The Development of a Change Management

Dependency Framework
Andrew Fleming 1
Martin Sexton, Ph.D. 2
Ming Sun, Ph.D. 3
Sepani Seneratne 4
Ghassan Aouad, Ph.D. 5

Abstract

This paper provides an interim report on the development of a Change Management

Dependency Framework. The Framework is being developed as part of an EPSRC funded
research project entitled Managing Change and Dependency in Construction. Concentrating
on construction project change The Framework aims to enable construction projects to
consider the changes that occur during projects by taking a process management
perspective. With a view that if changes can be understood they can be more effectively
managed in the future. The causes, stimulus and triggers for a change event are considered
in terms of external, inter-organisational and project level. The consequences are considered
in terms of indirect and direct. The project characteristics are considered that may impact the
change event.

1
Andrew Fleming is a Research Fellow in the School of Construction and Property
Management, University of Salford, UK.
2
Martin Sexton is a Senior Lecturer in the School of Construction and Property Management,
University of Salford, UK.
3
Ming Sun is a Professor in Construction and Property Informatics in the
Faculty of the Built Environment, University of the West of England, UK.
4
Sepani Seneratne is a Reseacher in the School of Construction and Property Management.,
University of Salford, UK.
5
Ghassan Aouad is a Professor in Construction IT and Head of School of Construction and
Property Management, University of Salford, UK.
INTRODUCTION

The UK construction industry was the focus of an in depth study carried out by a UK
Government task force in 1998. Headed by Sir John Egan the task force produced the
document “Rethinking Construction.” The report found that one third of major construction
client’s were currently dissatisfied with how their construction products were being delivered
to them by the industry. They were unhappy with contractor performance in three key areas;
cost, quality and time. Consultants also drew criticism in the areas of team co-ordination,
design and innovation, timeliness, reliability and value for money. Couple these factors with
the statistic that fifty percent of construction projects suffer from delay and over expenditure
and that over thirty percent of completed projects have quality defects and the client’s have a
reasonable expectation that the industry will take measures to improve.

THE MANAGING CHANGE AND DEPENDENCY PROJECT

The EPSRC funded research project Managing Change and Dependency in

Construction aims to examine how construction projects manage change and is aiming to
identify an improved method that will enhance project delivery and client satisfaction. The
research is being undertaken collaboratively between The University of Salford, The
University of The West of England and Loughborough University.
Initially it was important to define the boundaries of the project and the type of change
that the project would investigate. According to the Oxford Dictionary, change “is an instance
of making or becoming different; the substitution of one thing or set of conditions for another;
alteration in state or quality.” When this definition is considered in terms of a construction
environment change can be seen to occur in many forms. Change may be initiated for many
reasons. For example, a design may include errors that need correcting, or a value
engineering exercise may have highlighted possible design improvements.
It was decided to concentrate on changes that occur after the design has been fixed.
Changes that occur prior to this point are considered to be part of the natural evolution of the
design. Once the project has entered the construction phase the design should be as
complete as possible. Incomplete designs that are passed onto the construction team may
cause further changes and construction complications.
The research team made a decision to undertake a series of case studies, to identify
and analyse examples of change that occur during the construction phase. To date the case
studies are not complete, although several change examples have been identified and
documented. Once documented it became apparent that the change examples could be
considered in three parts, the cause, the consequence and the project characteristics
impacting upon it. These three parts comprise the change event, Figure 4.

THE CHANGE AND DEPENDENCY FRAMEWORK

The Change and Dependency Framework (subsequently referred to as The

Framework) has been developed to consider the cause, consequence and project
characteristics in greater detail. The Framework enables users to produce a rich description
of the change event. It is suggested that project management activities at all phases of the
construction process will benefit. Especially since research has shown that projects with a
high degree of change experience lower productivity (Ibbs 1994). Therefore by using The
Framework to consider and manage change an improvement in productivity should be
achieved.
CAUSAL FACTORS IN THE PROPOGATION OF CHANGE EVENTS

The modern construction project is subject to influential forces from a multitude of

sources. These forces can be classified as external pressures, inter-organisational pressures
and project level pressures, Figure 1. It is these forces that can cause a change event to
occur. By describing the applied force and its relationship with the project a root cause can be
defined. It is very important to attempt to identify and understand this cause. A good
understanding will help when planning future projects and should reduce the number of future
changes that occur. Changes are caused through the imposition of global / external pressures
as well as internal / project pressures that are imposed (Stocks 1999, Ibbs 2001).
One organisation that places an importance on classifying the cause of change is the
US Navy (Stocks, 1999). They have developed a system that once a cause has been
identified it is codified. For example, CREQ will indicate that the customer or client has
requested a change based on new or revised functional requirements.

Fig. 1, Causal classifications

External / Global

Inter-organisational

Project

EXTERNAL CAUSES

External causes originate from outside the realm of the organisations that are
undertaking the project and the project entity itself. This type of cause cannot be controlled
from within the project domain. External conditions should be monitored to enable these
causes to be prepared for and managed effectively. The Construction Industry is subjected to
change from events that occur on a global level. Al-Sedairy (2001) remarks that increased
global competition, technological innovation and a growing scarcity of resources all exert
great pressures. Atkinson (2002), states that during the course of one week a quarter of the
errors on a construction site were attributable to economic, time and societal pressures.

Inter-organisational Causes

To perform the process of construction it is necessary for a multitude of organisations

to collaborate thus forming an inter-organisational network. When change originates from
within this network it is referred to as “change caused by inter-organisational factors.” To
manage this type of change, The Framework suggests that the process, people and technical
elements should be harmonised.
Project causes

Project causes originate from within the boundaries of the project organisation. When
change originates from within the “project organisation” it is referred to as “change caused by
project factors”. Al-Sedairy (2001) refers to issues emanating from within the project
organisation as being internal. According to Stephenson et al (2002) there are several internal
factors that are likely to cause failure; these include design error, workmanship error, faulty
materials, and procedural error. Therefore The Framework suggests three areas for
consideration when examining change caused by the project, people issues, design process
change issues and construction process change issues.
By considering aspects of project team management it may be possible to reduce the
number of project errors, increase accuracy and therefore reduce the amount of change that
originates from the project level. The Framework suggests that examining items such as
communication (Atkinson 2002), skills (Tombesi 2000, Williams 1988, Kaming et al 1997),
team composition, leadership, uncertainty, role ambiguity (Webster 1999), document
misinterpretation and human error (Kim 1989) could achieve this.
Design process change issues are those changes that occur as a natural result of the
project’s design process. Improved management can be achieved by considering the
common causes of design change. Wantanakon et al (1995) states that design changes are
frequently caused by modifications in design, specifications, details, omissions and alterations
in the method of construction in order to avoid interference among various tasks and
amendments made by the client.
Construction process change issues are those changes that occur as a natural result
of the project’s construction process. This refers to changes to construction that originate from
causes during the construction phase. These changes can be caused by adopting new
construction techniques / methods, damage, poor workmanship and site conditions.

PROJECT CHARACTERISTICS / CONDITIONS

The change events that occur on a project can cause substantial adjustment to the
contract duration time, total direct and indirect cost (Tiong 1990; Ibbs 1997; Ibbs et al. 1998).
Therefore it is important to consider the project and its characteristics to determine whether
the project is itself acting as an incubator for change to occur. It may be possible to re-
configure the project to reduce non-beneficial changes. For example, if a change originates
because of an error in the design documentation and the project in question has an extensive
design team and a complex design then the change may be exacerbated if the project has
non-effective communication protocols.
According to the Construction Industry Institute the project characteristics are the
elements that comprise the form of a project for example, complexity, scope, delivery and the
project controls (Ibbs 1994). The Framework also views organisational and project team
issues as contributing towards the project characteristics. The characteristics considered by
the framework are project scope, team, delivery and execution and the project controls, see
Figure 2.

Change Characteristics

There are tools / strategies available to construction projects that will help them
manage change. When these are applied, the project will assume certain change
characteristics. Construction projects vary in terms of client, contractor, location, team, budget
and schedule. Therefore different projects will have different drivers and therefore require
different tools / strategies. For example a retail client may require the contractor to be able to
incorporate design changes at very late notice. Therefore it is important to understand the
context in which the project takes place when designing the change characteristics. The
framework considers several approaches that can affect the change characteristics of a
project.
Changes can be proactively anticipated and built in to the programme, or they can be
reactively considered as and when they arise (Ibbs et al, 2001).
 Change may be implemented gradually or radically. Gradual implementation over a
period of time may be chosen to minimise disruption, align with budgets or simply because
the change cannot be implemented immediately. A radical implementation will change
fundamental aspects of the project, often unexpectedly, for example, upon arrival of an
unscheduled component changes may need to be made to save the schedule from disruption.
The evaluation of change as either essential (involuntary change) or non essential
(voluntary change) to a project’s success. By prioritising changes it will be possible to allocate
resources to the most essential changes (Ibbs 1994).

Fig. 2, Project and change characteristics

Project and Change Characteristics

Project Scope, Project Change

Organisation and Controls Controls
Delivery

THE CHANGE EVENT CONSEQUENCE

The change event consequence is concerned with the change event after it has been
caused. The New Shorter Oxford Dictionary, states that consequence “is the relation of an
effect to its cause” therefore, if the consequence of a change event is understood it will allow
the project to be planned and the change to be successfully integrated with the minimum of
disruption. This will enable key decisions to be made, for example whether to abort the
change because the consequences are too disruptive. Considering the consequence of a
change in this way will be a departure from the common industry practice of quantifying the
amalgamated changes at the end of a project (Akinsola, 1997). The Framework identifies
direct and indirect consequences.

Direct Consequences

Direct consequences are directly attributable to a change event and will have an
identifiable and clearly defined effect on the project. They will often have quantifiable metrics.
Failure to meet quality standards and alterations to the project budget or schedule may be
viewed as direct consequences. The Framework also considers work additions, deletions and
revisions to the project (Ibbs, 2001).

Indirect Consequences

Indirect consequences can be attributed to change events that occur during

construction projects. They differ from direct consequences in that those can be measured by
quantitative methods. Indirect consequences are often intangible and require qualitative
measures to assess them. For example, lower morale amongst the project team could be a
consequence of change and to measure this would require developing a measurement
method especially for this. It is important to consider the indirect consequences. Often they
are not immediately apparent and may appear insignificant, however Merna (Merna et al
1996) states that “variations having only a small direct cost effect can sometimes have a large
indirect cost effect.” This suggests that indirect consequences can eventually have a direct
consequence. The Framework identifies several indirect consequences that may occur on
construction projects; disputes, coordination failures and errors, uncertainty, lower
productivity, indirect time consequences, intangible human issues, rework, wastage of
resources, lower profit earnings and interrupted cash flow.

Fig. 3, Change event consequences

Indirect Intangible and

Consequence qualitative
Consequence
Direct Tangible and
Consequence quantifiable

The project team may or may not be aware of all the changes that occur during a project’s
lifecycle. By actively looking for signs of indirect or direct consequences, it is possible that
smaller change events will be identified. These may have been dealt with at an operational
level and therefore not documented. There will also be changes that have been documented.
The framework will allow both of these change events to be audited.

CHANGE REVIEW

A change review mechanism enables errors and mistakes to be identified and

corrected. Depending on the project and the management system in place, reviews can occur
during the pre project, ongoing project or post project stages. This will provide information that
can adjust and improve the current project or be used when planning the next one, as Ibbs
(2001) comments that “The fifth and last principle of the change management system is to
learn continuously from the mistakes that cause changes”.
Change events may be reviewed individually or collectively to determine how they
have been managed by the project. The review must use appropriate measures to determine
this (Cameron and Whetton, 1983), as inappropriate measures will draw the wrong
conclusions. The remedies will be wrong and current or future project performance will be
lowered.
A measure of change performance may be indicated by the amount of down time or
inactive work periods that a change event has caused. Another indicator may be the level of
work that is ineffective, for example work that has to be redone or repaired. Relating the
change events to the following physical, control and process elements may provide an
indication of how the project has performed.

The physical aspects of the project that could have been subject to a change
including, labour, materials, plant and environment.
The control systems that control how the project is managed and progresses, for
example the project management strategy employed on the project.
The procedures and processes employed on the project. Where new processes are
implemented or new models adopted, this represents a change to the way the project
is performed.

THE FRAMEWORK CONTENT

The content of The Framework consists of the elements previously described; the
causes, the consequences, the project/change characteristics and the change review. These
elements are illustrated on templates that have been designed on Visio and show four levels
of decomposition.
A key requirement for representing The Framework is that no special or technical
skills should be required for interpreting and using The Framework. The key was in the
representation (Cheung, 1998) of the process and it was felt that none of the tools available
met the project’s requirements. Therefore it was necessary to develop an original process
map template. A map was created that represented all of the information that the project
required.

CONCLUSION

The Framework aims to provide construction professionals, academics and others

associated with the management of project change with a tool that will enable them to
consider and analyse the changes that occur on projects from cause to consequence. To
determine whether a change is feasible and to provide a result that is favourable to all parties.
What may be beneficial to one member may not be to another and it is important that this
knowledge is available to support the team decision-making process.
As can be seen in Figure 4, the causes may be examined to help with forecasting and
planning activities. The consequences may be examined to help identify changes that have
occurred and to aid understanding. The Framework also prompts consideration as to how the
project is equipped to manage change. Over the course of several projects a library of change
events could be developed that can be integrated with an IT application to compare future
scenarios against past cases.

Figure 4: Components of a change event

Post Change Review

Change Event

External
Indirect
Consequence
Inter-
organisational Consequence
Cause

Direct
Project Consequence

Project and Change Characteristics

Project Scope, Project Controls Change Controls

Organisation and
Delivery
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