELLING However, irrespective of the approach adopted by a CAD designer, th stages involved inthe design process using CAD systems, These four stages @ low: four basic ere or, are described ing a part's 2. Geometric modeling. Geometric modeling is a process of representing @ geometry with a CAD model Tineke tne decerstion of a physical object or ee sraponents analytically or mathematically. To construct a geometric model, instructions are given by way of commands in order to create or modify lines, surfaces, ‘of 20 dimensions, and text. The creation of a 3D object may start with the creation ‘sketch’ which is then converted to a 3D CAD object. The 3D object is displayed on the computer screen and can be moved around on the screen. Any desired section of the 3D object can be magnified to view its detalls. The data representing the Information of the created CAD model are stored in the database contained in the computer memory. These data can be stored in form of wireframe, surface model or solid model. However, only solid models can be used in production, b. Design analysis and optimization. After the geometric features of a particular design have been determined, the design is subjected to an engineering analysis. This stage may consist of analyzing stresses, strains, deflections, vibrations, heat transfer, temperature distribution, or dimensional tolerances. Different sophisticated software Packages such as CATIA, NX and others are available, each having the capabilities to Compute these quantities accurately and rapidly (but validation is highly recommended). Owing fo the relative ease with which such analyses can now be done , designers increasingly becoming willing to analyze a design more thoroughly before it moves on to production. ¢. Design review and evaluation. This activity involves checking for any interference between various components in an assembly. The reason for doing this Is to avold difficulties during assembly or in use ofthe components and to determine whether moving members (such as linkages) are going to operate as intended. High-end CAD/ software with animation capabilities is availabe to identify potential problems with moving members sand other dynamic situations. During the design review and evaluation, pare are dimensioned and tolerance precisely tothe full degree required for producing thane d. Documentation and drafting. This is usualy the last stage in the CAD process. It involves the reproduction of the design ‘by automated drafting” wate documentation and reference. Detailed working drawings are developed or Saree this stage. The CAD system is also capable of developing and drafting sectional views of the component, scaling the drawings, and performing transformations: different views of the component,fp CAD OPERATIONS AND FUNCTIONALITIES Boolean Operations The Boolean operations (als 30 Cal two solid objects to from one ee produced, extrusion of the sk “Set operations” or “Boolean Set Operations") combine intended or desired solid ‘obje a in one of three main ways. Once a sketch has been will create a solid model, In order create the design from of adding to the i lect, additional features will need to be created by cutting awey initial protruded sketch (usually called the base feature). This can be done by either i Boolean Gace e features, or using other protruded sketches with any of the three add/subtract “material” from the existing solid. In fact, for more detailed alt A setae, aacatons to the orga protrusion, altemate extrusions ar mos! likely to be , the use of Boolean operations within CAD the software will be required. 'n actual fact, there are other related ; din Boolean operations are: techniques, but the three principle combinations uset 1. Add oF Union or Unite: This unites two extruded volumes: 2. Subtract or Difference or Remove: This subtract one volume from the main volume 3. Intersect: This retains only the volume common to the two volumes concerned. The Boolean combinations are called different names in different CAD software. Extrusion Operation The process involves “pulling” a 2D profile or a direction as an addition or subtraction from the shape. Extrusion offers depth options, up to ext options, up to last options and so on, The classical parameter is a depth valve — a real Thurber, but the other options offer the possibilily to set the limit dynamically. This plays a vital role when modeling parametrically. Alternative names for extrusion are stretch or pull. 3D solid face incrementally in a linear Revolving Operation Revolve isthe angular equivalent of extrusion. Itinvolves extruding a profile round an axis. Mirroring Operation This tool makes it possible to create hal if of a part and then complete the remaining part in a single operation using mirroring axis or plane. Chamfering Operation This operation could be used for functional reasons or for completing part of a design. In Tr ome where It isnot pat ofa design, is used for funcional reasons to remove sharp stiges trom a pat, reduce stress concentration and to aid insertion for automated assembly process. Blending Operation Blending is a powerful aspect of solid modelling that finds exceptional application in product styling. healthcare engineering and sanitary designs. Blending has ili Smroothiy contoured features that enhances the look and ergonomics of ootd modal. The Bending operation is very similar to Chamfering operation. It can also be used to remove sharp edges, alleviate stress concentration and to aid automated insertion, differing from serfering only in geometry or shape. However, Blending is the most widely used forbe added as the ding can Benne Filleting of Loft. ic jodels. ration in m Rounding oF functional reasons to reduce stress concent 7 5 for Blending are original feature of a design. Alternative name: asolid model. This g the components jection Drafting Operation ‘The Draft operation is the process of adding a taper angle operation is one the most important operations, especially WT that need to cast, moulded, or formed. Draft angles facil components from the die. to the faces of lly while creatin Pr litate the easy ey Shelling Operation The shell tool is used to create a uniform thin walled structure bY material from a selected face of a solid model. One of the areas application is in the design of electronic casing such as those manufactured with Thermoplastics (Polyamides, Polycarbonates, Polymethyl methacrylate) including computer monitor casing, flat screen TV casing, Lamp holders, printer casings, automobile light covers, etc. removing a portion of s where Shell finds Rib Operation Rib i one the most essential advanced modeling tools. Itis used to add structural strength to parts especially shelled parts. The process involves sweeping an open or closed profile along an open or closed centre curve. Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) This is defined as the use of a computer-aided design (CAD)-based automated additive manufacturing process 10 construct parts that are used directly as finished products 6° Components. Some available high-end engineering software have the capability to cetemnatically generate machine tool paths to machine the object based on the solid model. ‘the software does this by simulating the removal of material from an intial lock of material lowing the engineer to optimize the machining operation. The generated (od! paths could ae raneferred onto computer numerle conirol (CNC) machine tools through DNC or punched tapes for the actual operation to be done using codes. The CNC machine tool automatically «epee oa the desired suifaces from a block of material with very high precision. The actual GNC operation allows many Identical pats to be mactined automatically and directly based ‘on the solid model. Rapid Prototyping (RP) is another form of computer-aided manufacturing operation based on the solid model and involves the 2D printing process. itis an additive process, whereby parts are built, layer by layer, directly from a solid CAD model. A prototype is a representation of part that will ultimately be produced by some manufacturing process. The prototypes are Reed for physical observation of the solid model and as atool for communicating ideas. As in the case of the ‘CNC machine, the solid model of the design engineer can be downloaded or transferred unto 2 rapid prototyping machine. This machine automatically builds up a part by driving lasers that solidify liquid plastic resin, a robotic system to dispense a fine bead of Sra plastic, oF laser that cuts layers of paper. New systems are oven currently available to build up metal parts in similar ways. Usually within just few hours, layers are built up in all these cases, to become physical object of the computer solid model. It has now been these onable, by these manufacturing tools, o obtain pars from CAD models in several hours instead of several weeks. To site an example, the Ford Puma car is an example of |uct fo have been des, lgned fre complete design process otal on a Computer resulting in a record time-scale of for raditional methods, 135 days compared to more than a year using the Assembly Operations An assembly i solid cbiece oe rh Of two oF more solid objects to form a product. When several in addition to visualization they can be assembled In the virtual environment ofthe computer. ft together properly and nother reason for assembling solid objects is to ensure that they design of products can ban meal Assembly is een es one area where considerable ring about sul products can be assembled oon ibstantial cost savings. A good knowledge on how lead to the economic manufacture of the product. 3D assembly mod lel can be configured Into various ‘exploded views. In leading high-end CAD Software, objects are assembled using two approaches. 4. Top-Down Assembly [kes cine Md 2. Bottom-Up Assembly In Top-Down assembly, the solid objects are modelled and assembled In the same CAD software environment on the computer which Is precisely the assembly environment. Whereas in Bottom-Up assembly, the solid objects are modelled in a different CAD software environment on the computer and then imported and assembled in the CAD software assembly environment on the computer. The Bottom-Up approach is the most preferred for assembling solid objects. In advanced engineering design modelling, some expressions are used fo add ‘intelligence’ to an assembly to enable automatic updates to changes made to the solid model, usually the base model. Also constraints are used to keep objects in position. This shortens a product time-to-market (TTM) and encourages justin-time (JIT) approach in product design. Motion Simulation/Analysis Motion simulation is an integrated, associative CAE tool that provides comprehensive mechanism modeling and analysis capabilities. Motion simulation is used to simulate and evaluate mechanical systems for such characteristics as large displacements, complex Tange of motion, accelerations, forces, lock-up positions, work envelopes, and object interference. A mechanism consists of motion objects (such as joints, springs, dampers, forces, torques etc.) Motion analysis is used to study and check the working of mechanisms dynamically making it retatvely simple to check limits and interferences of the solid objects ‘rvolved. As isthe case of assembly, a minimum of two solid objects are required to create a mechanism. jing of Drafting onee te een ‘of a 3D solid model Is completed, it is easy fo generate the 2D orthographic views of the solid object. This is a major advancement from other modeling Schemes because in traditional CAD, the 3D model is derived from the 2D drawings whereas with solid modelling, the 2D drawings are generated as views of the 3D virtual model of the Shject. Cut sections of the 3D model can also be represented on the 2D drawings because the volume of the solid object is Properly Fepresented in a solid model making it possible to slice through the object and show a view of the object that reveals the interior details,2D drawings of assembled sold Objects including the exploded views are also generated in the drafting application of CAD software. Assembly drawings usually shows a table Containing information on component names, drawing number, quantities required and most times the Material required for each component. This table is called Part Lists or Bill of Materials (BOM). tae automatically defined, once a solid model is generated. Hence, it is possible {0 shade or ren; et the surface of a 3d solid model the same way as a 3D surface model, Rendering provides a thy alc image ofthe 3D sold object which permits a mush more lear communication of the ‘nature of the object.