Pacific Linguistics Series D - No.: D-45 CC BY-SA 4.0

PACIFIC LINGUISTICS
Series D - No. 45
A DESCRIPTIVE STUDY OF JAVANESE
by
Ig natius Suharno
(MATERIALS IN LANGUAGES OF INDONESIA No.ll)
W.A.L. Stokhof, Series Editor
Department of Linguistics
Research School of Pacific Studies
THE AUSTRALIAN NATIONAL UNIVERSITY
Suharno, I. A Descriptive Study of Javanese.

D-45, xiv + 189 pages. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1982. DOI:10.15144/PL-D45.cover
©1982 Pacific Linguistics and/or the author(s). Online edition licensed 2015 CC BY-SA 4.0, with permission of PL. A sealang.net/CRCL initiative.
PACIFIC LINGUISTICS is issued through the Linguistic
Circle of Canberra and consists of four series:
SERIES A - Occasional Papers

SERIES B - Monographs
SERIES C - Books
SERIES D - Special Publications
EDITOR: S.A. Wurm
ASSOCIATE EDITORS: D.C. Laycock, C.L. Voorhoeve, D.T. Tryon, T.E. Dutton
EDITORIAL ADVISERS:
B.W. Bender John Lynch

University of Hawaii University of Papua New Guinea
David Bradley K.A. McElhanon
University of Melbourne University of Texas
A. Capell H.P. McKaughan
University of Sydney University of Hawaii
S.H. Elbert P. Miihlhiiusler
University of Hawaii Linacre College, Oxford
K.J. Franklin G.N. O'Grady
Summer Institute of Linguistics University of Victoria, B.C.
W.W. Glover A.K. Pawley
Summer Institute of Linguistics University of Auckland
G.W. Grace K.L. Pike University of Michigan;
University of Hawaii Summer Institute of Linguistics
M.A.K. Halliday E.C. Polom�
University of Sydney University of Texas
A. Healey Gillian Sankoff
Summer Institute of Linguistics University of Pennsylvania
L.A. Hercus W.A.L. Stokhof National Center for
Australian National University Language Development, Jakarta;
Nguy�n Bl1ng Li�m University of Leiden
University of Hawaii J.W.M. Verhaar
Gonzaga University, Spokane
All correspondence concerning PACIFIC LINGUISTICS, including

orders and subscriptions, should be addressed to:
The Secretary
PACIFIC LINGUISTICS
Department of Linguistics
Research School of Pacific Studies
The Australian National University
P.O. Box 4, Canberra, A.C:r. 2600
Australia.
Copyright 0 The Author
First Published 1982
The editors are indebted to the Australian National University for assistance in
the production of this series.
This publication was made possible by an initial grant from the Hunter Douglas
Fund.
National Library of Australia Card Number and ISBN 0 85883 258 5

TABLE O F CONTENTS
Page
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 1 - THE JAVANESE PHONEMES 1

1.1. Sounds as the Elements of Javanese Words 1
1.2. Structural Classification of the Javanese Sounds 2
1.3. Phonotactics of the Consonants and the Vowels 6
CHAPTER 2 - THE STRUCTURE OF THE WORD 11

2.1. Chafe's Framework 11
2.2. Definition of Terms 13
2.2.1. The Simple Word 13
2.2.2. The Composed Word 13
2.2.3. The Nuclear Word 14
2.2.4. The Peripheral Word 14
2.2.5. The Affix 14
2.2.6. Notational Symbols 14
2.3. The Surface Structure of the Simple Word 15
2.3.1. Monosyllabic Word 15
2.3.2. Non-monosyllabic Simple Word 16
2.3.2.1. The Appendage a 17
2.3.2.2. The Appendage � 17
2.3.2.3. The Appendage q 17
2.4. The Structure of the Composed Word 17
2.4.1. The Affixation of a Verb 19
2.4.1.1. The Verb with m6 r6- • • • "- mE r- • • • 19
2.4.1.2. The Verb with kap i-. . . 19
2.4.1.3. The Verb with kam i - . . . 19
2.4.1.4. The Verb with kum6- • • • 19
111
iv
Page
2.4.1.5. The Verb with a- . . . 19
2.4.1.6. The Verb with m ( a } - . . . 19
2.4.1.7. The Verb with (a)Ns-.. . 20
2.4.1.8. The Verb with ka- . . . � kE- ... 20
2.4.1.9. The Verb with d i - ... 20
2.4.1.10. The Verb with taq- . . . � daq - . .. 20
2.4.1.11. The Verb with k6q- ... 20
2.4.1.12. The Verb with . . . - i n- . . . 21
2.4.1.13. The Verb with . . . -um- . . . 21
2.4.1.14. The Verb with .. - r - . ..
. 21
2.4.1.15. The Verb with . .. (n) i - 21
2.4.1.16. The Verb with ... a n - 21
2.4.1.17. The Verb with . . . -En 22
2.4.1.18. The Verb with ... -6 22
2.4.1.19. The Verb with ... - ak e 22
2.4.2. The Affixation of a Noun 22
2.4.2.1. The Noun with par i - . . . 23
2.4.2.2. The Noun with p ra- . . . � pE r - ... 23
2.4.2.3. The Noun with pVw(Ns) 23
2.4.2.4. The Noun with ka- . . . � kE - . .. 23
2.4.2.5. The Noun with · . . - an 23
2.4.2.6. The Noun with · . .- (n)e 23
2.4.2.7. The Noun with · . .- ku 24
2.4.2.8. The Noun with · .. -mu 24
2.4.3. The Reduplication of a Verb 24
2.4.3.1. The Whole-word Reduplication o f a Verb without Change 24
2.4.3.2. The Whole-word Reduplication of a Verb with Change 25
2.4.3.3. The Reduplication of the First Syllable of a Verb 25
2.4.4. The Reduplication of a Noun 25
2.4.4.1. The Whole-word Reduplication of a Noun 25
2.4.4.2. The Reduplication o f the First Syllable of a Noun 26
2.4.5. The Combination of Verbs 26
2.4.5.1. The Combination o f a Verb with another Verb 26
2.4.6. The Combination o f Nouns 26
2.4.6.1. The Combinations of Nouns of Related Meanings 27
2.4.6.2. The Combinations o f Nouns o f Unrelated Meanings 27
2.5. The Nuclear Word 27
2.s.l. Further Specifications of a Nuclear Word 27
2.5.2. The State Verb 28
2.5.3. The Action Verb 30
2.5.4. The Process Verb 31
2.5.5. The Action-Process Verb 32
v
Pag e
2.5.6. The State-Experiential Verb 33

2.5.7. The State-Benefactive Verb 34
2.5.8. The State-Locative Verb 35
2.5.9. The Action-Experiential Verb 36
2.5.10. The Action-Benefactive Verb 38
2.5.11. The Action-Locative Verb 39
2.5.12. The Process-Experiential Verb 40
2.5.13. The Process-Benefactive Verb 41
2.5.14. The Process-Locative Verb 41
2.5.15. The Action-Process-Experiential Verb 42
2.5.16. The Action-Process-Benefactive Verb 43
2.5.17. The Action-Process-Locative Verb 44
2.5.18. The Specification of a Noun 45
2.5.18.1. Count Specification 45
2.5.18.2. Potent Specification 46
2.5.18.3. Animate Specification 47
2.5.18.4. Human Specification 47
2.5.18.5. Feminine Specification 48
2.5.18.6. Unique Specification 50
2.5.19. Definite Specification 52
2.5.20. Plural Specification 53
2.6. The Derivation of a Word 55
2.6.1. Verb to Verb Derivation 55
2.6.1.1. Intensification 55
2.6.1.2. Transitivisation 56
2.6.1.3. Intentionalisation 57
2.6.1.4. Reciprocalisation 59
2.6.2. Verb to Noun Derivation 60
2.6.3. Noun to Noun Derivation 61
2.6.3.1. Collection 61
2.6.3.2. Location 62
2.6.3.3. Imitation 62
2.6.4. Noun to Verb Derivation 63
2.6.4.1. Enactment 63
2.6.4.2. Provision 64
2.6.4.3. Orientation 64
2.6.4.4. Predication 65
2.7. The Peripheral Word 65
2.7.1. The Emotives 65
2.7.1.1. The Word a�oh
2.7.1.2. The Word h 6 r6
vi
Page
2.7.1.3. The Hord 1a 67
2.7.1.4. The Word k6 q 67
2.7.1.5. The Word w6� 67
2.7.1.6. The Word raq 67
2.7.1.7. The \oJord t6 68
2.7.2. The Conjunctives 68
2.7.2.1. Alternative 68
2.7.2.2. Inclusive 69
2.7.2.3. Contrastive 69
2.7.2.4. Conditional 69
2.7.2.5. Temporal 70
2.7.2.6. Explanatory 71
2.7.3. Relator 71
2.7.4. The Specifiers 72
2.7.4.1. The Verb Specifier 72
2.7.4.2. The Noun Specifier 72
CHAPTER 3 - THE STRUCTURE OF THE SENTENCE 75

3.1. Verb Function Types 75
3.1.1. Zero-Place Verb 76
3.1.2. One-Place Verb 77
3.1. 3. Two-Place Verb 77
3.1.4. Three-Place Verb 79
3.1.4.1. The Three-Place Benefactive Verb 79
3.1.4.2. The Three-Place Complemental Verb 81
3.1.4.3. The Three-Place Action-Locative Verb 82
3.1.4.4. The Three-Place Experiential Verb 83
3.1.4.5. The Three-Place Process-Locative Verb 84
3.2. Simple Sentence 85
3.3. Modified Simple Sentence 85
3.3.1. Frequency 86
3.3.2. Stage 87
3.3.3. Time 88
3.3.4. Question 88
3.3.4.1. Yes-No Question 90
3.3.4.2. Question with p i ye 91
3.3.4.3. Action Question 92
3.3.4.4. Question with s 6 p 6 (Human Noun) 93
3.3.4.5. Question with 6 p 6 (Non-Human Noun) 93
3.3.4.6. Question with End i 93
3.3.4.7. Question with kEn6 + 6p6 95
vii
Page
3.3.5. Command 95
3.3.6. Potentiality 96
3.3.7. The Conjunction of Nouns 96
3.4. Compound Sentences 97
3.5. Complex Sentences 100
3.5.1. Noun and Verb Complementations 100
3.5.1.1. Patient Noun Complementation 100
3.5.1.2. Agent Noun Complementation 101
3.5.1.3. Patient Noun Complementation with a Process Verb 102
3.5.1.4. Verb Complementation 103
3.5.2. Zero Antecedent 105
3.5.3. The Specification of the Whole Matrix Sentence 106
3.5.3.1. Conditional Sentence 106
3.5.3.2. Locative Sentence 107
3.5.3.3. Manner Sentence 108
3.5.3.4. Temporal Sentence 108
3.5.3.4.1. Sequential Temporal Sentence 108
3.5.3.4.2. Coincidental Temporal Sentence 109
3.5.3.4.3. Future Temporal Sentence 109
3.5.3.4.4. Past Temporal Sentence 110
CHAPTER 4 - SPEECH DECORUM AS A MEANING MARKER 111

4.1. Speech Decorum as a Meaning Marker 111
4.2. Traditional Terminologies of Speech Decorum 117
4.3. Address References as Parameters 119
4.4. Standard vs. Non-standard Javanese 126
4.5. The Development of the Child's Communicative Capacity 127
4.6. K Relationship 129
4.7. Constraints on Informality 130
4.8. The Javanese Lexicon 1 34
4.8.1. The Lexicon of the K Relationship 136
4.8.2. Specimens of K Words 141
4.9. M Relationship 14 3
4.9.l. The Lexicon of the M Relationship 146
4.9.2. Specimens of M Words 149
4.10. P Relationship 149
4.10.l. The Lexicon of the P Relationship 152
4.10.2. The Forms of Courtesy Words 153
4.10.2.1. Substitution 153
4.10.2.2. Modification 155
4.10.2.2.1. Vowel Modification 155
viii
Page
4.10.2.2.2. Consonant Modification 157
4.10.2.2.3. Final-Syllable Modification 157
4.10.2.2.4. Variation of the Number of Syllables 159
4.11. Other Types of Relationships 160
4.11.1. The E Relationship 163
4.11.2. The W Relationship 164
4.11.3. The R Relationship 165
4.11.4. The J Relationship 166
4.11.5. The G Relationship 167
CONCLUDING REMARKS 169
Bi b.t..i.o gltap hlj 171

I NTRODU C T I O N
Thi s i s a de s c ri pt i ve s t udy o f Javane s e . The p rob lem unde r

inves t igat i on ari s e s from t h e n e e d o f a b alan c e d , i f o n l y e l emen tary ,
de s c rip t i on of t he language . The as s ump t ion on whi c h t he s t udy i s
b a s e d i s that a balan c e d de s cript ion o f j avan e s e should sat i s fy at
l e a s t two requi remen t s . One requi rement mak e s i t n e c e s s ary for t h e
inve s t i gat or t o provide a n a c count o f t h e grammar , i . e . a de s c r i p t i on
o f the s t ru c tural me chan i sms that are respons ib le for the p ro d u c t i o n o f
gramma t i c a l sentence s . The other requi rement demands that t h e de s crip
t i on o f Javan e s e also c l ari fy t he commun i c at i ve aspe ct s o f the language ,
i . e . those propert i e s that govern the propriety o f l anguage usage , o r
t h a t make grammat i c a l s e n t e n c e s re ali s ab l e i n t o s e n t e n c e s a c c e p t a b l e
t o t h e native speakers in compat ib le interact ions a n d s e t t ings .
The first demand has obviously b e come common p l a c e in l ingui s t i c s .
Any de s c rip t i ve anal y s i s of a language i s wit hout doub t an e ffort t o
s at i s fy t h i s deman d . Furt hermore , t he inve s t i gat or i s a l s o aware t hat
any d e s c riptive analy s i s o f a language is expe c t e d to reveal fac t s
ab out t h e u s e o f t h e language b y i t s native speake rs , and t hu s s at i s fy
t he s e c ond demand .
I n view o f lingu i s t i c fa ct s i n J avan e s e , however , t he se c ond demand
is b y n o means t aut o l o g i c a l . The use of Javane s e , in s p e e c h or in
writ i n g , alway s reve als an intere s t ing phenomenon , whi c h has t o do with
the t ype o f re lat ionship t hat c urre n t l y obtains between the speaker
and h i s int e rlo cut or , or between the wri t e r and his reade r . A J avane s e
sentence always c l e arly mark s a re lat ionship b e tween t h e s p e aker and
the interlocut o r . I n o t h e r words , the re lat ionship is never neut ral in
J avan e s e . S u c h an Engl i s h sentence as ' Yo u h a v e s e e n me ' , which may
be u s e d by any one to any one e l s e , may be e xpre s s e d in one of at l e a s t
the fol low ing four sentence s :
1. Kowe w i s wa r u h a k u .
ix
x
2. S a m p e y a n e m p u n s u me r e p k u l a .
3. Pan j en e n g a n s am p u n p i r s a ku l a .
4. P a n j e n e n g a n d a l e m s a m p u n p i r s a d a l em .
There are c o n s t ra i n t s t hat are impo�e d u � on a Jayan e s e speake r t o
make an app rop riate cho i ce o f one o f the four sentence s . In l ingui s t i c
hardware , t h i s c h o i c e i nvolve s the ri ght use o f words and a f f ix e s .
The app rop riate cho i ce i s what we shall c a l l Spe e ch De c orum . Fol l ow
ing s p e e c h dec orum , a s t udent is supp o s e d to use three to h i s t e a c he r ,
who i s s up p o s e d t o one t o him . S p e e c h de c orum i s independent o f the
c o gn i t ion o f mean i n g and vice ve r s a . A v i o l at i on o f s p e e ch d e corum ,
howeve r , w i l l normally mar a l ingu i s t i c c ommun i c at i on .
A Chomskyan s t ruct ural de s c ript ion of the four sente n c e s w i l l p ro
vide u s only with one sentence configurat ion w i t hout any i n format ion
as to whi ch word goe s w i t h whi c h other word , o r when t o use whi c h
senten c e .
J avane s e i s one o f the t hree language s i n d i genous t o Java , a maj o r
i s land i n the arc h i p e l a g i c Repub l i c o f I n done s i a . Sundane s e and
Madure s e , b o t h re l a t e d to Javan e s e , are the other two language s .
Javane s e i s spoken mai n l y i n c e n t ral J ava , in areas o f the north part
o f We s t J av a , and in a great p art o f East Java . Large c o n c e n t rat i o n s
o f Javane s e speakers are a l s o found out s i de Java , part i c u larly i n t h e
t ran smigrat ion areas i n South Sumatra , Kal imantan ( Borneo ) , Sulawe s i
( Ce l e b e s ) , and re c e n t l y a l s o i n I r i an Jaya ( W e s t New G u i nea ) . Sundan e s e
i s s p o k e n in t he re s t o f We s t Java . Madure s e i s spoken i n t he i s land
o f Madura and i n the nort h part of East J ava south of Madura .
Language s of In done s i a and the are as where t hey are sp oken have b e e n
put on e x c e l lent map s b y Sal zner and E s s e r ( 1 9 5 1 ) . The I n don e s i an
Language I n s t i t u t e c l aims t hat so far 4 1 8 di fferent language s of the
nat i on have been invent oried ( Lembaga Bahasa N a s i onal , 1 9 72 : 7 ) .
I n the mult i l i ngual nat ion , Javane s e i s a maj or language i n
s i gni fi cant t e rms o f what follows . Four de cade s ag� B l oomfie l d rep orted
t hat Javan e s e was spoken b y 20 mi l l ion speakers ( 1 9 3 3 : 7 1 ) . In the
s ame de c ade , on the b a s i s o f a cont empo rary censu s , Lekkerkerker
report e d that the Javan e s e p opulat ion comp r i s e d 4 7% o f the t o tal
populat i on o f Indone s i a , then the Netherlands East Indi e s ( 1 9 3 8: 5 0 5 -
506 ) . At 4 5 mi l l i on , the numbe r o f native speakers of Javan e s e s t i l l
ranks h i gh e s t i n t h e nat ion t o day , far ab ove Sundan e s e w i t h 1 5 mi l l i on
nat i ve speakers , Madure s e w i t h 1 0 speakers , and Indone s i an w i t h nine
mi l l ion s peakers ( Adnani 1 9 71 : 3 ) , the l a s t showing a con s i derab l e
i n c r e a s e from 6 , 7 0 0 , 0 0 0 s peakers in 1 9 6 2 ( Rice 1 9 6 2 : 1 1 3 ) .
Among l an guage s in Indones i a , Javan e s e , as Uh lenb e c k corre c t ly
obs erved ( 1 9 6 7 : 8 6 5 ) , has enj oyed the mo s t pro du c t ive attent ion o f
xi
l i n gu i s t i c s cholars . Whi l e a great numbe r of nat ive l an guage s in

Indone s i a have s carc e l y b e e n de s c rib e d , Javane s e has b een s ubj e c t t o
ana l y s e s s in c e a t ·least t h e 1 8t h c en t ury .
Arb it rari ly , works on Javane se may b e divided i n t o two group s .
The first group inc ludes t h o s e works done p r i o r t o World War I I . The s e
w e r e mo s t l y wri t t e n by Dut c h s cho lars w h o w r o t e in Dut c h f o r apparent ly
a Dut c h speaking audie n c e . Some others were wri t t e n in Dut ch or
Javan e s e b y Javane se s cho lars who were emp loyed b y the then ruling
Javane s e kings or who acquire d a p r i v i lege in one way or anot h e r t o
g e t W e s t e rn e ducat ion . A very f e w w e r e wri t t e n i n Ge rman o r Frenc h .
An att empt a t the grammar o f Javan e s e , a s i n d i c a t e d b y i t s t i t le ,
by Ronggowar s i t o ( 1 8 6 6 ) , revered by Javan e s e as a p rophet i c poet ,
refle c t s a l a c k of s ound grammat i c a l p ri n c i p l e s , which chara c t e r i s e s
a great number o f work s into whi c h l i t t le , i f any , l ingui s t i c i n s i gh t s
are i n c o rporate d . I n t h i s word a naive a c c ount i s given o f how t o
p ronounce t he Javan e s e alphabe t and o f t he derivat ion o f the Javan e s e
words . I l lus t rat ive o f t h i s i s h i s a s se rt i on t hat a word c a n o n l y b e
derive d t hree t ime s : ka l i ' ri v e r ' , ka l en ' b ro o k ' , ka l enan 'gut ter ' .
P admas u s a s t ra a l i a s Wirapu s t aka was one o f mo s t ly s e l f- t aught
J avan e s e grammarians . In 1 8 8 3 he wro t e a s imp l i c i s t i c a c c ount o f
grammar containing forced app l i c at i on o f we s t e rn l i t e racy not ions s u ch
as ' hyperb o le ' and ' s arcasm ' t o a d i so rgan i s ed work . H i s o t h e r work
( 1 89 8 ) is not only more organ i s e d , b ut a l s o rich in examp l e s o f lan
guage u s age . Howeve r , very l i t t l e informat ion on the regularit i e s o f
the s t ruct ural feat ure s o f the language can b e c aptured from t h i s
otherwi s e unque s t i on ab ly e x c e l l ent work . H i s a c c o un t s o f the leve l s
o f language us age , howeve r , appear t o b e one o f t h e mo s t e x t e n s ive
pre sentations of t he language phenomena , from whi c h later words fre e l y
b o rrow . The same autho r ' s t w o o t h e r works ( 1 9 1 2 , 1 9 1 7 ) re f l e c t
e l emen t ary at t empt s a t di c t i onary or s ynonym- l i s t mak i ng .
Among Javane s e d i c t i onari e s that have so far b e e n unex c e l l e d are
P i ge aud ( 1 9 3 8 , 1 9 4 8 ) and Poerwadarmi nta ( 1 9 3 9 , 1 9 4 0 ) . Uhlenb e ck was
c orre c t in no t i c ing that no mean ingful .e ffort has appeared i n print to
enrich t he fie l d of l e x i cography s i n c e P igeaud an d P o e rwadarminta
( Uh le nb e c k , 1 9 6 7 : 8 6 6 ) .
R i c h i l lu s t ra t i on s o f the de rivat ion o f Javan e s e words were given
b y Favre ( 1 8 6 6 ) , where a c c ounts of the orthography were p r e s e nt e d
beyond c ompari s on . A c count s o f word t y p e s and s t ru c tures were a l s o
p r e s e nt e d . I t i s only regre t tab le t hat p o s s ib l y due t o h i s u s e o f
wrongly i n t e rp r e t e d s ource o f mat erial s , many o f h i s e xamp l e s are
comp l e t e l y non-exi s t ent in Javane s e , a s t range charac t e ri s t i c t hat i s
a l s o shared i n a work by Haag ( 19 3 9 ) .
xii
Wel l-wri t t en ac coun t s of t h e st ruct ure s o f Javan e s e s en t e n c e s and

s e n t e n c e e lement s are present e d in B e rg ( 1 9 3 7 ) , P r ij ohoetomo ( 1 9 3 7 ) ,
Roorda ( 1 9 0 6 ) , and Walbeehm ( 1 8 8 7 , 1 9 0 5 ) . They are among t he mo s t
valuab le works o n Javan e s e writ t en in a language other t han Engl i s h .
From s t ru c t ural point o f v i ew , in c i s ive works o n phonology such a s
Sams uri ( 1 9 6 2 ) and o n morphology such a s Uhlenb e c k ( 1 9 4 9 , equivalen t
t o 1 9 6 6 ) are i n d i s pensab l e . The l a t t e r s cholar i s to be c redi t e d for
h i s many o t h e r l i ngui s t i cally s ound works on Javan e s e , and for h i s
b e i n g one o f t h e few authori t i e s o f Javane s e .
The fa c t ors that are re l a t e d t o language usage are di s c u s s e d b y
G e ert z ( 1 9 6 0 ) a n d Koentj araningrat ( 1 9 5 7 ) . The d i s c u s s ion , valuab le
as they are , are p re s e n t e d as a s i de l ine t o a s t rongly s o c i o-anthro
p o l o g i cal work , whi c h deal s mainly with kinship s y s t ems and s o c i a l
statuse s . Whi le t hey corre c t ly p o i nt e d out that a certain form i s
approp riate i n one o c c a s i on b ut not in anothe r , where a d i fferent form
of ' i dent i c a l ' meaning i s t o be u s e d i n s t ead , Geert z and Koent j aran ingrat
d i d n o t a t t emp t t o, relate the s e di fferen c e s to the di ffe renc e s p i votal
in the u s e o f s p e e c h , i . e . the d i ffere n c e s re fle c t e d in the cho i c e of
addre s s re lat i on s h i p a speaker make s i n us ing his language .
In s e veral other d i s c u s s i on s dire c t l y c o n c e rn e d w i t h the de s c ri p t ion
o f J avan e s e , even less has b e e n found that p re sents a s y s t emat i c
c lari f i cat i on o n what fac t o rs t h e cho i c e o f the approp riate forms
depen d s . Exp l anat i o n s e ither t o o lengthy or ske t c hy are given that ,
for i n s t an c e , such and s u c h words b e l ong t o such and s u ch l e ve l , i . e .
l ow , mid , o r honori f i c ; a l s o t hat de s p i t e i t s simp l e sound s y s t em ,
Javane s e i s comp lex in i t s use of v o c ab ulari e s , s in c e t here are d i ffer
ent leve l s of spee c h . No agreement has been reached as to what i s
t he exac t number o f t he s e s o - c a l l e d l e ve ls . It range s , depending on t he
approa c h , from t wo t o t e n . Poedj o s oe darmo ( 1 9 6 8 ) exemp l i f i e s a s t ereo
typ i c a l not i on t hat there are ten l e ve l s of s p e e c h in Javan e s e , an
o b s e rvat ion a lready made i n the last cent ury ( Padmas u s a s t ra 1 8 9 8 ) . A
rec ent work by Sumukt i ( 1 9 7 1 ) t akes i n t o n0 a c c ount the d i fferent
relat i on s h i p s b e t ween a speaker and his interlocut or , whi c h are c learly
marked i n the s ur face repre sentat i on of the language u s e d .
Always ami s s , in short , i s a de s c r i p t ion of Javan e s e where one o f
i t s f o c i i s o n t h e re l a t i o n s h i p s between a s p e aker and h i s i n t e rl o c ut e r ,
whi c h are as sumed t o b e axial i n t h i s s t u dy . I t i s i n t h i s area that
the pre s ent s t udy is exp e c t e d t o give i t s chara c t e ri s t i c contribut i on .
The re st o f t he pre s ent at i on , i . e . those having t o do w i t h grammat i cal
mat t e rs , are no longer unpre c e dent e d , e x c e p t in mat t e r s o f framework
p re fe ren c e .
We s h a l l s t art in Chap t e r 1 w i t h a b r i e f a c c o unt o f the sound
xiii
system. Chap t e r 2 deals w i t h t he s t ruct ure o f t he word . Chap t e r 3

deals with the t y p i c al s t ructures o f the s e n t en c e . For c lari t y o f
p r e s e nt ation , t h e ac co unt s o f spee ch dec orum wi l l b e dealt w i t h
s eparat e ly in Chap t er 4 .
S ince it s e ems c orre c t t o a s s ume t hat a de s c ri p t i on o f a s ound
s y s t em of a nat ural language should c l early show the d i s t i n c t i ve
fun c t i on of each phono l o g i c a l uni t , i� would fol low t hat any de s c rip
t i on o f s u c h a system t hat s at i s fi e s this prerequi s i t e should b e as
ac c e p t ab l e as any other t hat also do e s . I n our view , the Neo-Pragu i an
approach ( Mulder 1 9 6 8 ; S t uart 1 9 5 7 ) s e ems adequate for our purp o s e t o
pre sent the phonol ogy o f Javane s e .
A l t hough for the pre sentat ion o f Chap t e rs 2 - 4 t he mode l used , 1 . e .
generat ive s eman t i c s a la Chafe ( 1 9 7 0a-b , 1 9 7 1a-b ) , provide s s u ff i c ient
guiding princ i p le s , very l i t t le o f such princ i p l e s with reference to
phon o l o gy have b e en ava i l ab le in the mode l . What Chafe ( 1 9 7 0 a and
other s ) indi c a t e d in the phono l o g i c a l area is too ske t c hy to be t aken
a s a mode l for a phono l o g i c a l de s c ript i on . Furt hermore , Chafe b e l i ev e s
t hat s eman t i c s t ru c t ure , not syntact i c s t ruc t ure , forms the b a s i c c om
p onent of l anguage . I f , for i n s t an c e , we t ake the model of generat ive
phon o l o gy ( Chomsky and Halle 1 9 6 8 ) a s a framework , we would introduce
a s erious c ont radi c t ion , s ince as we generally know the Chomskyan
s ch o o l c o n s i ders t hat the syntac t i c deep s t r u c t ure , not the s eman t i c
deep s t ru c t ure , i s t h e b a s i c c omponent o f language .
Chap t e r 2 des c r i b e s t he regulari t i e s o f t he word format ion devi c e s ,
p art i c u l arly t ho s e t hat are ob servab le in the surface repre sentat i on .
Thi s i s fol lowed by t he c ore o f t h e chap t e r , which de a l s w i t h t he
s t ru c t ure o f the word in t e rms of t he not ion that the n u c l e u s o f
a sentence i s t he verb , around whi c h t h e app ropriate nouns r e l a t ed t o
i t in a certain way a s d i c t a t ed b y t he valence o f t h e verb may o c c ur .
Chap t er 3 deals with the s t r u c t ure o f the s e n t en c e . Here the
types o f pre d i c at i on s that o c c ur in Javan e s e are di s c us s ed . Some pre
liminary ob s ervat ions o f t he expan s ion p o t e n t i a l s o f the pre d i c a t i on s
w i l l a l s o b e di s c u s se d .
Chap t e r 4 deals with s p e e ch decorum . S p e e c h d e corum invo lves the
use o f di fferent words and affix e s . S t i l l a large part o f the Javan e s e
v o c ab ularie s c an b e u s e d in any s i t uat ion regard l e s s o f the relat i on
ship o c c urring b e tween s p e e c h part i c ipan t s . But this i s only n atural ,
s in c e s p e e c h d e c o rum i s j us t what it i s , v i z . a c ode o f u s ing language
properly . It does not s eparat e Javan e s e into di fferent diale c t s or
language s . Yet the pre c i s i on of s e l e c t ing the words and affixes from
a re lat ively sma l l s ub -repert oire of Javan e s e words and affixes i s
d e c i s i ve in making one a decorum ab iding speake r .
xiv
O f great intere s t , w e have found , i s the fea s i b i l i t y o f app l y ing

Chafe ' s semant i c approach to the c la r i fIcat i on o f Javanese spee ch
de c orum . Repeat ing his earl ier s t at ement ( 1 9 7 0b ) Chafe p o i n t s out an
i s sue ( 1 9 7 1 a ) whi c h t o the b e st o f the inve st i gator ' s know l e dge has
never b e en previo u s ly rai s e d , part i c u larly with referen c e t o the
pro b l em t hat s e ems very s imilar to the s o - c a l l e d s p e e ch leve l s in
J avane s e . Our e x p lorat ion o f t he phenomenon of language use that
s t ems from t he d i f ferent way s a Javane se speaker looks at his inter
l o c u t o r s e ems t o be made e a s i er by Chafe ' s view t hat it i s t enab le t o
make a d i s t in c t i on b e t ween ' s eman t i c s t ru c t ure ' and ' meaning ' . Fo l low
ing Chafe , we b e l ie ve that rea l l y i dent i c a l mean ings are s c arc e in
language .

D-45, xiv + 189 pages. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1982. DOI:10.15144/PL-D45.cover
CHAPTER 1
THE JAVANESE PHONEMES
1 .1 . S O UNVS AS THE E L E ME NTS OF J A V A N ES E WO RVS
The primary b a s i s of the c las s i fi c at ion of the Javan e s e s oun ds a s

t h e e l emen t s o f the w o r d i s the art i c ulat ion o f the s p e e c h organ s , i . e .
t h o s e mat t e r s t hat p e rt a in t o the ut i l i s at i on o f t he s e organ s t o pro
duce speech sounds . On this b a s i s , two notions are s i g i n i fi cant . They
are the not ion ' s ource ' and the not ion ' feature s ' .
In t e rms o f t he anatomy o f the s p e e c h apparat u s , a t e rr i t orial
b oundary may b e set up t o d i s t ingu i s h t h e s e two a sp e c t s o f s p e e c h
art i culat i on . Thi s b oundary i s i n t h e area o f t he larynx where t h e
v o c a l fo l d s are . The air under t h e s e folds , whi c h i s s ub j e c t t o t h e
opera t i on o f di ffe rent mechan i sms such a s the di aphragm a n d t he lungs ,
i s b a s i c a l l y t he sourc e of s p e e c h sounds . By means o f t he operat ion
o f t hese me chani sms and c e rt a i n addu c t e d p o s i t i ons o f t he vocal folds ,
a sub - g l o t t al pres sure is b u i l t up an d released t h rough the opening o f
t he g lo t t is , whi c h i s c losed again b y t he s o - c a lled Berno u l l i e ff e c t
( Fant 1 9 6 8 : 1 9 9 ) , i . e . the s u c t i on wh i c h t ak e s place f o l l owing t he
opening o f t he glo t t i s .
The t e n s i on o f the vocal folds , result ing from the l at e ral and
longi t udinal s t rain of the mus c le and l igament , det e rmine t he v i b rat o ry
movement s of the folds , whi ch in turn de t e rmine the frequency of the
air pul s e s .
Any modi f i c a t i on o f the rou t e o f the e s c aping air p u l s e s whi c h
o c c urs in t h e b u c c a l t r a c e due t o t h e s h i ft ing o f t h e p o s i t ion o f t h e
apparat u s i s respons i b l e f o r what i s known a s ' feat ure s ' . The s e
feat ure s a r e e s p e c i a l l y respon s i b l e f o r the d i s t inct ion o f t he di ffer
ent vow e l s of J avan e s e . They are , furt hermore , a l s o s ign ifi cant in
t he d i s t i n c t ion of the Cons onan t s .

D-45, xiv + 189 pages. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1982. DOI:10.15144/PL-D45.1
2
1 .2. S T R U CTUR A L C LASS I F I C ATI O N O F TH E J A VA N E S E S O UNVS
Un l ike the vowe l s , which may oc cur as the nuc leus of a s y l l ab le , t he

Javan e s e con s onant s oc cur only peripherally w i t h reference t o a s y l
lab l e . No phenomena o f syl lab i c c onsonant s that are normal i n Engl i s h
s u c h a s i n ' b u t ton ' , ' c o t t on ' , ' g l o t t al ' , are known i n Javane s e .
I n art i c ulat ory t erms , t h e vowel s·are c l as s i fi e d in a two- d ime ns ion
al s y s t em of opp o s i t ion : h e i ght vs . advan c ement . A long the vert i c a l
he i ght a x i s t hree p o s i t ions are recogn i s e d : high , m i d a n d l ow . There
is only one low vowe l in Javane s e , i . e . a , whi c h i s c hara c t e r i s e d b y
t h e maximum lowering o f t he t ongue .
The hori z ontal ax i s o f the re lat ive advancement o f the t ongue
invo lve s t hree p o s i t ions : front , c entral and bac k . Lip-rounding i s
a non- func t i onal feat ure i n Javane s e , that i s , b a c k vowe l s are
generally a c c ompan i ed by l ip-rounding .
Diphthongs are not known in the Javane s e sound s y s t em . Seque n c e s
o f vowe l s , however , o c cur . Figure 1 o n t h i s page s ummar i s e s the
d e s c ri p t ion o f the art icu latory phone t i c feat ure s o f the e ight
J avan e s e vowe l s .
F I GU R E 1
Front Cent ral Back
H i gh i u
e 0
Mid E
I! 6
Low a
The art i c ul at o ry c las s i fi c at ion o f the c onsonant s may be pre s en t e d

as a two- dimen s i onal proport ion . The vert i c al axis make s di s t in c t ion
of general p O int s of t he degre e s of o c c l u s i on , i . e . an o b s t ruc t i on in
the b u c c a l trac t , whi c h may render t he higher frequen c y energy in the
p hy s i c a l rea l i s a t i on s as may b e seen in a s onagram in s ome way sup
p re s s e d ( Fant 1 9 6 8 : 2 4 3- 2 5 3 ) . Another t y p e o f o c c l u s i on a l s o oc curs
in t he larynx , whi c h i s re spon s ib l e for the pro duc t i on o f t he o c c lu
sive q .
Total oc clusion i s re spon s i b l e for t he product ion o f the nasals
m, n, �, �, where the out go ing st ream of air pulses i s det oured through
k , q, d, d, j , g,
o
the nasal c avit y ; the o c c lu s i ves p, t, t, c, b,

3
where the air s t ream that b u i l d s up in t he st oppage s omewhe re in the

mouth i s released in a sudden mot ion �hrough the b u c cal t rac t . P art ial
o c c lus i on i s respon s i b l e for the produ c t ion of the fricatives 5 and h
t hat are c hara c t e r i s e d by t he t urb u l e n c e or 'no i s e resu l t in g from t he
air fri c t ion in t he narrow o c c lu s i on . Minimal o c c l u s i on i s respon s i b l e
f o r t he produ c t ion o f the con t inuan t s 1, r, y, w, where minimal or n o
fri c t ion i s invo lve d .
The hori z ont al axis spe c i fi e s two b a s i c area fe ature s : vocal t ract
and source . Vocal t ract feat ure s i nvolve t he art i c u latory product ion
of the c o n s onan t s i n the are a anywhere ab ove t he larynx . Source fea
tures invo lve the art i cu latory produ c t ion of the con s onant s in the
laryn x , i . e . q and h .
Voc a l tract feat ure s sp e c i fy two art i c u latory chat a c t e ri s t i c s :
p o s i t i ve art i c ulat i on and b a l l i s t i c art i c ulation . The d i s t i n c t ion
b e t we e n the se two t y p e s o f art i c ulat ion is in t e rms o f two p rop e rt i e s
o f t h e s p e e c h apparat u s , i . e . t h e p o s i t ion o f t he apparat us and the
path or t raje c t ory any of the apparat us may t ake . In p o s i t ive
art i c ulat i on , the e s s e n t i a l c hara c t e ri s t i c is t he p o s i t i on , whe reas in
b a l l i s t i c art i cu lat ion the t raje c t ory o f the apparat us i s the e s s en t i a l
propert y . T h i s i s c l e ar w i t h the cont inuan t s y an d w , where the t yp i c a l
t raje c t ory o f t he s p e e c h apparatus i s de t e c t ab l e from t h e phy s io lo g i c al
p o s ture o f the l i p s and the tongue .
The p o s i t i ve art i culation i s dire c t l y related t o t he s haping o f
t h e a i r c hanne l in the b u c cal t ract. There are two s i gni fi cant t y p e s
o f t he channe l shap e : shaped ori fi c e and plain ori fi c e . Shap e d
ori f i c e i s chara c t e r i s e d b y t he part i cular s hape o f t he b u c ca l tract
and the part i c ular p o s t ure o f t h e t ongue t hat give r i s e t o the modi
ficat i on o f t he air pulses e s c ap ing through them , and whi c h in turn
spe c i fi e s the d i s t i n c t ive art i c ulat ory feat ure s of the c on s onan t s .
P l ain ori f i c e i s not so chara c t e ri s e d .
W i t h regard t o t h e spe c i fi c areas o f t h e s p e e ch apparatus dire c t ly
involve d in the art i culat i on of t he c on s onan t s in the areas of p lain
ori fi c e , a further c l as s i fi cation may b e made . There are two t yp e s o f
art i cu la t i on invo lving t h i s are a . The f i r s t i s lab i a l art i cu lat ion
and t he s e c on d is l in gual art i culat ion . Lab i a l art i c ulation invo lve s
the l ip s , l ingual art i cu lat i on invo lve s the t ongue . Lab ial c o n s onants
are m , p , b.
Lingual art i c u lation i s s p e c i fi e d in three major areas : ap i cal ,
i . e . the t ip area o f the tongue , laminal , i . e . the front b lade o f t he
t ongue , and dorsal , i . e . the b a c k part o f the tongue . Javane s e
r e c o gn i s e s t w o di s t i n c t ive feature s o f ap i cal art i culat ion . The
first is what we may c a l l ap i c o-dental art i cu l at ion in whi c h the t i p
4
of t he t o ngue i s art i c ulated against the b ac k of t he upp er t ee t h . The

s e c ond is c acuminal art i c ulat ion , in which t he top t ip · of the t o ngue i s
art i c ulated against the hard palat e . Apic o-dent al consonant s are t he
o c c lu s i ve s t and d . Cacuminal cons onan t s are t h e o c c lus ives t and d.
Fi gure 2 on t h i s page s hows the di fference b etween the ap i c o-dental
art ic u l a t i on and the c a c uminal art i c ulat i on .
F I GURE 2
· dental : t, d c a c uminal : t, d
As for t h e nasal n, s i n c e t here i s only one func t i onal n in

Javane s e , it may b e c a l l ed a dental con s onant .
Laminal con sonan t s are n, c, j. Dorsal consonsan t s are � , k, g.
F i gure 3 on p . 5 chart s t h e Javane s e cons onant s acc ording t o t he
s t ru c t ural c l as s i fi c ation j us t d i s c us s e d . The c o l umn sourc e feat ure s
i s s e p arat e d from the c o l umn vocal t ract feat ure s for the obvious
reason t hat vo cal t ract feat ure s may b e modi fied b y t he manipu lat ion
of the s p e e c h organ s above t h e larynx , whi l e s ource feature s , b e ing
inherent w i t h t he larynx , are i ndependent of such suprag l o t t a l
modi ficat ions .
Figure 4 on p . 6 chart s the Javane s e c onsonan t s a c c ording t o IPA
( 19 4 9 : 10-1 9 ) .
The phone t i c art i c ulat ory rea l i s at ions of the con sonant s are as
f o l l ow s ( where ' t ense ' and ' l ax ' refer t o the nature of o c c lu s i on ) :
p vo i c e l e s s , lax , b i lab ial o c c lus ive
b = vo i c e d , t ense , b i labial o c c lus ive
t v o i c e l e s s , lax , ap i c o-dental o c c l us ive
d vo i c e d , t en s e , ap i c o-dental o c c lus i ve
t vo i c e l e s s , lax , ap i c o - c a c uminal o c c lus i ve
d voi c e d , t en s e , ap i c o - c acuminal o c c lus ive
c = v o i c e le s s , lax , palat o - l aminal o c c lus ive
j voi c e d , t ense , palato-laminal o c c lus ive
k vo i c e l e s s , lax , dors o-ve lar o c c lus ive
9 v o i c e d , t e n s e , dors o-ve lar o c c lus ive
q voice le s s , g l o t t a l o c c lus ive
F I GU R E 3
A R E A S o F o C C L U S I O N
V 0 c a l T r a c t F e a t u r e s Source
Types
Feat ures
of Posit ive Bal l i s t i c
O c c l u s i on Shap e d
P lain Ori f i c e
Ori f i c e
Lingual s
Ap i cal
Lab ials Laminal Dorsal
Total
Dental Ca cuminal
O c c lus ion
0
Nasals m n 1'1 n
q
0
p t t c k
O c c lus ive s
b d d j 9
Part ial
5 h
O c c lus ion
Minimal
1 r y w
O c c lu s i on
Vl
6
m = voic e d , b il abial n a s a l
n = voic e d , apic o - a l v e o l ar o r apic o - de n t a l n a s a l
� v o i c e d , p alat o -Iaminal n a s a l
n = voic e d , dor s o - v e l ar n a s a l
voic e d , a l v e o - c a c umina l lat eral
r = v o i c e d , a l v e o - c a c uminal t ri l l
w = voi ce d , b il abial fri c t ion l e s s c on t in uant
y vo i c e d , p a l a t o -Iamina l fric tion l e s s c on tinu an t
5 = vO i c e le s s , api c o - a l ve o l ar fric ative
h voic e l e s s , g l o t t al fri c ative
FIG U R E 4
D en t a l
B i l ab i a l and R e t r o f l e x P a l a t a l V e l ar G l o t t al
A l v e o l ar
0 0
P l o sive p b t d t d c j k 9 q
0
Nas a l m n � n
Lateral 1
Tri l l r
Fri c at i ve 5 h
S e mi vowe l w y
1 .3. P H O N O TA C T I CS O F THE C O N S O NA NTS A N V T H E V O W ELS
The c o n s onant s b, d, 9, c, j , t , d, �, y , and w do n o t o c c ur i n

w ord f i n a l p o sit i on . The r e s t o f t he c o n s on an t s do .
The vowe l s E and e do n o t o c c ur in word fin a l p o sition , t h e r e s t do .
I n word fina l p o sition , t h e v o w e l a o n l y o c c ur s in t h e word o r a 'n o ',
t h ough s o me c l aim t hat it a l s o o c c urs in t h e archai c word m b o y a 'n o ',
which doe s n o t e xi s t in t he inv e s t igat or ' s d a t a n or in his repert oire ,
and in n ame s , e . g . j a ka rt a ' Ja k a r t a ' , j a ya p u ra ' Ja y apura ' , j a ka r i a
'Zakari a ' .
I n t erms o f t h e c ap ab ilit y o f o c c urring p eriphera l ly t o a s y l l ab i c
n u c l e u s , t h e c on s on an t s may o c cur sin g l y or in c lu s t ers . A c o n s onant
c lu s t er is a s e q ue n c e of two , and n o more , c on s onan t s t hat b e l o n g s t o ,
i . e . o c curs p eriphera l l y wit h , a s y l l ab i c n u c l e u s . The n umber o f
c o n s on a n t c l u s t ers i s smal l . N o c on s o n an t c l u s t er o c curs in word fina l
p o sition .
7
..
The t yp e s o f c o ns onant c lu s t e rs wh i c h o c c u r i n word i ni t i al po s i t i o n

are s umma r i s e d a s fol lows , where t h e symb o l + indi c at e s t h e c omb inat i o n
and t h e symb o l N re fe rs t o a homorgani c nas a l , i . e . a nasal t hat s h a r e s
s i m i l a r t ype s o f de gre e s and are a s o f o c c lusion e x c e pt t he a i r e xi t ,
wh i c h i s t he na s a l c a v i t y f o r t h e nasal .
a. Plain ori fi c e c ons onant } r
}
+
5
0
b. Plain o r i f i c e c o n s o nant e x c ept t ,

d +
1
5
�
c. Lab i a l c ons onant l +
D o r s a l e x c ept 9 J Y
d. amlnal c on sonant l + W
e. b
d
N + d
0
j
9
The e xamp l e s g i v e n b e l ow are l i s t e d in pa i r s w i t h words i n whi c h

t h e f i r s t cons onant , i . e . t h e one t hat o c c u r s i n word i ni t i al pos i t i o n ,
i s t he s am e a s t h e s e c ond memb e r o f t h e c l u s t e r s . Whene v e r po s s ib l e
minimal pairs , i . e . whe re t h e f i r s t memb e r o f t h e c lu s t e r i s c ommu t e d
t o z e ro , are g i v e n .
a. m rus o h ' fo amy ' rus oh ' u n s a fe '
p ro j o ' di g n i t y ' ro j 0 ' k i n g '
o
b ramban 'onion ' r a m b a � ' s e l ect b y floating '
n raj a� 'to t r e sp a s s ' raj a� ,

8 lice '
raj an
o
t raj an
o
'b e h a v i o u r ' 's lice '
d r i yo 'mind ' r i yo ' o l d r a n k i n g o v e rnm e n t '
he t e 1 ' loose ' r ewe 1 ' fu s s y '
d randa� ' r e s o u n d r e pe a t e d l y ' r a ndu ' J a v a kapo k '

� r a n du ' s o u r - fa c e d ' r a ndu ' Ja v a k a p o k '
c rawaq ' l o u d-mo u t h e d ' rawe t ' s ma l l i s h '
j r a n kb � ' s k e l e t on ' ra�ko l ' embrac e '
n r awe t r aw e t
o
' t o comp o s e ' ' sma l l i s h '
k r i yaq ' crunch ' r i yaq ' s l im y s a l i v a '
g r a y ah ' g rope ' r a y ah ' to loo t '
5 rab i 'pancake ' rab i ' t o g e t mar r i e d '

8
b. m l an k ah ' to s t r a dd L e ' l an k ah ' 8 t ep '

p l on ko ' tw o - c o L o u r e d ' l on ko ' ra r e '
b l a raq 'pa Lm L e af ' l a r aq ' t o drag '
n I ailon ' t o a t t ac k ' I aden ' k nife '
tl ale ' e L ep h a n t ' s t r un k ' l a li ' t o" f o r g e t '
d l imo ' po m e g ra n a t e ' I imo ' fiv e '
� I a raq 'to L o c k up ' l a raq ' t o drag '
c l i me n 'in m o d e 8 t fa s hio n ' l imo ' five '
j I um a t ' t o darn ' I umah ' fa c e up '
nI uku ' t o p L ow ' I uku 'pLow '
k l uwaq ' kin d o f frui t ' l uw a q ' civ e t c a t '
9I a I i ' sugar cake ' l ali ' t o forg e t '
s l a raq ' hu r d L e ' l a r a q" ' t o drag '
c. m y a yi ' a ris t o c ra c ti c a L L y ' y a yi ' da r Ling gir L '

p y a yi ' a ris t o c ra t ' y a yi ' da rting gir L '
byayaq ' n o t m e t h o dica L ' yaq ' y o u don ' t say s o '
nyiy e t ' s Limy ' yi y e t ' s Lim e '
k y ai ' a mY8 tic ' yay i ' da rting gir L '
d. hw e w e q ' t o grima c e ' weweh ' t o giv e '

c wewe q ' g rima c e ' weweh ' t o giv e '
j wawo t ' ry e ' w a s oh ' t o r e c o n ci L e '
kwa I i ' e a r t h e n po t ' wa Ii ' g u a rdian '
s wiwi 'win g ' wiwe t ' t o b e gin '
dwi j b ' m a n ' 8 n am e ' wi j e n ' s e 8 am e s e e d '
e. m b aCto t ' t o c L own ' b aCt o t ' c Lown '

ndEIEn ' to s e e ' dE I E k ' k ind o f fis h '
n Ct u w o r 'on ' (j uwo r ' hig h , ta L L '
nj anan j a n an
0 0
' t o m a k e s te w ' ' s t ew '
n g am b a r ' t o draw ' g am b a r ' pi c t ur e '
I n t e r vo c a l i c a l l y , s e quenc e s o f two o r t hr e e c ons onant s may o c c ur .

Two - c ons onant s e quen c e s in t h i s po s i t i o n may o r may n o t f o rm a c lus t e r .
The l a s t two memb e r s o f a t hr e e - c o n s onant s equence a l w a y s form a c lu s
t e r w h i c h b e longs t o t h e fo l l ow i ng s y l l ab le . Many o f t h e c lu s t e r s o f
t ype s a , b , and c , and only t h e s e , may c on s t i tu t e t he l a s t two memb e rs
o f a t h r e e - c ons on�t s e quen c e i n i nt e rvo c a l i c po s i t io n . S ome e x amp l e s
o f t h r e e - c ons onant s e que n c e s w h e re t h e l a s t t w o me8b e r s b e long t o t h e
fo l l ow i ng s y l lab l e and t he f i r s t memb e r t o t he pre c e ding s y l l ab l e are :
am b ro q ' to c o L Lapse '
g am b l an ' very c L ear '
�ganj rEt 'in t e rmi t t e n t L y '
a�s l o p ' to s e t ( sun) '
am b y o r ' t o div e '

9
As for i n t e rvo c ali c t wo - c o n s on an t s e quen c e s , t he following c o n di t i on s

app ly :
i. I f t h e s e quen c e i s any o f t h e t y p e s wh i c h c an o c c ur in i n i t i al
p o s i t ion e x c ep t t ho s e unde r e , t h e s e q ue nc e i s fun c t i onally a
c lu s t e r , i . e . i t b e lo n g s t o t he f o llowing s y lla b le .
Examp le s : a b yo r ' br i Z Z i an t '
k u p l oq ' h e a dd re s 8 '
pas rah ' to 8 u b mi t '
ii. O t he r t ype s o f s e q u e n c e s b e long t o two adja c e n t s y llab le s , i . e .

t h e f i r s t memb e r b e lo n g s t o t h e pre c e di ng s y llable , t h e s e c on d
memb e r t o t h e fo llowi n g s y llab le .
E x amp le s : k Em b an ' fZ o w e r '
wa rno ' a o Z o ur '
saqkal ' imme d i a t e Z y '

t am b o r ' dr u m '
The o c c urrenc e o f a v o w e l d i re c t ly adja c e n t t o ano t he r form i n g t w o

n u c le i o f s y llab le s w i t h i n one word i s rare . Fi gure 5 s ummari s e s t he
o c c urrenc e s and non- o c c urre n c e s o f v o w e l s e q u e n c e s , whi c h i n v o lv e t h e
s o -c a lle d ' non- c omb i n e d words ' ( vi d e 2 . 2 . 2 . a n d 2 . 4 . 5 . - 2 . 4 . 6 . ) . The
v ow e ls li s t e d i n t he c olumn may p re c e d e t h o s e li s t e d in t he row .
Numb e rs re fe r t o o c c urren c e s . The s e n umb e r s c orre s p o n d t o t he n umb e r s
o f e xamp les g i ven following Figure 5 . A n o n - o c c urre n c e i s i nd i cat e d
b y t h e mark x .
FIGURE 5
i e e E a u 0 6
i x x x x 1 2 3 4
e x x x x 5 x 6 7
e 8 9 x x x x x x
E x x x x x x x x
u x 10 x x x x x 11
0 x x x x x x x 12
6 x 13 x x x x x 14
10
l. pi a g Em 'dearee '
2. pi u t a� ' a r e di t '
3. ci o d a ' k ind o f h airs t y Z e '
4. p iolo ' e vi Z de e d '
5. g aw e a n ' m ade in '
6. bee ' m y n a bird '
7. r e n ee ' ao m e h e r e ."
8. s r ei ' g r e e dy '
9. o l ee ' hi s w a y o f '
10 . s u s ue ' t h e n es t '
1l. t u r uo ' Go to bed! '

12 . r o nco ' Go t h e r e .' '
13. amoe ' th e t o rn p a r t '
14 . l unoo ' Go a w a y .' '
CHA P T E R 2
HIE STRUCTURE OF THE WORD
2.1 . CHAFE ' S FRAMEWORK
As an e l ement of l anguage , a word i s .b a s i c a l ly a conve r s ion o f

mean i n g t o a phy s i c a l real i s at i on in t h e surface repre s en t a t i on , and
t h i s d i re c t ion is never the o t he r way round . The proce s s of conver
s ion s t a r t s somewhere in the knowl e dge o f the s p e aker . Whi le human
knowle dge i s so vast and comp lex that it de fi e s any a t t emp t of i n- depth
d e s c r ip t i on , Chafe f i n d s i t j u s t i fi ab l e t o a s s ume t ha t this knowledge
is subj e c t to forma l i sat ion i n t o what he c a l l s t he area of s eman t i c
s t ruc t ure ( 1 9 7 1b : 5 7 ) , i . e . a theoret i ca l c o n s t ruct wh i c h i s p o s i t e d t o
e x p l a in t ho s e ob s ervab le fac t s genera l l y sub sumed under t h e lab e l
mean ing ( 1 9 7 1a : 1 3 ) . Apparent ly , t h i s s emant i c s t ruct ure w a s b a s e d o n
what F i l lmore men t i oned a s Seman t i c Deep S t ruct ure ( 1 9 6 8 : 8 8 ) . It is
i n t h i s are a , o f gre at i n t e r e s t but l e a s t unde r s t oo d , t hat a s e t o f
format i on pro ce s s rul e s t a k e p lace t o e s t ab l i s h the s t ru c t ure o f a
word .
Th i s i n i t i a l s eman t i c s t ru c t ure i s s ub j e c t t o furt h e r p ro c e s s e s o f
trans format i on , w h i c h modi fy i t , result ing i n i n t e rme d i a t e p o s t
s eman t i c st ructure s , t o b e c onve r t e d i n t o a n o ut p ut for t h e surface
s t ru c t ure .
The s urfac e s t ruc t ure i s then sub j e c t t o further p ro c e s s e s o f
s ymb o l i sa t i on , whi c h c onvert i t i n t o i t s underlying phon o l ogi c al
st ruct ure .
T h i s un de r ly i n g phon o l o gi c a l s t ru c t ure i s s ub j e ct to further
p ro c e s s e s o f phono l o g i c a l rul e s , whi ch c on vert i t thro ugh int erme d i a t e
phon o l o g i c a l s t ruc t ure s t o a c q u i re i t s phonet i c s t ru c t ure , whi ch i s
then a cc e s s i b le t o pronun c i at i on and s p e l l ing .
The verb and t he noun , re f l e c t i ng t he d i chot omy of the universe o f
t h e human know l e dge , are t he mo s t s i gn i f i cant e lement s o f a s e n t enc e .
11
12
A s e n t e n c e i s b u ilt up around a verb , whi c h may b e a c c omp an i e d b y one

noun or more , wh i c h i s relat ed t o the verb i n a certain way . The not ion
that a verb imp o s e s a c e rtain s e t o f dependency relat i on s w i t h the
nouns t hat may a c c ompany i t i n a sentence was sugge s t e d b y Fillmore
( 196 8 ) . The s e relat i ons are known to b e in t e rms of such c a s e rol e s
a s Agent , I n s t rument , Obj e c t , as sume d b y the nouns , whi c h a r e mapped
int o the surface s t ruct ure where t h e relat ions s t ill retain the
s eman t i c role s .
In the format i on st age , the charac t e ri s t i c relat i on b etween t he
verb and t he noun i s e s t ablished b y means of the pro ce s s e s o f
spe c i fi c a t i o n , whi c h delimit t h e verb and t he noun i n t e rms o f narrower
semant i c uni t s . There are four t y p e s of the s e un i t s . The f i r s t t ype
t hat i s i n c o rporat e d w i t h i n a verb or a noun i s c alle d s ele c t i onal
un i t . The s e cond type is called lex i c al un i t . The t hi rd t y p e i s
c alled i n fle c t i onal unit . The fourt h t y p e i s c alled derivat i onal un i t .
The sele c t i onal un i t t hat o c curs in a verb s pe c i f i e s i t e i ther as
a s t at e verb o r a non- s t a t e verb . If i t i s a s t a t e verb , the s ele c
t i onal un i t t hat o c curs i n the a c c omp anying noun will sp e c i fy i t a s a
pat ient noun . A non- s t a t e verb i s e i t her an a c t i on verb , a pro c e s s
verb , or an act i on -pro c e s s verb . In add i t i on t o t h e s e verb s , by means
of further s ele c t ional spe c i fi cat ions we al so have experi e n t i al verb s
and bene fact ive verb s . Each o f t he s e non-state verb s requires a
d i fferent t yp e or noun from the noun t hat may o c cur w i t h a state verb .
The s ele c t i onal un i t not only d i c t at e s t he t y p e of dependen c y
relat i on s t hat may o c cur b e tween the v e r b and t he noun o r n o u n s t hat
may a c c ompany i t , e . g . if a s t a t e verb , t hen a p a t i ent noun , but als o
s p e c i f i e s what following un i t , i . e . the lexi cal uni t , i s t o o c cur i n
t he v e r b and cons equently al so i n t he noun .
A lexi cal uni t , unlike the verb and the noun and t h e i r r e s p e c t i ve
s ele c t i on al uni t s , i . e . s t a t e or act ion or any other , i s max imally
specific . This means t hat it conveys t he maximum load o f i n forma t i on
for e very noun or verb . The c o n s t raint of t he s el e c t i onal unit on the
l e x i c al uni t i s shown in t he impl i c at i on t hat a s t a t e verb i s l e x i c ally
to be spe c i fi e d as , for i n s t anc e , ' heavy ' , ' hard ' , ' b e a u t i fu L ' ,
' de l. i c i o u s ' , but not a s 'run ' , ' fZy ' , ' s tand ' , . ' cry ' , and t hat an
a c t i on verb i s lexi c ally to be spe c i fi e d as ' da n c e ' , ' go ' , 'run ' , , cry ' ,
but not a s 'bad ' , ' s Low ' , ' dry ' , ' de e p ' . B y the same t oken , the
s ele c t ional s p e c i f i c at i on o f a noun as ' ma s c ul ine' , for i n s t an c e ,
entails i t s lex i c al spe c i fi c ation as 'man ' but not as ' w oman ' .
The i n fl e c t ional un i t i s a s emant i c unit whi ch , w i t h a verb , for
i n s t an c e , may involve such n o t i o n s as vo i c e , aspe c t , t en s e , and w i t h
a noun s u c h not i on s as d e f i n i t e and number .
13
The derivat ional unit i s a seman t i c un i t t he fun c t ion o f whi c h i s

t o convert a p art i c ul ar verb o r noun, whi c h h a s cert ain int r i n s i c
propert i e s, int o a derived l e x i c al unit w i t h di ffe rent propert i e s .
2.2. V EFINIT I O N OF TERMS
Two general are as wi l l b e d e l imi t e d in t e rms o f t he i r de finit ions

and t h e i r des cript ion . The first area has t o do with the s t ru c t ure of
the word a s it i s o b s e rvab le in t e rms of t he regulari t i e s of form t hat
are relat e d to the mean ings c onveye d . The s e cond area has t o do w i t h
the s t ru c t ure o f the word as i t i s vi ewed from Chafe ' s framework . The
fi rst c r i t erion mak e s a d i s t i n c t ion between a s imp le word and a c om
p o s e d word . The s e cond c r i t erion d i fferent i a t e s a n u c l e ar word from
a pe ripheral word . Notat i onal symb o l s are a l s o preseat ed, a l t h o ugh
some furt her a c c ount s may n e c e s sari ly b e given on cert ain p o i nt s where
the symb o l s are u s e d or where new s ymb o l s may b e intro du c e d .
2.2. 1 . T h e S i m p l e W o rd
A s imp le word contains one l ex i c a l unit only . In surface re

p re se nt a t i on, a s imp l e word doe s not invol ve any a ffixat ion . In a
cert ain r e s p e c t a s imp le word i s what C hafe would c a l l a " word-root"
( 1 9 7 0b : 1 0 8 ) . The surface definit i on i s n e c e s s ary, s in c e t he re are many
Javan e s e verb s t hat i nvo lve an o b l i gatory affixat ion as soon a s a
format ion pro c e s s s t ar t s t o e s t ab l i sh t hem . , For examp le, s u c h a word
root as a dE k wi l l remain a s imp le word meaning ' 8 ta n d ' , verb o r noun ,
s p e c i f i e d in t he mo s t general way . As soon a s it i s spe c i fi e d a s
act ion, t hen t h e act ion feature enta i l s a certain p r e f i x whi c h forms
t he root to b e c ome an act ion verb � a dE k ' t o 8 t a nd ' . I f i t i s s p e c i fied
a s a pro c e s s verb, then it b e c ome s m a dE k ' t o t a k e a 8 t a n d ' . If it is
spe c i fi e d a s a n a c t i on-pro c e s s ve rb, it b e c ome s � a dE k a ke ' t o e re c t ' .
A mon o s y l lab i c word i s always a s imp le word. Under c ircums t an c e s
t hat a s imp l e word i s s ub j e c t t o breakdown, it always c o n s i s t s o f two
part s, one part is the c arrier of the l e x i c a l unit, the o t her p art i s
meaningl e s s . Thi s meaningl e s s part i s usually a eup hon i s ing appendage,
and a s s u c h it is fun c t ional in t e rms of the p hono logy of t he word
only .
2.2.2. T h e C o m p o s e d Wo r d
A c omp o s e d word i s a word t hat invo lves a n ext e n s i on o f a s imp l e

word e i t he r i n t e rms o f affi xat i on, redup l i c at ion, or comb i nat ion .
An affixat i on involves p r e f i x e s, i n f i x e s and s u ffixe s .
A redup li cat ion is o f two t yp e s . The first t yp e is a re dup l i c a t ion
14
o f the f i r s t s y l lab le o f a word .

There are t wo t y p e s o f combinat i o n . The first involves a c omb i nat ion
o f two words o f related meaning s . The s e cond t yp e i nvo lve s a c omb ina
t i on of two wo rds o f unre lat ed me an i ngs .
2.2.3. T h e Nu c l e a r W o r d
The d i s t i n c t ion between a nuclear word and a peripheral word i s i n

t e rms o f t he n o t i on o f the central i t y o f the verb i n a s e n t en c e . The
dependency re lat ions of a verb w i t h t he nouns t hat may ac company it in
a s e n t e n c e fun c t ion as t he valence of the verb . Thi s val ence e s t ab
l i she s t he b a s i c c omponent o f a sentence , i . e . t he propos i t ion of the
sentence ( Fi l lmore 1 9 6 8 : 2 3 ) . The other . c omponent o f a sentence i s the
modal c omp onent , whi c h doe s not b e l ong t o the valence o f the verb .
A n u c l e ar word i s a word t hat i s c en t ral w i t h referen c e t o the
propo s i t i on . The fun ct ion o f a nuc lear word i s always imp l i e d b y the
verb , i . e . t he n u c l e u s o f a prop o s i t i o n .
2.2.4. The P e r i p h e r a l Word
A p e ripheral word i s not c en t ral w i t h re ference t o a propo s i t i on .

I t s fun c t i on i s not imp l i e d b y the verb . I t s presence in t he surface
repre s e n t a t i on is always opt i onal . I t o c c urs in t he surface repre s e n t
a t i o n b y virtue o f i t s fun c t i o n t o expose the re lat i o n s h i p s o f the
n u c l ear words , o r it s fun c t ion t o attribute the diagno s t i c s o f the
o b s e rvab le me aning o f the p ropo s i t i on i n the surface repre sentat ion .
2 . 2 . 5. T h e A ff i x
An affi x , i . e . a pre fi x , an i n fi x , or a suffix , i s an appendage t hat

is l i nk e d t o a word , the func t i on o f w h i c h has t o do w i t h t he expan s ion
o f a s imp l e word i n t o a comp o s e d word , and whi c h i t s e l f never o c curs
i n i so lat ion . As for t he i n t e rnal s t ru c t ure o f t he affix , an affix i s
l i nk e d t o i t s own s eman t i c s t ru c t ure , i . e . an affix i s never mean i ng
les s .
2.2.6. No ta t i o n a l Sym b o l s
The s ymb o l s , many o f t hem are b o rrowed from Chafe ( 1 9 7 0a , 1 9 7 0b ) ,

are a s f o l l ows :
X- . . . ' X i s a prefix t o a word o c c up y i ng
. . . -X ' X i s a suffix t o a word o c c up y i ng
. . . -X- . • . ' X i s an infix to a word o c cupy ing . . . and
L ' a l e x i c a l uni t '
15
' t he infl e c t ional unit i s refle c t e d b y zero i n t he surface

repre s e n t at ion '
' t he i n fle c t i onal unit i s re f l e c t e d by X in the surfac e

x
repre s entation '
'" ' e it he r/or w i t h no func t i onal di fferen c e '
' relat e d in a certain way '
' the relat ion o f Y t o X i s subordinat e d t o t he relat i on o f
� Z to X '
x y z
S ' sentence or sentence prop o s i t ion '
V ' verb '
N ' noun '
Ns ' nasal '
Vw ' vowel '
X � Y ' X obl i gato rily b e c omes Y '
X - ---;;!> Y ' X o p t i o n ally b e c ome s Y '
X �> y ' X i s obligat o r i l y furt her s p e c i f i e d as Y '
X - �>y ' X i s o p t i onally furt her s p e c i fied as Y '
-x ' X i s a b s e nt '
+X ' X i s p r e sent '
+X ' t he p r e s e n c e o f X i s opt ional '
,L ' in the environment o f '
[ ] ' in c ombinat ion '
x
{ } y
' X or Y '
2 . 3. THE S U RFA C E STRUCTURE OF THE S I M P L E WORV
There are two t y p e s o f s imple word : mon o s yllab i c word and non
mon o s yl lab i c wo rd . The numbe r of Javan e s e mono sy llab i c words is small .
Uhlenb e c k ( 1 9 6 6 ) p r e s e n t e d an e x c ellent a c c ount o f the t y p e s o f words
in t e rms of their canon i c al forms , where he a l s o not i c e d the s c arc i t y
o f t h e mono s yllab i c words . A s imple word may repre sent a nuclear word
or a peripheral word .
2 . 3. 1 . Monosyl l ab i c Word
Any breakdown o f a mon o s yllab i c word t hat may bring about part s
one o f whi c h may be i d e n t i cal with a word i s a c c i dental . S u c h words
as p re � ' b amb o o ' , se� 'who, which ' , pe� 'mu t t i p t i e d b y ' , me � ' o n ty ' ,
are s imp l e words b y v i rt ue o f t h e i r b e ing mon o s yllab i c and having a
s i ngle l e x i c al s p e c i fic a t i on . The recurring e � , whi c h i s i dent i c al
w i t h t he word e � ' i n ' i s t o t ally meaningl e s s in reference t o each o f
16
t h e four words . So are t he c o n s onant s p r , 5 , p , m , whi c h p r e c e de i t .

S ome mon o s y l lab i c words are subj e c t t o an opt i onal affi xat ion o f a
mean ingl e s s euphon i s ing appendage . Thi s i s always a vowel and at t a c h e d
b e fore the word . Be fore a word b e g inning w i t h y , the appendage i s i .
Be fore w , t he appe ndage i s u . E l s ewhere , the appendage i s E .
The fo l l owing words are i l l u s t rat ive o f mon s y l l ab i c words, where
the symb o l 0 i n d i c a t e s that the word is normal l y not subj e c t to t he
euphon i s ing a ffi xat i on :
pan ' b ra n c h '
o p run
o
' i n uni s o n ( de p a r t u re ) '
b l Ek ' c u t down to size '
o b rEm ' s u g a r foam c o o k i e '
tEr 'go a long w i t h '
o t6 ' Yo u s e e ! '
d6m 'needle '
o das , z e ro '
o ten ' s harp ( as in two o ' c l o c k s ha rp ) '
a6n ' u n ders tand '
o de� ' a t tention ! '
c ra h ' di v i de d '
o cen ' o s traci s e '
j6k ' a dd up '
o j am ' hour '
kom ' s o a k up
noq ' ra t i o n '
o �Es ' t a s t e fu l '
o hus ' s h u t up ! '
we t ' tree '
w6h ' fr u i t '
yon ' sw i ng '
y6 'yes '
2.3.2. No n -m o n o s y l l a b i c S i m p l e W o r d
The length o f a non-mono s y l l a b i c s imple word general ly does not

e x c e e d t hree s y l l ab le s . There is no way of saying i n whi ch s y l lab l e
o f a non-mono s y l l ab i c word i t s meaning i s c e n t e re d . S ome o f mono
s y l l ab i c s imp le words are subj e c t to a mean i ngl e s s e up hon i s ing appen
dage . There are t hree type s o f appendage : a, n, q.
17
2.3.2. 1 . Th e A p p e n dag e a
Th i s appendage o c curs b e fore a limi t e d numb e r of words :

g a we 'V a g awe 'ma k e '
ma r g 6 'V am a rg 6 'b e aa u s e '
nanen ananen
0 0 0 0
'V 'b u t '

p ad u 'V a p adu 'quarre Z '
2.3.2.2. The A p p e n dag e �
Thi s appendage o c curs b e t we e n t he two s y llab le s o f a limi t e d numb e r

o f b i s yllab i c words :
s 6 k6 'V s 6 � k6 'fr o m '
m6 s 6 m6 n s 6
0
'V , season'
musoh 'V mu�soh 'en emy '
masaq ma n s a q
0
'V 'a o o k '
a s l op 'V a� s l op 's e t (sun, moon ) ,
but als o :
ma n u s 6 'V manu�s6 'man '
There i s another word : s 6 k6 'pi Z Z a r ' , whi c h has a surface re
p r e s e n t at ion e x a c t ly iden t i cal with t he first word in the li s t ab o ve .
But s 6 k 6 'p i Z Z a r ' i s not subj e c t t o the a ffixat ion o f the appendage � .
2.3.2. 3. Th e A p p e ndag e q
Thi s appendage o c curs at the end o f a limi t e d numb er o f words t hat

end in a vowel. When it o c curs , it normally a f fe c t s the nuclear vowel
o f t he las t syllable to wh i c h it is a t t a c he d . Some t ime s it may also
a f fe ct another vowel t hat is i n harmony with t he vowel of the s yllable
where it o c curs .
a di 'V adeq 'y o u n g e r s i b Z i ng ,
bali 'V ba l eq 're t u r n '
u w6 'V uwaq 'o L d e r s i b L i n g o f a p a r e n t '
'a L o n e '
k a ki 'V ka keq 'grandfa t h e r '
bibi 'V bi b e q 'a un t '
616 'V e l eq 'bad'
2.4. THE STR U C T U R E OF THE C O M POS EV W O RV
The expan s ion o f a s imp le word into a comp o s e d word normally involves
the nuclear words only . The forma t i o n of a comp o s e d word has t o do
w i t h t he s pe c i fi cat ion o f the word in t e rms o f any o f t he four s eman t i c
un i t s , i . e . s e le c t i onal unit , le xi cal unit , infle c t ional unit ,
derivat ional unit .
lB
The format ion o f a comp o s e d word may b e refle c t e d i n t he surface

representat ion b y the a f fi xat ion , redup l i c at ion , or c omb inat ion .
There are two t y p e s of affixe s . The first type o c curs with the
s p e c i fi cat ion o f a verb . The other type o c curs w i t h the spe c i fi cat i on
o f a noun .
In the surface repre s entat ion , s ome affixes t hat o c c ur with a verb
are ident i c a l with s ome affixes t hat o c cur with a noun .
The a f f i x e s t hat are re l a t e d t o a verb are l i s t ed as fol lows , where
parent he s e s inc lude an o p t i onal phoneme :
a. The p r e f i xe s : l. m6 r 6 - . . . '" mE r- . . .
2. kap i - . . .
3. k a mi - . . .
4. kum6- . . .
5. a- . . .
6. m(a) - . . .
7. (a)Ns- . . .
B. k a - . . . '" k E - . . .
9. di - . . .
10 . t a q - . . . '" d a q - . . .
ll . k6q - . . .
b. The infixe s : 12 . . . . -i n - . . .
13. · . . - um- . . .
14. . . . - r- . . .
c. The suffixe s : 1 5 . . . . - (n) i
16. ' " -an
17. . . . -En
lB. · . . -6
19 . · . . - a ke
The affixes t hat are re lated t o a noun are l i s t ed as fo l lows , where
parenth e s e s inc lude an opt i onal phoneme :
a. The p r e f i xe s : i. p a ri - . . .
ii. p r a - . . . '" p E r - . . .
iii . pVw ( N s ) - . . .
iv . k a - . . . '" k E - . . .
b. The s u ffixe s : v. . . . -an
vi . . . . - (n)e
vi i . . . . -ku
viii . . . . -mu
S in c e a separat e d i s c u s s ion o n s p e e c h decorum wi l l b e p r e s e n t e d
in Chap t e r 4 , the p r e f i x dip o n - . . . , e quivalent t o 9 , t he suffix
. . . - ( n ) i p o n , equivalent t o vi . , and t he suffix . . . - ( a ) k E n , equivalent
t o 1 9 , are not l i s t e d here .
19
2.4. 1 . The Affi xation of a Verb
The prefixes 1 - 4 are not p ro du c t i ve . The r e s t o f t h e a f f i x e s

a r e produc t ive , alt hough the infixe s 1 2 - 1 4 a r e l e s s s o .
2 . 4. 1 . 1 . Th e V e� b with m6 r 6 - . . • � mEr- . . •
The prefix forms a verb from a simp le -word noun :

day6h 'g u e s t ' m6 r 6 d a Y 6 h � m E r d a y 6 h 'pay a visit '
n i l'l i h ' s a a b i e s ' m E r ni l'l i h 'fu l l of s aab i e s '
2.4.1 .2. Th e V e� b with k a pi - . . .
The prefix forms a verb from a s imp l e -word noun :

d E r E � 's t ro n g wish' k a p i d E r E � 'o v e r e a g e r '
l a r e 'a h i l d ' k a pi l a r e 'ahi l di s h '
2 . 4. 1 . 3 . Th e V e� b with k a m i - . . .
Thi s p r e f i x norma l l y o c c urs in c ombinat ion with t he p r e f i x 1 6 .

. . . - a n t o form 'a verb from another s imp l e -word verb :
9 i 1 6 'a v e r s i v e ' k a migi l a n ' t e rr i fi e d '
s e s e t 'p e e l ' k a mi s e s e t E n 's uffer from s ki n pee l '
2.4.1 .4. The V e� b with k u m 6 - • . .
The prefix forms a verb from a s imp l e -word verb or a simp l e -word
noun :
wa ni 'dar e ' k u m 6 w a n i 'rea k l e s s l y da r e '
l a n c a � 'pre - e mp t i v e ' k u m l a n c a � ' t h o u g h t l e s s l y p r e - emp t i v e '
r u j a q 'ho t fru i t s a l a d ' k u m r u j a q 'a t r i g h t s ta g e fo r m a k i n g a hot
salad '
pangan kuma�ga�
o
'roa s t ' 'a t r i g h t s ta g e for ro a s t i n g '
2.4. 1 . 5 . Th e V e� b with a - . . .
The prefix forms a verb from a s i mp l e -word noun :

w a � o n ' s hap e ' awa n o n 'in t h e s hape o f '
r u p 6 'app e a ran c e ' a r u p 6 'have t h e app eara n c e of'
g a ma n 'w e a p o n ' a g a m a n 'arm e d w i t h '
b 6 n d 6 'w e a l t h ' a b 6 n d 6 'pro v i de d w i t h '
2.4.1 .6. Th e V e� b with m ( a ) - . . .
The pre fix forms a verb from a s imp le -word noun :

g u r u 'teacher' m a g u r u ' l earn from a t e a c h e r '
s E m b a h 'r e s p e a t ' m a n E m b a h 'pay respeat to'
20
arEp 'fro n t ' m a r E p ' fa c e '

aj u 'progre s s ' m a j u 'mo v e forward '
2.4.1 .7. T h e V eltb w.Lth ( a ) Ns- . . .
The pre fix forms a verb from a s imp le-word verb or a simp le -word
noun :
tu l es ' w ri t e ' nu l es 'wri t e '
j a 1 oq ' a s k for ' n j a l oq ' a s k for '
0
gule ' s te w ' ngu l e 'make s t ew '

6y6t 'root ' �6y6 t ' t a k e ro o t '
2.4.1 .8. T h e V elt b with k a - . . . � kE- • . . .
The pre fix forms a verb w i t h a p a s s ive me an ing from a s imp l e -word
verb :
j un j on ' l i ft ' k a j u n j o� , l i ft e d '
gi l Es 'grind ' kEg l l Es ' gr o und '
j u po q ' ta k e ' k E j u po q ' ta k e n '
wEdar ' r e v e a l. ' kEwEda r ' r e v e a l. e d '
2.4. 1 .9. T h e V eltb with d l - ' "
The prefix forms a verb w i t h a p a s s i ve meaning from a s imp l e-word

verb :
d E 1 E� 'see ' d i d E 1 E � ' s e en ( by ) '
t a n d o r 'p l. a n t ' d i t a n d o r ' p l. an ted '
k i r e m ' s e nd ' d i k i rem ' sent '
t u k u ' b uy ' d i t u k u 'bough t '
2.4.1 .10. T h e V eltb with t a q - . • . � daq- . • .
This p r e fi x , whi ch i s related t o a k u ' I ' , forms a verb w i t h a

p a s s ive me aning from a s i mp l e -word verb :
g6w6 'bring ' t a q g 6w6 ' b r o u g h t by m e '
s i m p E n ' s tore ' t a q s i m p E n ' s t o r e d by me '
d 6 1 ' s e l.7, ' t a q d 6 1 ' s o l. d by m e '
g a n t i ' c hange ' t a q g a n t i ' c han g e d by m e '
The u s e o f d a q - . • . i n s t e ad o f t a q - n o rmal ly gives t he impre s s ion
. . .
of e laborat ion or s t i lt e dn e s s .
2.4. 1 . 1 1 . T h e Veltb with k6q - . . .
Thi s prefix , whi c h i s r e l a t e d t o kowe 'you ' , forms a verb w i t h a

p a s s ive me an ing from a simp l e -word 7erb :
21
g a we 'make ' k6q g aw e ' made by y o u '

j i we t 'pinch ' k 6 q j i we t 'pinched by you '
p i 1 eh ' choo s e ' k6q p i l e h ' c ho s e n b y y o u '
k6q s a w a n
0
s awan 'watc h ' ' w a t a h e d by y o u '
2.4. 1 .12. Th e V ell b with . . . - i n- • . •
The infix forms a verb w i t h a pas s i ve meaning from a s imp le -word

verb :
sawan 'watch ' s i n awan ' seen '
b a ro� , a c company ' b i n a ro� ' a c compan i e d '
wanon ' s hape ' w i n a non ' s ha p e d '
s ugoh ' serve ' s i n u goh ' served w i t h '
2.4.1 .13. The V ell b with . . . - u m - . . .
The infix forms a verb from a s imp le-word verb or a s imp le -word
noun :
tanda� tumanda�
s a n aq s uman aq
sEbar s um E b a r
g um a n ton
0
g a n ton
0
2.4. 1 . 14. The V ell b with . . . - r - . . .
The infix forms a verb from a s imp l e-word noun :

pEnt61 ' knob ' prEnt61 ' kn o b b y '
tutol ' s po t ' t ru t o l ' spo t ty '
bE�6q ' s hout ' b r E � 6q ' fu L L o f s h o u t s '
j Edo 1 ' ap p e a ran c e ' j r E do 1 ' p o p p i n g up '
2.4.1 .15. Th e V ell b wah . . . - ( n ) i

Thi s s uffix forms a verb from a comp o s e d-word verb , which i s formed
by the affixation of any o f t he prefixe s : 7 , 9 , 1 0 , 11 :
t a kE r 'measure ' n a k E r ' m e a s ur e ' n a k E r i ' m e a s ure r e p e a t e d L y '
tug E l ' break ' d i t u g E l 'broken ' d i t u g E 1 i 'broken into p i e ce s '
p E n ton ' hit ' t a q p E n t o � ' h i t by me ' t a q p E n t u n i ' h i t by m e

repea tedLy '
t E mbon ' mention ' k6q t E m b o � ' a s k e d by y o u ' k6q t Em b u n i ' y o u a s k for a
particuLar thing '
2.4.1 .16. Th e V ell b with . . . - a n
T h i s s u f fi x may form a verb from a s imp l e -word verb . I n comb i nat i on

with the p r e f i x 8 it may a l s o form a verb from another verb :
22
l u�goh 'sit ' l u � g u h a n ' B i t t ing '

turu t u r6 n ' L i e down '
I E b u ' en t e r ' k E I E b 6 n ' i n t rude d '
c E m p l o � ' di p ' k E c Emp l u� a n ' e n t e r e d by somet hing '
2.4.1 .17. Th e V e� b with . . . - E n
The suffix forms a verb from a s imp l e-word verb :

j u poq ' ta k e ' j upuqEn ' Ta k e (it) ! '
pa�an ' ea t ' pa�anEn ' Ea t (it) ! '
g 6w6 ' bring ' g aw a n E n ' Br i n g (it) ! '
baya r 'pay ' bayarEn ' Pa y (it) ! '
2 . 4 . 1 . 1 8. Th e V e� b with . . . -6
The suffix forms a verb from a s imple -word verb , o r a comp o s ed-word
verb formed with one o f the prefix e s : 9 , 1 0 , 1 1 , or t he infix 1 2 :
t u r u ' s L e ep ' t u r u 6 ' S L e ep ! '
� g 6w6 ' b r i n g ' � g 6w66 ' B r i n g ( i t ) ! '
d i g 6w 6 ' carr i e d ' d i g 6w66 ' e v e n if carr i e d '
t a q g 6w6 ' c arr i e d by me ' t a q g 6w66 ' e v e n if carr i e d by m e '
k6q g 6w6 ' ca r r i e d by you ' k 6 q g 6w66 ' e v e n i f carr i e d by y o u '
g i n a n j a r ' r eward e d ' g i n a n j a r 6 ' (w i s h to Go d · s o m e b ody ) b e rewarde d '
2.4.1 .19. Th e V e� b with . . . - a k e
The suffi x , always in combinat ion with one o f the prefixe s : 6, 7,

8 , 9 , 1 0 , 1 1 , or t he infix 1 2 , forms a verb from a verb :
maguru ' L earn from a t e a c h e r ' m a g u r6q a k e ' s e nd s o m e o n e t o L e arn from
a teacher '
n j u poq ' take ' n j u po q a ke ' t a k e fo r s o m e o n e '
ka t u toq ' hi t ( b y s o m e b o dy ) ' k a t u t o q a ke ' h i t a ga i n s t s o m e t h i n g (by

s om e b o dy ) ,
d i j u p oq ' taken ' d i j u p o q a k e ' t a k en for s o m e b o dy '
taqtuku ' b o u g h t by m e ' t a q t u k6 q a k e ' b o u g h t by me for s o m e b o dy '
k6q b a l a � ' t hrown a t by y o u ' k6 q b a l a � a k e ' t hrown by y o u a t s o m e t h i ng ,
someb ody '
s i n ugoh ' served with ' s i n u goh a ke ' s e r v e d to s om e b o dy '
2.4.2. T h e A f f i x a t i o n o f a No u n
The p re fixe s i . - i i . are not p roduc t ive . Only a l imit e d numbe r o f

words are known t o b e sub j e c t t o t h e s e prefixe s . The r e s t o f the
prefixes are product ive .
23
2.4.2 . 1 . T h e N o un wlzh p a r i - . . .
The pre fix forms a noun from a s imp l e -word noun . There are only
t hree nouns forme d this way :
w i s 6 t 6 'trip ' p a r i w i s 6 t 6 'tourism'
g a w e 'w ork ' p a r i g a w e 'emerg e n cy '
b 6 s 6 'sp e e c h ' p a r i b 6 s 6 'pro v e r b '
2.4.2.2. T h e N o u n wlzh p r a - . . . � pE r- . . .
The pre fix forms a noun from a s imp l e-word verb o r noun , o r a ve rb
previ o u s ly formed w i t h t he p r e f i x 7 , where t he out c ome i s affixed w i t h
the suffix v . :
n 6 t o 'arrang e ' p ra n a t an � p E rna tan 'r eg u "t a t io n '
t 6 n d 6 's i g n ' p r a t6nd6 � p E r t6nd6 'om e n '
2.4.2.3. T h e N o u n wlzh p Vw ( N s ) - • . .
The prefix forms a noun from a s imp le-word verb o r noun :

ango 'u s e ' p a � a � g o 'c l o t h i n g '
u t a� 'de b t ' p i u t a � 'credi t '
g aw e 'wo r k ' p a n g a w e 'de e d '
k u ko h 's t u rdy ' p i k u ko h 'de e d ( do c umen t ) '
2.4.2.4. T h e N o u n wlzh k a - . . . � kE- . . .

The p re fix forms a noun from a s imp l e-word verb . I n comb inat ion
w i t h the s u f f i x v . , it forms a noun from a s i mp l e -word noun :
w E r o h 's e e ' k a w r o h 'know l e dg e '
a r E p 'wan t ' k a r E p 'in t e n t i o n '
l u r a h 'v i l l a g e ma y o r ' k E l u r a h a n ' v i l l a ge mayo r 's offi c e '
b u p a t i 're g e n t ' k a b u p a t � n 'r e g en c y '
2.4.2.5. T h e N o un wlzh . . . - a n
The suffix forms a noun from a s imp le-word verb o r a s imp le-word
noun . I t may a l s o b e in c omb inat ion with the pre fix i i i . t o form a
noun from a verb or a noun :
2.4.2.6. T h e N o u n wlzh . . . - ( n ) e
The suffix forms a noun from a s imp le-word verb or n ou n . I t may

a l s o o c cur in a comp o s e d-word noun . In t h i s l a t t e r c a s e the s u f f i x
c an only fol l ow t he suffix v . :
j a r a n 'hor s e ' j a rane ' t h e h o rs e '
t u k u 'buy ' t u kune 'the purchas e '
24
j a ranan ' t oy horse ' j a ranane ' t h e toy h o rs e '

I ama r a n ' p ro p o s a l ' l a ma r a n e ' t h e propo sa l '
2.4.2.7. Th e N o u n with . . . - ku
T h i s suffi x , whi c h i s related to a k u 'I ' and mut ually e x c lus ive w i t h
the s uffix vi . an d v i i i . , forms a noun from a s imp l e -word n o u n or verb
p r e v i o u s l y derived as a noun . I t may a l s o o c cur in a c omp o s e d-word
noun forme d with t he su ffix v . , in wh i c h c a s e . . . - k u can only fol low
. . . -an :
k E m b a n ' fl o w e r ' k E m b a n k u 'my f l o w e r '
t u r u ' s l e ep ' t u r u k u 'my s l e e p '
j a r a n a n ' t oy horse ' j a r a n a n k u ' m y toy h o r s e '
I u n g u h a n ' seat ' l u n g u h a n k u 'my s e a t '
2.4.2.8. Th e N o un with . . . - m u
Th i s suffix , whi c h i s re lated t o kowe 'you ' , forms a noun from a

s imp l e -word noun or verb previou s ly derived as a noun . I t may a l s o
o c c ur in a comp o s ed-word noun formed wi t h the suffix v . , in whi c h c a s e
. . -mu c an o n l y fo l low . . - a n :
. .
om a h ' ho u s e ' o m a h m u ' y o ur h o u s e '

l u � 6 ' go ' l u � a m u ' y o ur g o i n g '
k l u y u r a n ' b um around ' k l u y u r a n m u ' y o u r b umming aro und '
t u l i s a n 'writ ing ' t u l i s a n m u ' y our writing '
2.4.3. T h e Re d u p l i c a t i o n o f a V e r b
The whol e-word re dup l i c at i on o f a verb may or may not invo lve a
phono l o g i c a l change o f the word so redup l i c at e d . The re dup l i c a t ion o f
t he first s y l l ab l e o f a verb always put s a c o n s t raint o n t h e vowe l o f
t he first s y l l ab le o f t h e verb s o redup l i c at e d , where t h e vowe l , b e ing
u n s t re s s e d , i s always E .
2.4. 3. 1 . T h e W h o l e -wo�d R e duplicati o n 0 6 a V e�b witho ut C h ang e
The fol l owing l i s t i l lustrates the redup l i c a t i on o f the who l e verb

wit hout any phono l o g i c a l change :
ml aku ' wa l k ' m l a k u m l a k u ' take a w a l k '
ma�an m a n a n m a n a n ' e a t informa l l y w i t h o t h e r
o
' eat ' p e op l e '

t6t6 ' a rran g e ' t 6 t 6 t 6 t 6 ' m a k e prepara t i o n s '
k6n d6 ' te l l ' k 6 n d 6 k 6 n d 6 ' sp r e a d ( n e w s , a s e are t J '
25
2 . 4 . 3. 2 . The W h o l e - w o �d R eduplic ati o n 0 6 a V e�b with C hang e
The redup l i c at ion of the who l e verb w i t h a phono logi c al c hange

invo l v e s the c hange of the vowe l s of t he first memb er of the word s o
redup l i c a t e d :
b a 1 i ' r e t u rn ' b o l a b a l i ' t o and fro '
m e s E m ' s mi l e ' m e s amme s E m ' s mi l e s e v e r a l t i m e s '
n a d E k ' s ta n d '
0
� o d a k � a d E k ' s tand and s i t r e p e a t e d l y '

m u b E n ' g o around '
0
m u b a � m u b E � ' b e a t around t h e b u s h '
2.4.3.3. The R eduplicati o n 0 6 th e Fi�¢ t S yllable 0 6 a V e� b
Thi s t yp e o f redup l i c at i on only invo lve s b i sy l l ab i c verb s . The

f o l l owing l i s t i l lu s t ra t e s the redup l i c at i on of the first s y l lab le o f
a verb :
t u k u ' bu y ' t E t u k u ' do some s h op p i n g '
� g u y u ' laugh ' � g E g u y u ' l cr. u g h a t '
m b e d 6 ' te a s e ' m b E b e d 6 ' t e a s e s e v e ra l t i m e s '
s a m b a t 'moan ' s E s a m b a t ' moan r e p e a t e d l y '
2.4.4. The Redu p l i c a t i on o f a Noun
The who l e -word redup l i c at ion o f a noun norma l l y involves a

phono l o g i c a l c hange in a ffe c t i ve usage s only , e . g . w i t h t he meaning
' Wh y are y o u a l way s nagging a b o u t . . . ? ' , o t herw i s e no phono l o g i c a l c hange
is i nvolve d . The redup l i c a t ion o f the first s y l lab l e o f a noun always
puts a c o n s t raint o n t he vowe l of the fi rst s y l lab l e of t he noun so
redup l i c at e d , where t he vowe l , b e ing uns t re s s e d , is always E .
2.4.4.1 . Th e W h o l e - w o� d R eduplicati o n 0 6 a N o un
The fo l l owing l i s t s i l l u s t rate t he redup l i c a t io n o f the who l e noun :

Non-affe c t i ve , i . e . connoting t o the p lural i t y o f t he redup l i c a t e d form :
we t ' t r e e ' we t w e t ' t r e e s '
b o c a h ' c hi l d ' b o c a h b o c a h ' c h i l dr e n '
d a l a n ' s tre e t ' d a 1 a n d a 1 a n ' s tr e e t s '
w6� ' man ' w 6 � w 6 � ' p e op l e '
A f f e c t ive , i . e . c onnot ing t o s ome nui s an c e of rep eated requ e s t s for the
t hings referred t o b y the noun s :
d u we t 'money ' d uw a t d u w e t ' m o n e y '
buku 'book ' b u k a b u k u 'book '
1 ade� ' k n i fe ' l o d a � l a d e � ' kn i fe '
sEg6 ' co o k e d r i c e ' s E g a s E g 6 ' co o k e d r i c e '
26
2.4.4.2. Th� R �duptieazi o n 0 6 zh � Fi�6 Z S ytta b t � 0 6 a N o u n
Thi s t y p e o f re dup l i c at i on norma l l y invo lves � i s y l l ab i c noun s ,

alt hough c a s e s with nouns of more t han two s y l l ab l e s , part i c u larly
those of t he comp o s e d t y p e s , are also known . The fol lowing l i s t
i l l u s t ra t e s such a redup l i cat ion .
pada� ' light ' pEpada� ' en l i g h tm e n t '
g a ran ' h and l e ' gEgaran ' g u i da n c e '
l a k6 n ' s t o ry ' 1 E 1 a k6 n ' drama '
tandu ran ' p l an t ' t E ta n d u ran ' a c o l l e c t i o n of p l a n t s '
2.4.5. T h e Comb i n a t i on o f V e r b s
There are t wo t y p e s o f comb inat ions which make up a c omp o s e d word .

The firs t type is a comb ination of a verb with anot h e r verb , norma l l y
o f related meaning . The other t y p e i s a comb inat ion o f a verb with a
non-verb .
2.4.5. 1 . T h � C o m binazi o n 0 6 a V �� b wizh a n o z h �� V �� b
The fol lowing l i s t i l l u s t ra t e s the c omb ina t i on o f a verb with

another verb :
ma n d E k ' s top ' man u ' do u b t fu l ' m a n d E km a � u ' i n g r e a t do ub t '
andap ' l ow ' as6r ' low ' a n d a p a s 6 r ' h umb l e '
dEdEp ' s ta l k ' t i dEm ' qu i e t ' d E d E p t i d E m ' v ery q u i e t '
m u d6 ' y o u ng ' pu�go� ' i n e xp e r i e n c e d ' m u d 6 p u � g o � ' unitiated '
2.4.5.2. T h � C o m b i nazi o n 0 6 a V � � b wizh a N o n - V ��b
The fol lowing list i l lustrates the comb ination o f a verb w i t h a

non-ve rb , norma l l y a noun :
masoq ' e n ter ' a�en 'wind ' masoq a � e n ' ca t c h a c o l d '
gugor ' c o l l ap s e ' g u no� 'mountain ' gugorguno� 'work together without
pay
�gado ' e a t raw ' at i ' l iver ' � g a d o a t i ' ca u s e worry '
mba 1 a� , t hrow ' u l at ' co u n t e nan c e ' m b a l a � u l a t ' h i n t by fa c i a l
g e s t u re '
2.4.6. T h e C o m b i n a t i o n o f No u n s
There are two t y p e s o f c omb inat ions whi c h may make up a c omp o s e d
noun . One i s a c ombinat ion o f two nouns o f related meanings . The
o t h e r is a c omb inat ion of two nouns of unre lated meaning s .
27
2.4.6.1 . T h e C o m b � na�� o n 4 0 6 N o un4 0 6 R ela�ed M e a n� n g 4
T h e f o l l owing l i s t i l lustrates the c omb inat ion o f two n o u n s o f

related meanings :
sate 'anima l ' k e w a n ' a n i ma l ' s a tokewan ' a n i m a l k i ngdom '
anaq 'ahi ld ' s a d u l o r ' s i b l i ng ' naqdu lor ' ao u s i n '
bapaq ' fa t h e r ' i b u 'mother ' bapaq i bu 'parents '
kaka� ' o lder a d i ' y ounger s i b l i ng ' kaka�ad i 'brothers '
brot her '
2.4.6.2. T h e C o m b� na�� o n4 0 6 N o u n4 0 6 U n4ela�ed M ean� ng 4
The fo l l owing l i s t i l lu s t ra t e s t h e c omb inat ion o f t w o nouns o f

unre lated meanings :
t 6 n d 6 ' s ign ' m6 t 6 t 6 n d 6m6 t 6 ' g i ft '
0
'eye '
r 6 j 6 ' k ing ' k6y6 ' wea l t h ' r6j 6 k6 y 6 ' l i v e s t o a k '
r 6 j 6 ' k ing ' s i � 6 ' l ion ' r 6 j 6 s i � 6 ' gonorr h e a '
k E m b a n 'flower ' l a m b e ' l ips ' k E m ba n l ambe ' topia of
0 0
t h e day '
2.5. T H E NUC L E AR WORV
At t he same t ime t hat a verb i s e s t ab li shed in t he format ion s t age

a s t he n u c l e u s of a propo s i t ion , i . e . S V, a noun o r nouns are
�
,------,
a l s o i n c orporated in t he prop o s i t ion , i . e . V � V N. In t h i s
s e n s e , t h e verb and t h e noun are nuc lear word s .
On t he b a s i s of i t s type of valen c e , i . e . i t s t ype o f dep enden c y
r e l a t i o n s t o t he noun or n o u n s t hat may a c c ompany i t in t he propo s i t i on ,
a Javan e s e verb may b e s e l e c t ionally s p e c i fi e d as one o f the f o l l owing :
1 . S t at e , 2 . A c t i on , 3 . Pro c e s s , 4 . Act ion-Pro ce s s , 5 . S t at e-Expe r i
e n t i a l , 6 . S t at e -Benefa c t ive , 7. S t a t e - Lo c ative , 8. A c t ion-Experient ial ,
9 . A c t i on-Benefac t i ve , 1 0 . A c t ion-Lo cative , 1 1 . P ro c e s s -Exp e r i ent i a l ,
1 2 . Proc e s s-Ben e fac t i ve , 1 3 . Pro c e s s -Locat i ve , 1 4 . A c t ion-Pro c e s s
Experien t i al , 1 5 . Ac t i on-Pro c e s s-Benefac t ive , 1 6 . A c t ion-Pro c e s s
Lo c a t i ve .
2.5. 1 . F u rt h e r S p ec i f i ca t i o n s o f a Nuc l e a r Word
Each o f t h e verb s ment ioned i n 2 . 5 . i s spe c i fi e d furt her b y a l e x i

cal uni t , w h i c h Chafe c a l l s Verb Root . The l e x i c al unit whi c h o c curs
within a noun is called b y Chafe Noun Root ( 1 9 7 0b : 1 0 8 ) . In the surface
repre s e n t a t i on , Chafe ' s Root i s apparent l y r e f l e c t e d b y our S imp le
Word , whi c h i s defined on the b a s i s o f the fact t hat i t contains noth
ing e l s e e x c ep t i t s e l f .
A s men t i oned i n 2 . 1 . , the infl e c t i ona l spe c i fi c at ion , which app l i e s
t o a word alre ady s p e c i f i e d s e l e c t ionally an d l e x i c a l ly , i s b a s i c a l l y
28
a s eman t i c not i on . I t s relation t o the s ur face re fle c t ion by mean s o f

affi xat ion i s o f s e c on dary s ign i fi c an c e .
There are t hree t y p e s o f infle c t i onal spe c i fi cat ions for a Javan e s e
verb : vo i c e , aspe c t , mode . The vo i c e i s e i ther act i ve or p a s s ive .
The a c t ive vOi c e , norma l ly spe c i fying an act ion verb , put s the agent
noun a s t he p e r former of the act ion to the fore . The p a s s ive voi c e ,
on the o t her han d , highl ight s the p a t i ent noun as the unde rgoe r o f
s ome c hange in i t s condi t i on .
The a s p e c t spe c i fi ca t i on o f a verb i s e it her t e rminat ive , tran s i t ory
or i t e rat ive . The t erminat ive i n f l e c t i onal unit spe c i fi e s the in forma
t i on conveyed by the verb , i . e . s t at e , proce s s , or act ion , as something
final . The tran s i t ory infle c t i onal unit chara c t e r i s e s t he s t at e ,
pro c e s s o r act ion a s something which w i l l t ake p l a c e i n s ome l imi t e d
span o f t ime , where some c e s s at i on o r change i s expe c t e d . The i t e ra
t i ve infle c t i onal unit s p e c i f i e s the verb as having a c apac i t y or
n at ure of repe t it ion .
The mode spe c i fi c a t i on of a verb i s e i t he r s igni fi cat ive , unreal
or hortatory . The s igni fi c ative infle c t ional unit s p e c i f i e s the verb
a s factual , whe ther i t is affirmat ive o r negative i s o f s e c on dary
mat t e r . The unreal s p e c i fi cat ion o f a verb refers t o a contrast
b e t ween what i s fa c t ual and what i s wished for or what i s not l i k e ly
t o mat e r i al i s e . The hort atory s p e c i ficat i on of a verb re fers t o t he
p e r s ua s ion , c omman d , or requ e s t indi c a t e d by the verb .
W i t h the e x c ept ion for the uni t s t e rminat ive and tran s it ory , t he
i n f l e c t ional un i t s may be re f l e c t e d in the surface repre sentat i on b y
s ome affixat i on . No spe c i fi c a t i on within a verb in t e rms of what . i s
known i n Engl i s h a s t en s e i s known i n Javane s e .
The infle c t i onal u n i t s whi c h may o c cur with a Javan e s e noun are
d e f i n i t e and p lural , the former no rma l l y b e ing re f l e c t ab l e in the
surfa c e repre s entat ion , the latter only o p t i onally b e ing re fle c t a b l e
in the surface repre s en t a t i on , generally by means o f redup l i c at ion .
The fourt h type o f s p e c i fi cat ional uni t , i . e . the derivational unit ,
i s a l s o a s emant i c not ion , and it s e rve s t he fun c t ion of c onvert ing
any of t he 16 verb s or any noun into ano t he r verb or another noun
a f f e c t ing the c hange of the configurat ions o f their s eman t i c s t ru c t ure s .
2 . 5.2. T h e S ta te Verb
A s t a t e verb ne c e s s i t a t e s a pat ient noun , whi c h indi cat e s what i t

i s in t he s t a t e re ferred t o by the verb . Thi s may b e shown b y t he
fo l lowing ru l e , and e xemp l i fi e d by sent e n c e s ( 1 ) - (4) :
I
pat
Rule # l V ---?> V N
s t at e state
29
(1) aku kEsE 1

I - t ired
, I am t i re d '
(2) k l am b i k u r E g E t
my s h i r t - di r t y
' M y s h i r t i s dirty '
(3) w E d u s e ma t i
t h e g o a t - dead
' Th e goat i s dead '
(4) kEnd i l e pEcah
t h e p o t - broken
' Th e p o t i s b r o k e n '
I n t h e s e s t a t e verb s , t he i n f l e c t ional spe c i fi c at i on i n t e rms o f

a s p e c t i s irre l e vant , s in c e a s t a t e i s s upp o s e d t o b e t e rminat ive .
Ob vious ly , the i n fl e c t i onal s p e c i fi c a t i on in t e rms o f v o i c e doe s not
apply . Hortat ory , which norma l ly arp l i e s t o s ome a c t ion or p ro c e s s ,
a l s o does not apply here . There rema i n only t he i n f l e c t i onal spe c i fi
c at i o n s i n t e rm s o f s i gn i ficat ive mode o r unreal mode . The verb s in
( 1 ) - ( 4 ) are spe c i fi e d as s i gn i fi cative , in t hat t hey convey a fac t ua l
s t at e , and n o t a n unre a l i t y or c ommand , persuas ion , w i sh , o r reque s t .
Thi s s i gn i fi cat ive unit i s not re f l e G t e d by any affi xat ion in the
surfac e repre sentat ion . The s t a t e verb alone may t hen be i n d i c a t e d
in the fo l l ow ing rule :
V
state
L
Rule # l a v - �>
state
o
s i gn i fi cat ive
The unreal spe c i fi cat i on , whi ch i s mutually e x c lus ive with t he

s ign i f i cat ive s pe c i fi c ation , may c hara c t e r i s e a s t a t e verb and i s
r e f l e c t e d by t he suffix . . . - 6 , which a l s o refle c t s t h e hort at o ry
sp e c i fi c a t i on ( vide 2 . 4 . 1 . 1 8 . ) . The verb so chara c t e r i s e d norma l l y
repre sent s a n e l l i p t i c a l senten c e , where t he p a t i e n t noun r e l a t e d t o
it i s n o t pres ent in t he surface sentenc e , and where t h e sentence i s
sub ordinat ed t o another . In spe e c h , the verb so charact e r i s e d i s
u s u a l ly p ronoun c e d w i t h a r i s in g , suspended i nt onat ion , whi ch may b e
s ymb o l i s e d as : / .
Examp le s :
(5) k E s E 1 6 / a k u we s l e r e n
i f t i r e d - I - a Z r e a dy - s t op
' H a d I b e e n t i r e d, I wo u Z d have s t opp e d '
(6) rEgEt6 / k l amb i k u t a q t i � g a l
if dirty - my s h i r t - Z e ft by m e
' I wo u Z d h a v e Z e ft my s h i r t , had i t b e en dirty '
30
(7) ma t i 6 / aku ma l a h b u � a h
i f dead- I - e v e n - happy
' I w o u l d h a v e b e e n happy , if it h a d b e e n dead '
(8) g E de6 / aku o ra wEd i
if b i g - I - n o t - a fra i d
'Even if he were big, I wou l d no t b e afra i d '
The s t a t e verb i n f l e c t ionally s p e c i fied as unreal may b e indi cat e d

in t h e fo l l owing rule :
V
state
L
Ru le # l b V - �
state
. . . -6
unreal
2.5.3. The Act i on Verb
An act ion verb n e c e s s i t a t e s an Agent noun , which is the inst igator

o f t he act ion re fe rred t o b y t he verb . Thi s may b e shown b y the
fo l lowing rul e , and exemp l i fi e d b y sentences ( 9 ) - ( 1 2 ) :
I
agt
Ru l e # 2 V _ V N
act ion act ion
(9) ad i ku nguyu
m y y o unger s i b l i n g - l a u g h
'My y o u ng e r b r o t h e r laughs '
( 1 0 ) b a ke r � l E m b o r
B a k i r - w o r k o v e r t im e
' B a k i r w o r k s o v e r t im e '
( 11 ) bojone n j E re t
his (her) s p o u s e - s cream
'His w i fe s c reams '
( 12 ) a n a q m u n j o g e t
y o u r c h i Z d - da n c e
' Yo ur c h i l d dan c e s '
An act ion verb may be s p e c i f i e d infle c t i onally in t erms o f v o i c e ,

whi c h in ( 9 ) - ( 1 2 ) i s act ive , and re fle c t e d in the surface by the
prefix ( a ) Ns . . .
- W i t h this act ive i n f l e c t ional spe c i fi c ation , the
ac t i on verb may b e indi c ated in the fol lowing rule :
V
act ion
L
Rule # 2 a V - - ;:.
act ion
( a ) Ns . . .
-
a c t i ve
An ac t ion verb i s sub j e c t to an i n f l e c t ional spe c i fi c a t i on in t e rms

31
o f t h e Hortat ory unit , whi c h may b e r e f l e c t e d in t h e surface b y t he

suffix . . . - 6 ( vide 2 . 4 . 1 . 1 8 . ; 2 . 5 . 2 . ) . The agent noun in a hortatory
propo s i t ion may not always b e r e f l e c t e d in t he surface repres ent at ion .
As in Engl i s h , t he agent noun i s t he interlocut o r :
( 13 ) kowe � g u y u 6
y o u - t a ug h !
'Laugh ! '
( 14 ) bE� i i k i � Lemb u r6
n i g h t - t h i s - wo rk o v e r t ime
' Wo r k o v e r t im e t o n i g h t ! '
( 15 ) n j E r i t6 se� s E ru
s c r e am ! - w h i c h - t o ud
' S cream as t o u d a s y o u c an ! '
( 16 ) nj oget6 se� apeq
da n c e ! - w h i c h - g o o d
' Da n c e a s w e t t a s y o u c a n ! '
The a c t io n verb s p e c i fi e d i n f l e c t ionally as act i ve and hortat ory

may be indicated in t he fol l owing rule :
V
a c t i on
L
Rule # 2 b V - �> ( a ) Ns - • . •
act i on . . . -6
act ive
hort at ory
2.5.4. T h e P r o ce s s Verb
A pro c e s s verb n e c e s s i t a t e s a pat i en t noun , but d i f fering from t h e

p a t i ent noun t hat m a y o c c ur with a s t a t e verb , t h i s p at i e nt noun
undergo e s a c hange in i t s c ondit ion . Thi s may be s hown b y t he f o l low
ing rule , and ex emp l i f ied b y s entenc e s ( 1 7 ) - � 2 0 ) :
I
pat
Rule # 3 V > V N
pro c e s s pro c e s s
( 17 ) p E t l ne kuma m b a �
t h e c h e s t -ftoa t
' Th e c h e s t i s f t o a t i ng '
( 18 ) ta�gaku � l a l u
my n e i g h b o u r- comm i t s u i c i de
'My n e i g h b o ur comm i t t e d s u i c ide '
( 19 ) kun c i ne cuman t e l
t h e key -caught on
' T h e k e y i s i n t h e door '
32
( 20) ku l i te m r E n to l
h i 8 8 k i n - go o 8 e pimp l y
' H i 8 8 k i n i 8 go o 8 e - p i mp l y '
A proc e s s verb i s norma l l y r e f l e c t e d in the surface by a c ompo s e d

word , involving the a ffixat ion o f the p r e f i x ( a ) N s - . . . as shown in ( 1 8 )
and ( 2 0 ) , o r t he infix . . . - u m- . . . as s hown in ( 1 7 ) and ( 1 9 ) .
The i n f l e c t ional un it t hat may spe c i fy a proc e s s verb i s t ran s it o ry ,
for the reason that a proc e s s i s underst ood as something t hat w i l l end
within a c ertain span of t ime .
The proc e s s verb c an now be indicated further by the fo l lowing rule
( where / = or) :
V
pro c e s s
L
Rul e # 3a V - �>
pro c e s s ( a ) Ns - . . . / . . . - u m- • . .
t ran s it ory
2.5.5. The Act i on - Process Verb
An a c t i on-pro c e s s verb n e c e s s i t at e s b o t h agent and pat i en t noun s .

Thi s may b e shown in the fo l l owing rule , and exemp l i f i e d by s e n t en c e s
(21) - ( 24 ) :
I
pat agt
I
Rule # 4 V -----..,»» V N N
a c t i on act ion
proc e s s pro c e s s
( 21 ) b a p a q m E n d E m uwoh
fa t h e r - b ur y - tra 8 h
' Fa t h e r i 8 burrying tra 8 h '
( 22 ) g6g6 r � i mp E n p E 1 E m
Gogo r - 8 t o r e -mango fr u i t
' Go g o r i 8 8 t oring mango fru i t 8 '
(23) s a rd i �6b6� dam i
Sardi - b urn - 8 traw
' Sardi b u r n i n g 8 t raw '
(24) i b u n am b a l k a t 6 q k u
mo t h e r - p a t ch - my pan t 8
'Mo t h e r i 8 p a t c h i n g m y pan t 8 '
The verb s in ( 2 1 ) - ( 2 4 ) are a c t i ve , r e f l e c t e d by t he prefix

( a ) N s - . . . , and t e rminat i ve , in that the act i on o f the agent noun in
v o l v �s the c hanged c ondit ion of the pat i ent noun . Sp e c i fi e d i n f l e c t ion
a l l y in t h i s way , the act ion-pro c e s s verb may b e indicated in t he fol
l owing rule :
33
V
act ion
pro c e s s
L
Rule # 4 a v - �>
a c t i on
( a ) Ns- . . .
pro c e s s
act ive
t erminative
2.5.6. T h e S t a t e - E x pe r i en t i a l Verb
An experient ial verb n e c e s s i t at e s an experi e n c e r noun , whi c h under

goes a p s y c ho l og i c al experien c e . Th i s may b e shown in the fo l lowing
rule , and exemp l i fi e d by s e n t e n c e s ( 2 5 ) - ( 2 8 ) :
I
pat
I
exp
Rule # 5 v >- V N N
state state
experient ial experient ial
(25) a k u b 6 s E n s uwa r a n e
I-bored- h i s voiae
' I am b o r e d w i t h his voiae '
( 26 ) i b u k a � E n kowe
m o t h e r - l o ng fo r - y o u
'Mo t h e r i s l o n g i n g for y o u '
(27) a d i ku b ra i sanda�an
my y o u n g e r s i b l i ng - o b s e s s e d- a l o t h i n g
'My y o u n g e r b r o t h e r i s o b s e s s e d b y good a l o t h i n g '
(28) b o j o k u n i d a m s E m 6 � k6
my s p o u s e - ar a v e fo r- m e l o n
' M y w i fe i s ara v i n g for a m e Z o n '
A s t at e -experient ial verb , as shown in ( 2 5 ) - ( 2 7 ) , may b e

repre s e n t e d in t h e surfa c e by a s impl e word . In ( 2 8 ) it invo l v e s t he
p r e f i x { a ) N s - . . . re a l i s e d b y n- . . . , although for some speakers the
nasal i s � . The verb s in ( 2 5 ) - ( 2 7 ) are s p e c i fied as s i gn i f i c at i ve
and t ermina t i v e in t erms o f their mode and a s p e c t resp e c t i ve l y .
Sp e c i fied i n t h i s way , t h e s t at e -experien t i a l verb may b e i n d i c a t e d
in the fo l l owing rul e :
V
state
experient ial
Ru le # 5 a V -- ---i» L
state
experient i a l o / { a ) Ns . . .
-
t erminat ive
s i gn i f i c at i ve
34
2.5.7. The S ta t e - B e n e fa c t i v e V e rb
A bene fac t i ve verb n e c e s s it a t e s a bene fi c i ary noun , sPe c i fi e d as the

one in the state o f p o s s e s s i on , o r t he one who undergoe s gain o r l o s s
in t h e tran s fe r o f an obj e c t ( Cook 1 9 7 2b : 1 7 ) . Thi s may b e shown in the
f o l l owing rule , and exemp l i fied b y sent e n c e s ( 2 9 ) - ( 3 2 ) :
I
pat ben
Ru l e # 6 v ---...;:> V N N
state state
bene fact ive b e n e fact ive
(29) g e m b 6 � d u we l a y a � a n
Gembon g - ha v e - k i t e
' Gembong h a s a k i t e '
( 30 ) kayune � Emu ba�u
the wood-aontain-water
'The w o o d i s w a t e r - l o g g e d '
( 31 ) s u t 6 s u g eh u t a �
S u t o - r i a h - de b t
' S u t o l i v e s i n de b t '
( 32 ) a � g req i k i ku ra� b a � u
o r a h i d- t h i s - l a a k - w a t e r
' T h i s o r a h i d i s i n n e e d o f wa ter '
The bene f i c iary noun i s always t he surface s ub j e c t . The s t a t e

bene fact ive verb s in ( 1 2 9 ) - ( 3 2 ) , as in o t h e r senten ce s , a r e r e
p r e s e n t e d in the surface b y a s imp le word . The rel evant i n f l e c t ional
s p e c i fi c at i on s of a s t at e -b en e fa c t i ve verb are in terms of the uni t s
t ermina t i ve , s ign i f i c at i ve , whi c h o c cur i n ( 2 9 ) - ( 3 2 ) , and unre a l ,
which d o e s not . S p e c i fied in t h i s 1�ay , the s t at e- b en e fa c t i ve verb may
be i n d i c a t e d in the f o l l owing rul e :
V
state
b en e fact ive
L
Rule # 6a V -- ---»>
state
o
b e n e fact ive
t e rminative
s igni fi c at ive
35
2 . 5 . 8. T h e S t a te - L o c a t i ve V e rb
A l o cat ive verb n e c e s s i t a t e s a l o c a t i ve noun , spe c i fi e d in t e rms o f

the l o c at ion o f a n ob j ec t or change o f l o c at i on ( Cook 1 9 7 2b : 1 7 ) . �hi s
may b e s hown i n t he fo l l owing rule and e xemp l i fied b y s e n t en c e s ( 3 3 ) -
( 36 ) :
I
loc pat
Rule # 7 V ---.;> V N N
state state
l o cat ive l o cat ive
( 33 ) i ra 6n6 n j E ro oma h
Ira- b e - i n e i de - ho u s e
' Ira i s i n t h e h o u s e '
( 34 ) d i � k l i q e 6 n 6 n d uwo r p 6 g 6
t h e s to o � - b e -abo v e - k i t chen rack
' Th e s to o � i s on t h e k i t c h e n rack '
( 35 ) gu n t i �e 6n6 � i s6 r amben
t h e s c i s s o r s - b e - under - b e d
' Th e s c i s s o r s a r e under t h e b e d '
( 36 ) a s u n e 6 n 6 s a n d e � s u mo r
t h e do g - b e - b e s i d e - w e � �
' Th e dog i s b e s ide t h e w e � � '
Here t h e s t a t e - lo c a t ive verb i s re f l e c t e d by t he word 6 n 6 'be,

exi s t ' . The wo rd 6 n 6 i s a l s o frequen t l y u s e d a s an i n i t i a l e lement o f
a c omp l e x prepo s i t i on , e . g . :
s a r j u 1 6 r o 6 n 6 e � r u ma h s a k e t
Sarj u - s i c k - 6 n 6 - i n - h o sp i t a �
' Sarju i s s i c k , h e i s i n t h e h o sp i ta � n o w '
The s t ru c t ure o f t he l o cat ive noun required by a s t a t e - l o cat ive v e rb

l oc
is : X Y N , where X i s a euphon i c p repo s i t ion ( vide P . 7 3 ) ; Y i s a
p e r ip heral word r e fe rring t o a lo cat ive p arame t e r s u c h as j E r� ' i n s i de ' ,
o 0 0
l QC
d u wo r 'above ' , i s6 r 'under ' , s a n den ' b e s i de ' ; N i s a l o c a t i ve N .
The euphon i c e lement i s e � ' in ' o r s a q - . . . - ( n ) e , t hu s s a q Y ( n ) e .
W i t h a human l o c at i ve noun , t he part o f X t hat i s repre s en t e d in t h e
s u r face i s only . . . - ( n ) e , a n d s a q - . . . may b e d e l e t ed , t hus :
36
l oe
(e�) ( saq) -y- (n)e N
+ human
as may be shown in the f o l l owing examp le s :
( e ll )( s a q ) mb u r i n e b a p a q ' b e h i n d fa t h e r '
(en) ( s a q ) n 8 u w u r e s a m i j a n ' a b o v e Samijan '
(en) ( s a q ) n i s 6 r e i b u ' u nder m o t h e r '
(en ) ( s a q ) n a r E p e g 6 g 6 r ' b efore Gogor '
(en) ( s a q ) t E n E n e s a r d i ' o n Sardi ' 8 r i g h t '
( e n ) ( s a q ) k i w a n e m b a q y u ' o n t h e � e ft of o � der 8 i 8 ter '
( e n ) ( s a q ) e E 8 a q e b u l eq 'near aunt '
( e n ) s a n 8 i n e b u g u r u ' b e 8 i de t h e t e a c h e r '
The ending . . . - ( n ) e i s mut ually exc lus ive w i t h .. . . - ku < aku ' I ' an d
. . . - m u < kowe 'you ' , and t he nasal o c c urs after a vowel only . As we
a l s o s e e , a homorgan i c nasal is alway s pre s en t b e fore a vowe l and a
voi c e d o c c l u s ive , b ut not b e fore a vo i c e l e s s o c c lu s ive and a fri cat ive .
Furt h e rmore , the e l ement s a q - . . . doe s not o c cur b e fore s a n d e � ' b e 8 i de ' .
W i t h a non- s t a t e l o c at ive verb requiring a l o c at ive ,noun t hat
invo l v e s no origin or goal , the l o cative marker is a l s o re f l e c t e d in
t he surface b y 6 n 6 , opt i on a l l y fol lowed by eh ' i n, a t ' , i . e . 6 n 6 e n
� n e � , e . g . s a r d i n a m b o t g a we 6 n 6 e � p a b r e q , s a r d i h a m b o t g a we n e �
p a b r e q , o r s a r d i h a m b o t g awe 6 n 6 p a b r e q 'Sardi work8 i n a fa c to ry ' .
The verb s i n ( 3 3 ) - ( 3 6 ) are i n f l e c t iona l l y s p e c i fied as t erminat ive
and s i gn i fi cat ive . Spe c i fi e d in t h i s way , the s t at e l o cat ive v e rb may
be i n d i c a t e d in the fo l lowing rul e :
V
state
l o cat ive
Ru l e # 7 a V ----i�> L
state
l o cat ive 6n6
t ermi native
s i gn i f i c at ive
2.5.9. The Action-Experi enti a l Verb
A n a c t i on-experi e n t i a l verb n e c e s s it a t e s a n experi e n c e r noun and a

p a t i ent noun . T h i s may b e shown in the fo l lowing rul e and e xemp l i f i e d
b y s en t e n c e s ( 3 7 ) - ( 40 ) :
I
pat exp
Ru l e # 8 V > V N N
a c t ion ac t i on
exp e ri e n t i a l exper i e n t i al
37
( 37 ) gemb6� n r E � E n i s u m i
Gemb on g - reproach -Sumi
' Gembong reproa c h e s Sumi '
( 38 ) d e w�q e � E m6 h i a k u
h e - r e fu s e - I
' H e r e fu s e s m e '
( 39 ) k a n c a k u � E s i r i a d i mu
my fr i e n d - h a v e a cru s h o n - y o ur y o u n g e r s i b Z i n g
' M y fr i e n d h a s a c ru s h o n y o u r Z i t t Z e s i s t e r '
( 40) mbaqyumu �gEt i � i aku
y o ur e Z der s i s t e r - ha t e - I
' Yo u r e Z der s i s t e r h a t e s me '
These a c t ion-experien t i a l verb s invo lve the a ffixat ions o f the

prefix ( a ) Ns- . . . and t h e s u f fix . . . - { n ) I , whi c h re f l e c t t ran s i t ive
spe c i fi cat ion ( vide 2 . 6 . 1 . 2 . ) . The s e a f f i x e s may a l s o re f l e c t t he
infle c t ional s p e c i f i c at ion in t e rms o f the i t erative uni t . W i t h s ome
verb s , the a f f i x a t i o n s of ( a ) N s - . . . and . . . - { n ) i may give r i s e t o
amb iguous s e n t e n c e s . A s w i t h . . . - { n ) e , t he n a s a l o c curs only a ft e r a
vowe l ( v i de p . 3 6 ) .
The a c t i on - e xp e r i e n t i a l verb s may a l s o b e repr e s e n t e d b y t h e i r
s imp l e forms , i . e . s r E � E n ' r epro a c h ' , Em6h ' r e fu s e ' , s e r ' i n t e nd, h a v e
a c ru s h o n ' , and g E t e � ' ha t e ' . In t h i s u s age , a peripheral word , i . e .
ka ro 'with, towards ' , i s ob l i ga t o r i l y t o b e u s e d b e t ween the verb and
the p a t i ent noun : ,
( 37a) g e m b 6 � s r E � E n k a ro s u m i ' Ge m b o n g repro a c h e s Sumi '
( 38a ) d �we q e E m 6 h k a r o a k u ' H e r e fu s e s m e '
( 39 a ) k a n c a k u s e r k a r o a d i m u 'My fri e n d h a s a cru s h o n y o u r ZittZe
s i s ter '
( 4 0a ) m b a q y u m u g E te� ka ro " a k u ' Yo u r e Z der s i s t e r ha t e s m e '
The ve rb s in ( 3 7 ) - ( 4 0 ) and in ( 3 7 a ) - ( 4 0a ) are s p e c i f i e d a s
t e rminat ive a n d s i gn i f i cat ive , a n d o b v i o u s l y a l s o a c t ive . Spe c i fi e d
in t h i s way , the a c t i on-experi ent i a l verb may b e i n d i c a t ed in t h e
f o l l owing rul e :
V
a c t ion
experient i a l
L
Rule # 8a v ----;>
( a ) Ns- . . . ] 'V
a c t io n [ -(n) i
experient i a l
• • •
a c t ive
t erminat i ve
s igni fi c a t ive
38
2 . 5 . 1 0. T h e A c t i o n - Be n e fa c t i ve Verb
A n a c t i on-b enefact ive verb n e c e s s i t a t e s a bene f i c iary noun and a

p a t i ent noun . Thi s may be shown in the fol lowing rule and e xemp l i fi e d
by s e n t e n c e s ( 4 1 ) - ( 4 4 ) :
I
pat ben
Rule # 9 v V N N
a c t i on a c t i on
bene fa c t ive benefact ive
( 41) l eo s a n u r6 t i
L e o - p ro v i de - b r e a d
' L e o p r o v i d e s h im s e t f w i t h bread '
( 42 ) i bu k i rem l aya�
mo t h e r - s e n d - t e t t e r
' Mo t h e r s e nds a t e t t e r '
(43) b a p a q u ro n k a y u
fa t h e r - con trib u t e - t im b e r
' Fa t h e r con trib u t e s t imb e r '
(44) g 6 g 6 r s E d i 6 d u we t
Gogor-prepare - m o n e y
' Go g o r i s prepare d w i t h some m o n e y '
The e x t e n s ion o f t he valence of an a c t ion-b enefac t ive verb from

one r e l at i on t o one bene f i c i ary noun t o two re l a t i on s t o two bene
fi c i ary noun s , one fun c t i oning as t he b en e fa c t o r and t he other as t he
re c i p ient in the t ran s fe r a c t i on , i s refle c t e d in the surface by the
prefix ( a ) N s- . . . and t he suffix . . . - {n) i , whi c h also re fle c t i t erat ive
s p e c i fi ca t i on ( vide p . 3 7 ) . Thi s may b e s hown in the fo l lowing sen
tence s :
( 41a) l eo � a � 6n i r6 t i gemb6� ' L e o pro v i d e s Gembong w i t h b r e a d '
( 42a ) i b u n i r i m i l aya� bapaq 'Mo t h e r s e nds fa t h e r a t e t te r '
( 4 3a) bapaq � u r u n i kayu y6k6 ' Fa t h e r c o n t r i b u t e s timb er to Yoko '
( 44a) g 6 g 6 r � E d i a n i d u we t l e o ' Gogor g e t s s o m e m o n e y re ady for L e o '
The verb s in s en t e n c e s ( 4 1 ) - ( 4 4 ) and ( 4 1 a ) - ( 4 4 a ) are spe c i fi e d

a s a c t ive , tran s i t o ry , a n d s ign i fi cat ive . Spe c i fied in t h i s way , the
a c t i on-bene fac t ive verb may b e indicated in the f o l l owing rule , where
t h e e x t e n s ion o f t he verb val e n c e t o two b e n e fi c i ary nouns i s
i n d i c a t e d b y : � re c ip i ent :
39
V
a c t ion
benefact ive
L
13
a c t i ve
t ransit ory
s i gn i fi c at ive
Rule il 9 a V - �>
a c t ion
b e n e fa c t i ve V
a c t i on
benefact ive
L
[ { a ) Ns- . : . ]
. . . - {n ) 1 ,t. rec ip ient
a c t ive
t ransit ory
s i gn i fi c at ive
2.5.11 . T h e A c t i on - L o c a t i ve V e r b
An a c t i on- l o c at ive verb n e c e s s i t a t e s an agent noun an d a l o c a t ive

noun , d e s i gnating origin or goa l . This may b e shown in t he f o l l owing
ru l e an d e x emp l i f ied by sent e n c e s ( 4 5 ) - ( 4 8 ) :
I I
loc agt
Rule # 1 0 v ---;> V N N
a c t ion a c t i on
l o c at ive l o cat ive
a d i k u b u d a l m E l'l a n i r i a n
o 0 0
( 45)
my y o u n g e r s i b l i n g - depart - to - Ir i a n
'My y o u n g e r b r o t h e r departs fo r Irian '
( 46 ) a n a q k u m u l e h s 6 k 6 s E ko l a h a n
my c h i l d - go h o m e - from- s c h o o l
'My c h i l d r e t u rns fr om s c ho o l '
( 47) p a q l u r a h l u �6 m E l'l a � p a s a r
t h e v i l l a g e may o r - g o - t o - mark e t
' Th e m a y o r g o e s t o t h e marke t '
( 48) g 6 g 6 r d o l a n m E l'l a � a l o n a l o n
Gog o r - g o o u t to p l ay - t o - s q uare
' Go g o r g o e s t o the s q uare t o p l ay '
An a c t i o n - l o c a t ive verb as e xemp l i fi e d in ( 4 5 ) - ( 4 8 ) i s not subj e c t

t o a vo i c e i n f l e c t ional s p e c i f i c a t i on . The verb s in ( 4 5 ) - ( 4 8 ) are
obviou s ly s p e c i fi e d a s t ran s i t ory . Furthermore , they are a l s o s p e c i fi e d
as s ign i fi c at ive . S p e c i fi e d t h i s way , t he a c t ion- l o c at ive verb may b e
indi c at e d i n t h e fo l l owing rule :
40
V
a c t i on
l o c at ive
L
Rule # l Oa v -- --;::.>
act ion
o
lo cat i ve
t ran s i t o ry
s i gn i fi c at i ve
2.5.12. T h e P ro c e s s - E x p e r i e n t i a l Verb
The experiencer noun required b y a pro c e s s- e xperiential verb , whi c h

i s normal ly refle c t ed by a s imp l e word , refers t o a noun t hat undergoe s
a p sy c h o l o g i c a l experien c e , and generally i s r e a l i s e d a s the surface
subj e c t of t he s ent enc e . Thi s may b e shown in the fol lowing rule and
e xemp l i fi e d by s e n t e n c e s ( 4 9 ) - ( 5 2 ) :
I
pat exp
Rule # 1 1 v -----:> V N N
experie n t i a l experiential
( 49 ) a k u e l e � c r i t amu
I - r e m em b e r - y o u r s t ory
' I rem emb e r y o u r s t o ry
( 50 ) ta�gaku l a l i candaqane
my n e i g hb o u r - forg e t - t h e s o L u t i o n
' M y n e i g h b o u r forg e t s the so Lution '
( 51 ) s i mb a h p a � l e� r u p a k u
grandparen t - n o t r e cogn i s e - my c o u n t e na n c e
' Grandmo t h e r do e s n o t r e c o gn i s e me '
( 52 ) p r a s E t i 6 k u l i n6 s uwa ramu
Pra s e t y o - fami L i a r - y o u r v o i c e
'Pra s e ty o i s fami L i ar w i t h y o u r v o i c e '
A v o i c e infle c t i onal spe c i fi c at ion i s out o f the quest ion w i t h a

Javan e s e p r o c e s s -experien t i a l verb . The verb s in ( 4 9 ) - ( 5 2 ) are
s p e c i fi e d as t ran s i t o ry and s ign i f i c at ive . Spe c i fied in t h i s way , the
pro c e s s - experient ial verb may b e indicated in the f o l l owing rul e :
V
p ro c e s s
experient ial
Rule # 1 1 a v -- ---;::.> L
pro c e s s
experien t i a l 0
t rans i t ory
s ign i f i c a t i ve
41
2.5.13. T h e P ro ce s s - Be n e fa c t i ve V e r b
The b e n e fi c i ary noun required b y a pro c e s s -bene fac t i ve v e rb re fers

t o what i s i n t he s ta t e of p o s s e s s ion , o r undergoe s gain o r loss in the
tran s fer o f an obj e c t , indicated b y the pat ien noun . A pro c e s s- bene
fac t ive verb is norma l l y r e f l e c t e d b y a s imp l e word : Thi s may b e shown
in t he f o l l owing rule and exemp l i fi e d b y s e n t e n c e s ( 5 3 ) - ( 5 6 ) :
I
pat ben
Rule # 1 2 v V N N
b ene fac t ive bene fact ive
( 53 ) s am l j an k a l ah m a e n
Sam i j an - Z o 8 e - game
' 8amijan Z 0 8 t i n the gamb Z e '
( 54 ) b a pa q l u l os u j i an
fa t h e r - pa 8 8 - exam i n a t i o n
' Fa t h er p a 8 8 e d h i 8 exam '
( 55 ) g6g6 r m E n a � l o t re
Gogor-w i n - Z o t t e ry
' Go g o r w i n 8 a Z o t t e ry '
( 56 ) s a l amon w e s o l eh j odo
Sa l am u n - a l r e ady - g e t - p a r t n e r
' 8 a Z am u n h a s go t h i 8 g i r l '
The verb s in ( 5 3 ) - ( 5 6 ) are not subj e c t t o a p a s s ive sp e c i fi cat ion .

They are a l l s p e c i fi e d as t e rminative and s igni fi c a t ive . Specified in
t h i s way , the p ro c e s s-bene fact ive verb may b e indi c a t e d i n t he f o l l ow
ing rule :
V
p ro c e s s
bene fa c t ive
Rule # 1 2 a v --- -----�> L
p ro c e s s
bene fa c t i ve 0
t erminative
2.5.14. T h e P ro c e s s - L o c a t i v e V e r b
The l o c at i ve noun requi red b y a p ro c e s s - lo c at ive verb refers t o a

l o c a t ion or a c hange o f t he l o c at ion o f the pat i en t n oun . Thi s may b e
shown in the fol lowing r u l e a n d exemp l i fi e d b y s e n t e n c e s ( 5 7 ) - ( 6 0 ) ,
where t he verb s are repre sented by a s imp l e word :
42
I
loc pat
Rule # 1 3 V > V N N
p ro c e s s p ro c e s s
l o cat ive l o c a t ive
( 57 )" s a k a n e k e n t e r m E � a � s E g 6 r6
t h e p i t t a r - wa s h e d away - t o - s e a
' T h e p i t tar is w a s h e d away to t h e s e a '
( 58 ) t a s k u ke r i ne� k l a t e n
m y b ag - t e ft - i n - X t a t e n
'My b a g w a s t e ft i n x t a t e n '
( 59 ) s r E � e � e n e a � s l o p e � s E g 6 r6
t h e s u n - di s ap p e ar - i n - s e a
' Th e s un d i s a p p e a r i n t h e s e a '
( 60 ) i w a q e am b l E s e � b a � u
t h e fi s h - g o down - in -w a t e r
' T h e fi s h di s ap p e ars in t h e w a t e r '
The verb s in ( 5 7 ) - ( 60 ) are not subj e c t t o a p a s s ive s p e c i fi c at ion .

They are s p e c i fi e d as t erminat i ve and s i gn i f i c at i ve . The pro c e s s
l o c a t ive verb may b e indi c a t e d in the f o l lowing rule :
V
pro c e s s
l o c at ive
Rule # 1 3 a v -- ___ L
p ro c e s s
l o c a t ive 0
t erminative
2.5.15. T he A c t i o n - P ro c e s s - E x p e r i e n t i a l Verb
An a c t i on -pro c e s s - e xperient i a l verb i s subj e c t t o a vo i c e spe c i fi ca

t ion . T h i s may b e shown in the fo l l owing rule and exemp l i fi e d b y
s e n t e n c e s ( 6 1 ) - ( 6 4 ) , where the verb c an b e re f l e c t e d b y a s imp l e word ,
i.e. ( 61 ) and ( 6 2 ) , or by a c omp o s e d word involving the affix ( a ) Ns - . . . :
I
pat exp
Rul e # 1 4 V ----:> V N N
a c t ion a c t ion
p ro c e s s pro c e s s
e xperient i a l experien t ia l
( 61 ) b a p a q t a k6 n o m a h m u
fa t h e r - a s k - y o ur h o u s e
' Fa t h e r a s k s w h e r e y o u t i v e '
43
( 62 ) bagy6 s i n au pEncaq
Bagy o - t e a rn - s e tf- d e fe n s e
' Bagyo t e arns s e t f- de fe n s e '
( 63 ) s i mb a h n do � e � k a n ce l
grandpare n t - n arra t e -m o u s e de e r
' Grandm o t h e r t e t t s t h e s t o ry o f m o u s e de e r '
( 64 ) i b u mu l an a l j ab a r
m o t h e r - t e a c h - a t g e b ra
'Mo t h e r t e a c h e s a t g e b ra '
The verb s in ( 6 1 ) - ( 6 4 ) are i n f l e c t ionally s p e c i f i e d as a c t ive ,

tran s it ory , and s igni f i c a t i ve . Thi s may be i n d i c a t e d in t h e fo l lowing
rul e :
V
act i on
pro c e s s
experient ial
Rule # l 4 a V -3» L
a c t ion
p ro c e s s o / ( a ) Ns- . . .
exp e rie n t i a l a c t ive
t ran s i t o ry
s i gn i fi ca t ive
2.5.16. T h e A c t i o n - P r o c e s s - B e n e fa c t i v e V e r b
An a c t ion-pro c e s s- b e n e fa c t i ve verb requ ires a n agent noun , a

bene fic iary noun and a p a t i ent noun . Thi s may b e shown in t h e f o l low
ing rule and exemp l i fi e d by senten c e s ( 6 5 ) - ( 6 8 ) , where an a c t ive
( a ) Ns- . . .
s p e c i f i c a t i on app l i e s and i s refle c t e d e i ther b y the prefix
in c omb ination w i t h the suffix . - a k e , c harac t er i s i ng mo s t o f Javane s e
. .
benefact ive verb s , o r by t h e p re fix ( a ) N s - . . . in c omb ina t i on w i t h t he

s u ffix . . . - ( n ) i :
pat ben agt

Rule # 1 5 V V N N N
a c t ion a c t ion
pro c e s s p ro c e s s
b e n e f a c t ive b e n e f a c t ive
( 65 ) i b u n u k6q a ke s E p a t u I ra
mo t h e r - b u y - s ho e s - Ira
'Mo t h e r buys s h o e s fo r Ira '
(66) s um l men e h i ba l o� b6 i
S um i - g i v e - b o n e - Bo y
' Sumi g i v e s Boy (do g ) a bone '
(67) I b u n g a we q a k e k a � 6 q g e m b 6 n
m o t h e r - m a k e - p a n t s - Ge m b o n g
'Mo t h e r m a k e s pan t s f o r Gemb o n g '
44
( 68 ) i b u man s a q a ke b a q m l b a p aq
mo t h e r - c o o k - no o d t e - fa t h e r '
' Mo t h e r c o o k s n o o d t e s fo r fa t h e r '
In add i t ion t o the act ive s p e c i fi c ation , t he verb s in ( 6 3 ) - ( 6 8 )

are a l s o s p e c i fied as t ran s i t o ry and s igni f i c at i ve . Thi s may b e
ind i c a t e d i n t he fo l l owing rul e :
V
act ion
p ro c e s s
b enefact ive
Rule # 1 5 a V - � L
a c t i on
pro c e s s [ ( a ) Ns . . . / [ ( a ) Ns- . . .
. . . - (n) l J J
-
bene fact i ve . . . - a ke
act ive ·
t ran s i t ory
s igni f i c at i ve
2.5.17. T h e A c t i o n - P ro c e s s - L o c a t i v e V e r b
A n act i on-pro c e s s - l o cat ive verb n e c e s s i t a t e s a p at i en t noun , whi c h

func t i ons a s t h e undergoer o f a c hange o f l o cat i on a s w e l l a s o f
c ondi t i on . Thi s may b e shown i n t he f o l l owing rule and exemp l i fi ed
b y s en t e n c e s ( 6 9 ) - ( 7 2 ) :
Rule #16 V V N
I
loc pat
N N
I
agt
act ion act i on

pro c e s s proc e s s
l o cat ive l o c at i ve
( 69 ) b a p a q n a n k e n t a s m E n a n t o ko
fa t h e r - carry - ba g - t o - s tore
' Fa t h e r c a rri e s a b a g to the s t ory '
( 70 ) l e o n e l e h c a n k e r e n a uwo r me j 6
L e o - p u t - cup - i n - a b o v e - t a b t e
' L e o p u t s a cup o n t h e t a b t e '
( 71 ) l uw i n u s o n m E s e n m E n a n p a w 6 n
L uw i - t u g - m a c h i n e - to - k i t c h e n
'Luwi t ug s t h e s e wi n g ma c h i n e to t h e k i t c h e n '
( 72 ) b a ke r n u n ton b6 i m E n a n k a l i
B a k i r- t a k e by the t e a s h - B o y - to - ri v e r
' B a k i r t a k e s Boy to t h e river '
The verb s in ( 6 9 ) - ( 7 2 ) are spe c i fi e d as act i ve , and t h i s i s re-

fle c t e d b y the prefix ( a )Ns . . .
- Furthermore , the verb s are s p e c i f i e d
a s t rans i t ory and s ign i f i c at ive . Thi s may b e indicated in the f o l low-
ing rul e :
45
V
a c t ion
pro c e s s
l o c a t ive
Rule # 1 6a v --- �> L
a c t ion
pro c e s s ( a ) Ns- . . .
l o c a t ive a c t ive
t ran s it ory
s i gn i fi cat ive
2 . 5 . 1 8. The Spec i fi cati on o f a Noun
The s e l e c t ional s p e c i f i c at i on o f a verb , a s we have seen , may b e

re l a t e d i n s ome way t o the surface repre s e n t at i on b y means o f an
affixat ion . On the o t h e r han d , the s e l e c t ional spe c i fi c at i on of a
noun as p a t i e n t , agent , experien c e r , bene f i c i ary , or l o c a t ive d o e s not
i nvo lve any a ff i x a t i on . The a f f i xa t i on o f a noun i s o f a low orde r ,
s in c e i t has only t o do with i n f l e c t ional and derivat ional spe c i fi ca t i on s .
Chafe ' s s i x s e l e c t ional unit s for the Engl i s h noun , i . e . Count ,
P o t en t , Animate , Human , Feminine , Unique ( 1 9 7 0 b : 1 0 8- 1 1 8 ; 1 9 8 ) , whi c h
a r e indepe ndent o f the v a l e n c e o f t h e v e r b t o whi ch the noun i s
r e l at e d , are app l i c a b l e t o J avane s e .
2 . 5 . 1 8. 1 . C o u nt S p e ci 6 i catio n
A c ount noun i s s u s c e p t i b l e t o c ount ing by means o f a numera l . This

not ion i s b a s e d on t he a s sump t ion t hat a c ount noun b e l ongs t o a c la s s
o f individual noun s , e a c h i s d i ffere n t i ab l e from anothe r . A non-c ount
noun usually invo lves a me asure o r count e r , where a nume ral is only
dire c t l y r e l a t e d t o t h i s measure or c ount e r , whi c h funct i ons a s a c ount
noun .
The fol lowing s e n t en c e s i l lu s t rate the o c currenc e o f a c ount -noun :
( 73 ) s i me n d u we n e k E r p a p a t
S im i n - ha v e -marb L e - four
' S im i n ha s four marb L e s '
( 74 ) a s u l o re i ku d uweq ku
do g - tw o - t h a t - my p o s s e s s i o n
' T h o s e t w o dogs a r e m i n e '
( 75) g6g 6 r t u k u l ay a � a n I i m6
Gogo r - b uy - k i t e - fi v e
' Go g o r b u y s fi v e k i t e s '
( 76 ) s a r i den n u n doh k a t e s s E pu l o h
Sari din - p i c k - papaya - t e n
' Sa r i d i n p i c k s ten papayas '
The fo l l owing s e n t e n c e s i l l u s t rate the o c c urre n c e o f a non-count
noun , where a nume ral p lu s a c o un t e r are require d :
46
( 77 ) I b u n 6 t 6 g u l e I I m6 1 a s p i r e �
m o t h e r - a rran g e - 8 t e w - fift e e n - 8 e rv i n g
' Mo t h e r g e t 8 fi fteen 8 e rv i n g 8 o f 8 t e w re ady '
( 78 ) s um i t u ku b E r a s s e k E t l i t E r
Sumi - b u y - r i a e - fifty - Z i t e r
' Sumi b U y 8 fifty Z i t e r8 of r i a e '
( 79 ) a k u t E r 6 n 6 I E � 6 E n E m g E n do l
I - b ring ! - o i Z - 8 i� - b o t t Z e
' B.r i n g m e 8 i� b o t t Z e 8 o f o i l '
( 80 ) b an d l p E s E n d age� r6� k i l o
Bandi - o rder- me a t - two - k i l o g ram
' B andi order8 two k i l o gram8 o f m e a t '
An Engl i s h noun s e l e c t i on a l l y spe c i fi e d as count i s subj e c t t o an

i n f l e c t ional s p e c i fi c a t i on as p lural , whi c h i s normally r e f l e c t ab l e
b y mean s o f some a ffixat ion . A Javan e s e c ount noun i s a l s o subj e c t t o
a n i n f l e c t ional spe c i fi c a t ion as plura l , b u t t h e o n l y surface me chan i s m ,
i . e . redup l i c at i on , i s always opt ional ( vide 2 . 4 . 4 . 1 . a n d 2 . 4 . 4 . 2 . ) .
When a numeral o c curs a s the surfa c e indicator o f t he p lural i t y o f t he
noun , no redup l i c a t ion i s p e rm i s s i b l e .
The spe c i fi ca t i on o f a noun as c ount may b e i n d i c a t e d in t h e f o l l ow
ing rule :
Rule # l 7 N - �> N
count
2 . 5 . 1 8. 2 . P o �en� S p e cl 6l c��o n
A p o t ent noun i s a noun whi c h i s sp e c i fi e d as an obj e c t having i t s

own i n t ernal power ( Chafe 1 9 7 0b : 1 0 9 ) . Only a p o t en t noun c an o c cur
a s t he i n s i t gator o f an a c t iQn . A s in Engl i s h , t h e s e l e c t ional
s p e c i fi c a t i on of a Javan e s e noun as pot ent may c o in c i d e with i t s
spe c i fi ca t i on a s animat e . But t he re are a l s o inanima t e nouns whi c h
may func t ion a s t he inst i gator o f a n a c t ion . Furthermore , the
s p e c i fi cat ion o f a noun a s pot ent does not a lways c o i n c i de with i t s
spe c i fi c at ion as c ount . The following sentenc e s i l lu s trate t h e o c cur
rence of a noun s p e c i f i e d a s agent and pot ent , but n e c e s sari ly as
animat e :
( 81 ) b a � u ne mb E a a h t a�go l
t h e w a t e r - 8ma8 h - d i k e
' T h e w a t e r 8m a 8 h e 8 t h e di k e '
( 82 ) k u c e � k u n u b roq t i ko s
m y a a t - 8 p r ing u p on - m o u 8 e
'My a a t 8 p r i n g 8 u p o n a mOU 8 e '
( 83 ) p u l i s i kuw i n E kE I ma l e�
po l i a ema n - t h a t - 8 e i z e - t h i e f '
' Tha t p o l i aeman 8 e i z e 8 a t h i e f '
47
( 84 ) g En i ne n6b6n g ubok
t h e fi re - b u rn - h u t
' T h e fi r e b u r n s down t h e h u t '
I n t h e s e sentence s , k u c e n k u 'my a a t ' and pu l 1 5 1 k uw l ' t ha t p o Z i a eman '

are spe c i fi e d as agent , animat e , c ount , and pot ent , whereas b a � u n e 'the
w a t e r ' and gEn i ne ' t h e fire ' are apparent ly spe c i fi e d a s agent ,
inanimat e , non- c ount , and p o t ent . Furthermore , t i ko s ' m o u s e ' and ma I eR
' thief ' are a l s o s u s c e p t i b l e t o a s e l e c t ional s p e c i f i c a t i on as p o t ent ,
alt hough in ( 8 2 ) and ( 8 3 ) t he y are not so spe c i fi e d .
N
W i t hout t aking t h e animate spe c i fi c ation i n t o con s i de rat ion , Rule
# 1 7 may b e mod i f i e d as follows :
N
[
N
c ount
]
Rule # 1 8 - �
[
N
potent
[ count ]
p o t en t
]
2 . 5. 1 8. 3 . A��mate S p e e� 6� eat� o n
A n animate noun i s sp e c i fi e d as s ome obj e c t t hat would fall into

t h e general c a t e gory of animal s ( Chafe 1 9 7 0b : l l O ) . The anima t e feature
i s only relevant if the noun has been p reviou s l y spe c i fi e d as c ount and
p o t en t .
The c o n s e quence o f t h i s animate s p e c i fi cat i on · i s t hat the last part
N N
of Rule # 1 8 is subj e c t to an o p t i onal animate s p e c i fi c at ion . Thi s may
b e indi cat e d in the f o l lowing rul e :
[ 1 [ 1
Rule # 1 9
c ount c ount
potent -- �> pot ent
animate
2.5. 18.4. H uman S p e e� 6� e a � o n
A noun t hat i s s e l e c t i on a l l y spe c i fi e d as animat e may e n t a i l an

opt i onal s p e c i f i cat i on as H uman . There is a d i fferen c e b etween Engl i sh
and J avan e s e as re gards the imp l i cat ion o f t he human spe c i fi c at ion on
t he pronominal i s at ion .
In Engl i s h , whi l e t he re are c o n s t raint s regarding t h e p ronomina l i s a
t ion of a noun , i . e . with certain limi t s human nouns are r e l a t e d t o
human pronoun s , a n oun i s a lways re l a t e d t o i t s p roper sub s t i t ut e .
I n Javan e s e , only human nouns are s u s c e p t i b l e t o pronominal i s a t i on .
There are fundame n t a l l y only t hree p e r s onal pronoun s : a k u ' I ' , kowe
'you ', aeweqe 'he, she ', an d t here is one personal int errogat ive
48
p ro noun : s o p o 'who ' , and for any other noun the int e rrogative sub
s t i t u t e i s opo ' w h a t ' or a c omb ination with E n d l ' w h e re ' ( a d i s c u s s ion
o f t he equivalent s o f t he s e p ronouns i s given in Chap t e r 4 ) .
The fo l l owing s e n t e n c e s i l lu s t rate t he o c c urren c e o f a human noun
and a non-human animate noun and the pronomina l i s at ion o f t h e human
noun , where # refers to a pause or a b o undary , paren t he s e s refer t o
a n opt ional o c curren c e :
( 85 ) a s u k u d i t a b r a q mo b i l # ( a s u k u ) s a i k i ma t i
my do g - h i t - aar-my dog - now-dead
' My dog wa e hit by a aar . He i e dead now . '
( 86 ) a n a q ku l u no t a n po pamet # � ew e q e d u ro � m a � a n
m y a h i � d - go - w i t h o u t - go o db y e - e he - n o t y e t - e a t
' My a h i � d w e n t w i t h o u t e a y i n g g o o db y e . She hae not eaten
anything. '
( 87) omahku ono e� so l o # om a h k u i k u o r a g E a e
my ho u e e - b e - i n - Sa � a -my h o u e e - tha t - no t - b i g
, I h a v e a h o u e e i n Sa � a . It i e n o t b i g . '
( 88 ) k a n c a k a n c a k u t E ko # k a n ca k a n ca k u m a u wadon k a b e h
m y fri e n d e - aome -my fri ende - a foremen t i o n ed-fema � e -a � �
' My fri en de are aoming . They are a � � gi r � e . '
A J avane s e noun t hat i s spe c i fi e d as human and p lural i s not pro

n omina l i s ab l e . Thi s is indicated i n ( 8 8 ) . W i t h the human spe c i fi cat i on
inc orporat e d into the animate noun , Rule # 19 i s to b e mod i fi e d into
t he f o l l owing :
Rule # 2 0
[N 1
c ount
pot ent
animate
- �>
N 1
count
p o t ent
animate
human
The p ronomin a l i s at i on of a noun may then be indicated in the fo l l ow
[� 1
ing ru l e :
Rule # 2 1
Ilman - ---.,.> p ronoun
single
2 . 5 . 1 8.5. F em�n� n e S p e c� 6� ca�� o n
Gender i s i n general n o t r e f l e c t ab l e i n t h e surface repre s ent a t i on

o f a noun by a ffixat ion . There are a numb e r o f nouns whi c h are
inherent l y s p e c i f i e d as mas c uline o r feminine . The fol lowing are
i l lu s t rat ive of t hem :
p r a w a n ' unmarri e d gi r � '
j o ko ' b a a h e � o r '
r o n � o ' w i dow '
� u � o ' widower '
49
p a m a n ' un c Z e '
b i b i ' a un t '
I n mo s t c a s e s a s t a t e verb i s u s e d t o spe c i fy the s e x o f t h e noun .

The s t at e verb i s e i t her o f the p a i rs : (a) l a n a n 'ma Z e ' : w a d 6 n
' fema Z e ' ; (b) j a l E r 'ma Z e ' : es t r i ' fe ma Z e ' ; ( c ) k a k o n 'ma Z e ' put r l
' fema Z e ' . Pairs ( b ) and ( c ) wi l l b e our c o n c e rn in Chap t e r 4 .
The b a s i c prop o s i t ion where t h e s e s e x - s p e c i fy i ng verb s o c c ur i s
summa r i s e d i n Rule # 1 ( vide p . 2 8 ) , which p ro du c e s s u c h s e n t e nc e s a s :
( 89 ) w6� k u w i l a n a n
p e r 8o n - t ha t -ma Z e
' Th a t p e r 8 0 n i 8 ma Z e '
( 90 ) w6� k u w i w a d 6 n
p e r 8 o n - t ha t - fema Z e
' Tha t p e r8 0 n i 8 fema Z e '
Sentence s ( 8 9 ) and ( 9 0 ) are t hen reduc i b l e t o a noun by means o f an

appropriate nomina l i sat ion t ran s format ional rul e , as a p art o f another
rule that may emb e d this noun i n t o ano ther sentence where , fo r e xamp l e ,
a s t at e verb s erve s as i t s nuc leu s . Thi s may be shown in t h e f o l l owing
rule and exemp l i fied b y s e n t en c e s ( 9 1 ) and ( 9 2 ) :
I
pat
Rule # 2 2 S � V N
D
state
w6n l a n a n
( 91 ) w 6 � l a n a � k uw i 1 6 r 6
man - t h a t - 8 i ck
' Th a t m a n i 8 8 i c k '
( 92 ) w 6 � l a n a � k u w i p a ma n k u
man - tha t-my u n c Z e
' T h a t man i 8 m y un c Z e '
There are a l s o affixat i o n s whi c h o c cur i n a limi t e d numb er o f nouns

sp e c i fi e d as human . The s e are . . . - m a n o r . . . - w a n t o indi c a t e mas cu l i n e
vs . . . . - w a t i t o i n d i c a t e feminine , a n d . . . - 6 t o i n d i c a t e ma s cu l i ne v s .
. . . - i t o i n d i c a t e feminine .
Chafe finds t hat an Engl i s h noun reve a l s a marked ind i c at o r for
feminine and an unmarked i n d i c a t o r for mas cu l ine . Cha fe ' s n o t at ion
feminine i s u s e fu l for indicat ing t he spe c i fi c at ion of a Javan e s e
an ima t e noun a s i n d i c a t e d i n t he fol lowing ru l e s ( where affixations
mentioned i n the pre c e ding paragraph are e x c lude d ) :
50
(� )
Fem
Rule # 2 3
(: nimate ) - �
(� )
Fem
Rule # 2 4 N + l an a �
Rule # 2 5 N + wad6n
2 . 5 . 1 8. 6 . U ni q u e S p e ei 6 i ea�i o n
A human noun may re fer t o a part i cul a r individua l s u c h as g 6 g 6 r

' Go g o r ' , h a r t 6 n 6 ' Har tono ' , a m i n a h 'Aminah ' , e a c h o f which w i t h in i t
s e l f i s not s u s c e p t i b l e t o count ing , and as s u c h unique .
I n general , a unique noun i s a human noun and repre s e n t e d in the
surfa c e b y a proper name . I n s ome c a s e s , howeve r , a non-human noun
may also b e spe c i fi e d as unique . This i s t rue with a few dome s t i c
anima l s whi c h may b e given name s s u c h a s b 6 i 'Boy ' , k E m e s ' Th u r s da y ' ,
m a n e s 'Swee t ' . W i t h t h e s e nouns , n o personal p ronomina l i sat ion app l i e s .
W i t h a l l t h e s e l e c t i onal s p e c i f i c a t i o n s e x c e p t t ho s e o f agent ,
p a t i e n t , benefact ive , experienc e r , l o c at ive , and t aking into c on s i dera
t ion s ome cont ingency upon part i cular c a s e s such as s hown i n ( 8 1 ) _
( 8 4 ) , the s p e c i ficat ions o f a noun t hat w i l l e ventua l l y convey t h e
appropriate l e x i c a l s p e c i fi c at ions m a y b e indi c a t e d in t h e fo l l owing
rul e s :
Rule # 2 6
[N - c ount
] l E ma h ' s o i 'l ' , g u J e ' s t e w ' ,
-potent j a r a /\ ' ho t w a t e r ' ,
Rule # 2 7
[N + c ount
] t a n g o 1 ' di k e ' , g u b o k ' hu t ' ,
-potent c a p e n ' ha t ' , . . .
Rule # 2 8
[ � c ount
+potent
-animate
1 --iii>
b a l'l u ' w a t e r ' , g E n i ' fi r e ' ,
b a n j e r ' f 'l o o d ' , . . .
Rule # 2 9
[ � c ount
+potent
- an imate
1 ---... k a 1 I ' ri v e r ' , 6 y 6 t ' ro o t ' ,
wa t u ' s tone ' ,
Ru l e # 3 0 (� animate
-human
] � a s u 'dog ' , u l 6 ' s nake ' ,
d 6 r6 ' p i g e o n ' ,
51
Rul e # 31
[� animat e
- feminine
1 �>
N
- l a n a ;;
+human
-unique
- feminine
-un i que
Rule # 3 2 ----�� w6n l a n a n ' man ' , j a r a n l a n a n 'ma � e
N
hor s e ' , k u c e ll l a n a ll ' tomca t ' , . . .
- l anan
Rule # 3 3 +human �> j 6 k6 ' b a c h e � o r ' , a u a 6 ' wi dower ' ,
- feminine p a ma n . ' unc l e ' , . . .
-unique
N[ N
1
+ an imat e
Rule # 3 4
+ feminine �> :- w a d 6 n
-unique +human
+ femi n ine
-unique
Rule # 3 5 ----�� w 6 ;; w a d 6 n ' woman ' , j a r a n w a d 6 n 'mare ' ,
N
g a J a hw a d 6 n ' fema l e e l e p h an t ' ,
-wad6n
Rule # 3 6 +human �> p r a w a n ' unma r r i e d g i r l ' , r 6 n a 6
+ femin ine ' widow ' , b i b i ' a u n t ' , . . .
[N ]
- un ique
Rule # 3 7 +unique s u m i 'Sumi ' , a m l n a h , Amina h ' ,
[N )
+ femin ine s i t i ·'Si t i ' ,
Rule # 3 8 + un ique �> g 6 g 6 r ' Co g o r ' , j 6 n 6 'Jono ' ,

- feminine b a k e r ' Ba k i r ' , . . .
There are two pairs o f nouns that s e em t o d e s erve a t re atment a s an
e x c ept ional c as e . They are j a g o ' roo s t e r ' and b a b6 n ' hen ' , and t u h u
'ma � e n i g h t b i rd ' and ko l e q ' fema � e n i g h t b i rd ' , where a contrast b e
t w e e n feminine a n d ma s c uline i s inherent ly i ncorporat e d within t h e
noun s . There a r e a l s o such n o u n s as b a n a 6 t 'ma � e g o a t ' a n d pEmacEk
' s i r i n g h e ad o f � i v e s t o c k ' , whose l im i t e d s c ope o f meaning d o e s not
seem t o cal l for a genera l i s e d rule .
52
2.5.19. De f i n i te S p e c i f i c a t i o n
A de fini t e noun is a noun who se iden t i t y i s a s s umed t o have b e e n

known . In t h i s s en s e , personal pronouns and nouns involving affixat i o n s
whi c h i n d i c a t e p e r s o n a l p o s s e s s ions are de fini t e . T h e spe c i fi c a t i on o f
a n oun as de f i n i t e may c o in c ide w i t h i t s t o p i c a l i sat ion , i . e . the f o c u s
i t r e c e i v e s in t he s eman t i c s t ru c t ure t hat i s re spon s i b l e f o r i t s
shi ft ing t o the front p o s i t ion in the s u r f a c e repre s entat ion .
The l a s t nouns in s e n t en c e s ( 9 3 ) and ( 9 4 ) are not s p e c i f i e d as
definite . S en t e n c e s ( 9 5 ) and ( 9 6 ) show t he s ame nouns spe c i fi e d a s
de fin i t e .
(93) a k u wE roh 5ap i
I- s e e - co w
' I s e e a cow '
( 94 ) aeweqe n j u poq b u k u
he- take -book
'He takes a book '
( 95 ) s a p i n e l u l\ 6
t h e cow-go
' T h e cow g o e s away '
( 96 ) b u k u n e we s o r a 6 n 6
t h e b o o k - a L r e a dy - n o t - b e
' T h e b o o k i s n o L on g e r t h e r e '
In ( 9 5 ) and ( 9 6 ) the definite spe c i fi c a t i on i s r e f l e c t e d in the
surface b y means o f the suffix . . . (n)e. If sentences ( 9 5 ) and ( 9 6 )
are u s e d w i t h no refere n c e what soever t o any overt senten ce s , inc luding
( 9 3 ) and ( 9 4 ) , the de fini t e spe c i fi ca t i on i s neverthe l e s s pre-requi s it e .
Thus t he f o l lowing are non-senten c e s :
(97) * sap i l u�6
cow-go
( 98 ) * b u k u wes o r a 6 n 6
b o o k - a L r e ady - n o t - b e
In c o l l oquial Javane se , a noun t hat i s sp e c i fi e d as human o r

p e r s on i fi e d ( Chafe ' s Ant hropomi z e r , 1 9 7 0b : 1 4 0- l 4 l ) a n d d e f i n i t e may
invo l ve t he u s e o f t he p e ripheral word : 5 1 , e . g. :
s a r i d e n ' Saridin ' s l s a r i d e n ' t he o n e named Saridi r. '
a n a q ' ch i L d ' s i a n a q ' t he chi L d '
a s u ' dog ' s i a s u ' th e dog '
j a g o 'rooster ' s i j a g o ' t he roo s te r '
san,
o
In a more formal and rare u sage the p eripheral word u s e d i s :
e.g. :
b a g a w a n ' h e rm i t ' s a n b a g aw a n ' t he ( honourab L e ) h e rm i t '
p a n e r a n 'prince ' s a n p a n e r a n ' t he ( h o n o urab Z e ) p :p i n c e '
p u t r i ' L ady ' s a n p u t r i ' th e ( h o n o urab L e ) Lady '
p r a b u ' king ' s a n p r a b u ' t he ( h o n o urab L e ) king '
53
The de f i n i t e s p e c i fi cat i on o f a noun may b e indi c a t e d i n the f o l low

ing rul e s :
Rule # 3 9
Rule # 4 0
--�»
si I s a il
2 . 5 . 20 . P l ural Spec i fi c a t i o n
A noun i s s a i d t o b e s p e c i fi e d infle c t i on a l l y a s p lural , i f i t

re fers t o a c o l l e c t ion o f t hi ngs , e a c h o f whi c h i s b y i t s e l f s p e c i fi ed
as c ount .
The numb e r o f p lural nouns t hat i nvolve surface a ffixat ions i s
sma l l . The fo l l ow ing l i s t i l l u s t ra t e s s u c h nouns . A s may b e s e e n ,
not a l l the p lural nouns are dire c t ly infl e c t ly from nouns . In t h i s
c a s e , t he re h a s t o b e a derivat i o n from a non-noun t o a noun p r i o r t o
t he p lural s p e c i fi c a t i on .
g u no n 'mountain ' p E g u n u n a n 'mountains '
w e t ' t re e ' w i t w l t a n ' tre e s '
l u h o r ' exa 7.. t e d ' I E l u h o r 'ances tors '
g 6 d 6 n ' 7.. e a f ' g E g 6 d 6 n a n ' 7.. e a v e s '
k I d o n 'poem ' kE k i d u n a n ' p o e m s , p o e try '
t uw o h 'grow ' t E t uw u h a n ' p 7.. a n t s '
The p lural spe c i fi c at ion may a l s o be i n d i c a t e d out s i de the word b y
a quant i f ie r . A quan t i fi e r i s a numeral o r a non-numera l . A nume ral
is any c ardinal number . A non-numeral is one of such words a s k a b e h
' a 7.. 7.. ' , a ke h 'many ' , s a w a t 6 r 6 ' s e v era 7.. ' . S ent e n c e s ( 9 9 ) - ( 1 0 2 )
i l lu st rate t he o c c urrenc e o f a p lural noun :
(99) k a b e h a l a s j a t i i k u d uw e q e p a m a r e n t a h
a 7.. 7.. - fore s t - te a k - t ha t - t he prop e r t y of- g o v e rnme n t
'A 7.. 7.. t h e t e a k fore s t s a r e owne d by t h e g o vernm e n t '
( 1 0 0 ) e� 1 6 r 6 n 6 g u n o n l o ra
i n - No r t h - b e - m o u n t a i n - two
' T h e r e are two m o u n t a i n s in the N o r t h '
( 10 1 ) a k u � E r t i t E m b a� j 6w6 s aw a t 6 r 6
I - k n o w - s o n g -Java - s e v era 7..
'I know s e v e ra l. Javan e s e s o ng s '
54
( 102 ) s i m e n d uwe a n a q E n E m
Simi n - ha v e - a h i ld- s i x
' S i m i n h a s s i x ahi l dren '
The f o l l ow ing p lural i sat i o n s are not ac c ep t ab l e , s in c e a numeral i s

u s e d s i de b y s ide with a redup l i cat ion ( vide p . 4 6 ) :
* w i tw i t a n p a p a t
tre e s - four
* omahomah p i t u
h ou s e s - s e ven
* bocahbocah sa tos
a h i l dren - one hundred
* j a ran j a ran I i m6
h o r s e s fi v e
In t h e c a s e o f a noun t hat has an external a t t ribute s u c h as deri ved

from a s t a t e verb , norma l l y only the noun is redup l i cated , e . g . :
o m a h a l'l a r o m a h o m a h a l'l a r
h o u s e - n ew
'New house s '
, A n e w ho u s e '
kEmba� aban kEmba� kEmban aba�
flower-red
, R e d flowers '
, A r e d f l o we r '
bocah ayu bocahbocah ayu
a h i Z d - b e a u t i fu l
' B e a u ti fu l gir l s '
'A b e a u t i fu l g i r l '
we t � uwo r w e t w e t Cl uwo r
t re e - ta U
' Ta l l t re e s '
'A t a l l t r e e '
On t he o t he r han d , t o emphas i s e t he att ribut e , a redup l i c at ion may

t ake p l a c e w i t h t he at t ribute inst ead o f w i t h the noun , whi c h i s to b e
und e r s t o o d a s p lural :
o m a h a l'l a r a l'l a r ' n e w h o u s e s '
k E m b a � a b a � a b a n ' re d flowers '
b o c a h a y u a y u ' b ea u t i fu l g i r l s '
we t � uwo r � uwo r ' ta l l tre e s '
The p lural s p e c i f i c a t i on o f a noun may b e indicated in the fo l lowing
rule s , whi c h e x c lude the rare c a s e s s u c h as p E g u n u n a n ' m o u n t a in s ' and
o t h e r s imilar words :
Rule # 4 1
55
[� redup l i c at ion
+ non-numeral
m
Rule # 4 2
+ nume ral
2.6. THE V E R I V A T I O N O F A WORV
There a r e four t yp e s o f derivat i onal s pe c i fi cat ions t hat app l y t o a

Javan e s e word :
(a) Verb to verb derivat ion .
(b) Verb to noun derivat ion .
(c) Noun t o noun derivat ion .
( d) Noun t o verb derivat ion .
2.6.1 . Verb t o V e rb De r i va t i o n
The derivat ion whi c h forms a verb from another verb invo lves a
c hange o f the s eman t i c c o n figurat ion in one o f t he s e way s : (1)
int e n s i fi cat ion , ( 2 ) t rans 1 t ivi s a t i on , ( 3 ) i n t e n t i o na l 1 s a t i o n , (4)
rec i p r o c a l i sat ion .
2.6. 1 . 1 . I nten� l 6 l catl o n
I nt e n s i fi c at i on app l i e s t o a s t a t e verb . I t provides a qua l i fi c a t i on

o f the s t at e or condi t ion as e i t h e r more or l e s s i n t en s e .
I n t e n s i fi c at ion may be re fle c t e d in t he surface w i t h i n t h e verb b y
affixa t i o n , o r out s i de the verb b y a peripheral word . The affixation
invo l v e s t he p re fix k a - . � kE- . . in c ombinat ion w i t h the su ffix
. . .
. . - a n , whi c h is ac tual repre sentat i on may b e i n the form

.
k(a � E ) - V- ( E ) n . This affixat ion ind i c a t e s e x c e s s i vene s s .

Out s i de the verb , the inten s i fi cat ion i s expre s se d by s u c h p e riphe ral
words a s : b a n E t ' very ' , wh i c h fo l lows the verb , and r 6 d 6 ' s l i g h t l y ' ,
k u r a n ' no t e n o u g h, whi c h p r e c ede t h e verb .
The fo l l owing examp l e s i l lu s t ra t e the int en s i fi ca t i o n o f a s t at e
verb :
j E re ' de e p ' k E j E r 6 n ' t oo de ep '
j E r e b a � E t ' v e ry de ep '
k u r a � j E re ' n o t de ep e n o ug h '
r o d 6 j E re 'a l i t t l e deep '
56
m a t E n 'ripe ' k E o1l a t E � E n ' t oo ripe '

m a t E n b a n E t ' v ery ripe '
k u r a n m a t E n ' n o t ripe e n o u g h '
r 6 d 6 m a t E n 'a t i t H e rip e '
kEsE l ' tired ' k E k E s E 1 E n ' t oo t i re d '
k E s E l b a n E t ' v e ry t i re d '
k u r a n k E s E l 'not tired enough '
r 6 d 6 k E s E l 'a t i t H e t i r e d '
The int en s i fi cat ion o f a s t a t e verb may b e indicated in the fol low-
ing rule s :
Ru l e # 4 3
(� ) t at e - �> (� tate
intens i f i c a t i o n )
(V
(V
state
+ increase )
(V
Rule # 4 4
state
int e n s i fi c at ion ) - �>
state
- i n c rease )
V
[V
state
]
Rule # 4 5 L
state --��!>
+ i n c re a s e ka- . . ] / ban E t
[ . . . -an
.
+ in c re a s e
[V �t at e I
Rule # 4 6 state
-increase ) ---!» L
__
r6d6 / ku ran J
- increase
2.6.1 .2. T�an4 i�ivi4 a � o n
A lmo s t a n y Javan e s e verb , b e s id e s t ho s e that are inherent ly

t ran s it ive , may b e s p e c i fi e d furt her as t ran s i t ive , whi c h cons equen t l y
n e c e s s i t a t e s an agent noun an d a pat i ent noun .
The surface indi cators t hat re flect a tran s i t i v i s a t i on are t he
p r e f i x { a } N s- . . . , alone or in comb inat ion with one of the suffixe s :
. . . - {n} i -6
• . .- a k e ; the prefixes d i -
. • . . . taq- . . . daq- . . . • . . . •
k6q - . .; t he suffixe s . . - E n
. - 6 , . . . - a ke .
, • . . .
The suffix . - E n and t he suffix . . . - 6 are re lat e d t o t h e pat ient

. .
n oun in a kind o f s emant i c c omp lement ary d i s t ribut ion . If the patient
noun i s in fle c t iona l l y s p e c i f i e d as definit e , the hort atory suffix i s
57
. • • -En. I f the patient noun i s i n f l e c t ionally s p e c i fi e d as non-de fini t e ,

the hort atory s u f fix i s . . . - 6 .
The fol lowing l i s t s i l l u s t rate the t ran s i t i v i s a t i on o f a verb :
pEcah ' br e a k ' m E c a h c e l e n a n ' b r e a k a piggy ban k '
p i I eh 'ae teat ' m i l i h i E n � 6 k ' a e t e a t egga '
tuge l ' au t ' n u g E l 6 t E b u ' a u t a u g a r aane ! '
u re p ' a 'l i v e ' n u r e p a k e d i a n ' t i g h t up a 'l a n t e r n '
rE seq ' a t e an ' j o g a n e t a q r E s i q i ' I a t ean up t h e f t o o r '
t u r u ' a teep ' k l a s a n e d i t u r 6 n i ' The m a t i a a t e p t on '
j u p oq ' ta k e ' b a l e k o q j u p o q ' Yo u t o o k t h e b a t t '
p E n d E m ' b ury ' p E n d E m E n u w u h e ' Bury t h e tra a h ! '
The t ran s i t i v i s at ion of a verb may b e i n d i c a t e d in the fo l lowing
V
rul e s :
(� ) [ 1
Rule # 4 7 a c t ion
-
tate / nonstate pro c e s s
V
t ran s i t ive
ac t ion
pro c e s s
L
[ ( a ) Ns . . . .-(n) i] /
-
.
( a ) N s - . . / t a � - . . . 'V d a q - . . .
V
• /
di-. / k6 q - . . .
-
a c t ion
proc e s s
L
[ ]
pat
+
� de f
V V
. . . -6
[ 1 [ ]
Rule # 4 8
a c t ion a c t ion
- � pat
�d e f
tran s i t ive L +
• • • - En
[ ]
V
a c t ion
p ro c e s s pat
L +
�d e f
. . . - a ke
2.6.1 .3. I ntent� o n al�h at� o n
Int ent i on a l i sat ion app l i e s t o a n a c t i on verb . I t s o c c urren c e indi

c at e s t he int ent ional nature of the act ion re ferred t o b y the verb , i t s
ab s e n c e ind i c a t e s the unintent ional nat ure o f the act ion .
The intent iona l i s at ion spe c i fi ca t i on i s norma l l y re fle c t e d by the
p r e f i x ( a ) N s - . . . , a l t hough with certain verb s , the prefix a l s o refle c t s
a n un intent ional ac t i on . The mo s t p rodu c t ive a ffixat i on that refle c t s
an unintent ional act ion i s the p r e f i x k a - . . . k E - . . . , alone or in
�
c omb i na t i on with the suffix . . . - a n . The suffix . . . - a k e may indicate an

int e nt ional or an unintent ional a c t ion .
The f o l l owing sentence s , w i t h the verb s : p E c a h ' b r e a k ' , g6w6 ' b r i n g ' ,
i d a q ' s tep on ' , I E b u ' e n t e r ' , c E m p l o n ' p Z u n g e ' , and t i b 6 ' fa Z Z ' ,
i l lu s t ra t e an intent ional a c t i on and an unint ent i onal ac t ion :
I n t ent ional :
( 103) s a r d i mEcah ce l e n a n
Sardi - b r e a k -p i ggy b a n k
' S a r d i b r e a k s a p iggy b a n k '
( 104 ) a k u n g 6w6 o l e h o l e h
I - b r i ng - s o u v e n i r
' I b r i ng h o m e s o uv e n i r '
( 10 5 ) s op i re � i d aq rem
t h e d r i v e r - s t ep o n - b rake
' Th e dri ve r s t e p s on t h e b ra ke s '
( 106 ) s i t i m l E b u omah
S i t i - e n t er - ho u s e
' S i t i en t e rs t h e h o u s e '
( 10 7 ) pa rman � Emp l on s E n a a n
Parman -p Z un g e -pond
' Parman p Z un g e s into t h e p o n d '
( 108) g6g6 r n i b6 e � k a so r
Gogo r - fa Z Z - i n- m a t t r e s s
' Go g o r dro p s h i m s e Zf o n t h e ma t t re s s '
Un int e nt ional :
( 109 ) s a r d i m E c a h a k e ce l e � a n
Sardi - b re a k - p i ggy bank
' Sardi ( unin t ent ionally ) b r e a k s a p iggy b a n k '
( 11 0 ) b o j o k u n g 6w6 r E j E k i
my s p o u s e - b r i ng - Z u a k
' My w i fe b r i n g s Z u a k '
( 11 1 ) sum i n i daq t E l eq
Sum i - s t e p on- dropping
'Sumi s t e p p e d on drop p i n g '
( 112 ) oma h k u kE l E b6 n ma l e�
my ho u s e - en te r e d- t h i e f
'My h o u s e w a s b u rg Z a ri s e d '
( 11 3 ) p a rma n k E cE m p l o� s E n a a �
Parman -p Z u n g e d-pond
' Parman u n i n t e n t i o n a Z Zy p Z unged into a pond '
59
( 114 ) gog o r k E t i b a n p E 1 E m
Gog o r - fa Z Z e n on -mango fru i t
' A mango fru i t fe Z Z on Gogor '
The intent ional i s at i on o f a verb may b e i n d i c a t e d i n t h e f o l l owing

rule s :
Rule # 4 9
[�
c t ion
pro c e s s
]- --.;o!>
V[
act ion
p ro c e s s
int ent ional 1
V
act ion
p ro c e s s
L
V[ 1
( a ) Ns- . . .
+ intent ion
V
act ion
Rule # 5 0 �>
p ro c e s s
---- --
in tent ional
act ion
p ro c e s s
N
L
( a ) s- . . . / [ k E - . . . ( . . . - a n ) ]
-int ent ion
R e c i p ro c a l i s a t i on app l i e s t o an act ion verb . I t s o c c urre n c e indi

cates t hat t he a c t ion i s i n s t i gated b y two p e rformers o r more , e a c h
o f which dire c t s the act ion t o another . T h e re c ipro c a l i s at i on i s
re f l e c t e d b y t h e redup l i c at ion o f the verb , i n c omb inat i on w i t h t he
infix . . . - i n- . . . or w i t h t he suffix . . . -an . Thi s may be s hown in t h e
fol l owing e xamp l e s :
t u l o n ' he Zp ' t u l o n t i n u l o n ' h e Zp e a c h o t h e r '
p u j i 'wish Zuck ' p u j i p i n u j i ' w i s h Z u c k to e a c h o t h e r '
t r E s n6 ' Zove ' t r E s n 6 t i n r E s n a n ' Z o v e e a c h o t he r '
j 6 r 6 k ' p us h ' j o ro k j o r o k a n 'push each o ther '
o y a q ' cha s e ' o y a q o y a q a n ' cha s e e a c h o t h e r '
a n t Em 'hit ' a n t E m a n t E m a n ' h i t each o ther '
[V ]
The rec ipro c a l i s at ion o f a verb may be i n d i c a t e d in t h e f o l l owing
V[
rules ( where 2W refers t o a who le -word redup l i c a t i on ) :
1
Rule # 5 1 a c t ion -- � a c t i on
re c ipro c al
60
V V
a c t ion
[ 1
Ru l e # 5 2 pro ce s s
a c t ion -- �> L
pro c e s s
r e c ipro c a l [ 2W . ] / [ 2W ]
. . . - I n- . . . . • -an
.
rec ipro cal
2.6.2. V e r b t o No u n D e r i v a t i o n
A nomina l i s at i on of a verb changes the s eman t i c s t ru c t ure of the

verb in a dire c t way or in a displaced way .
A dire c t nomina l i sations y i e lds a noun that s t i l l re t a i n s the
'
chara c t e ri s t i c feat ure s o f the verb . A noun so forme d u s u a l ly b e l ongs
t o t he c l a s s of ab s t ract nouns .
A d i s p l a c e d nomina l i sat ion y i e l d s a noun t hat r e fers t o a phy s i c a l
obj e c t , where the charact eris t i c feat ure s o f the verb are only
indire c t ly related t o t he noun .
The fo l lowing examp l e s s how the nomina l i sat ion of a verb in a d i re c t
way an d i n a d i s p l a c e d way :
Direct :
1 a k u ' wa t k '
( 11 5 ) l a kumu ku ran ban t E r
y o u r wa t k i n g - n o t e n o ug h - fa s t
' Yo u a r e n o t wa t k ing fas t e n o u g h '
s a n s 6 r6 ' m i s erab t e '

( 116) k a s a � s a r a n mu o r a m u s p r6
y o u r s u ffe r i ng - n o t - u s e t e s s
' Yo u r s u ffe r ing i s no t u s e t e s s '
t u r u ' s teep '

( 11 7 ) tu ruku a� l E r banEt
my s t e ep - s o un d- v e ry
' I had a s o u n d s t e e p '
t u 1 e s 'wr i t e '
( 118) n u l e s m u ka 1 6n E n
y o u r wri t i n g - too s t ow
' Yo u are wri t i n g too s tow t y '
D i sp l ac e d :
t u ru ' s teep '
( 11 9 ) pa t u r6nmu r E g E t ban E t
y o u r b e d - di r t y - v ery
' Your b e d i s v e ry di r t y '
61
l a b o h ' ca s t an a n c h o r '
( 12 0 ) p E l a b u h a n i k i j E r�
harbour - t h i s - de ep
' T h i s harbour i s deep '
l ungoh 'sit '

( 12 1 )i k i t i l as p a l u�guhan ratu
t h i s - form e r - s e a t- k i n g
' Th i s was a k i ng ' s t h r o n e '
m a s a q ' co o k '
( 12 2 ) ma s aq a n mu k a s i n E n
y o u r c o o k i n g - too s a � ty
' Th i s c o o k i n g o f y o u r s i s t o o s a � ty '
The dire c t nominal i s a t i on may or may not invo l ve affi xat i o n s .

A ffixe s i nvolved are t h e prefix k a - . . . � kE- . . . in c omb ina t i o n w i t h
t he s u f fix . . . - a n , a n d t he p r e f i x ( a ) N s . . . -
The d i s p l a c e d nomina l i s a t i on a lway s invo l v e s affixa t i on s . They are

e i ther t he prefix pVw ( N s ) - . . . in c omb ination with the s u f fi x . . . -an ,
or t he su ffix . . . - a n alone .
The nomina l i s a t ion of a verb may b e i n d i c a t e d in the fol lowing rule :
N
L
o / [ ka - .
. . � kE- . . . . . . -an J / ( a ) Ns- . .
.
direct
Rule # 5 3 v .
-- ...;.>
N
L
[ pVw ( N s ) - . . . . . . -anJ / . . -an .
displaced
2.6.3. No u n t o No u n D e r i v a t i o n
A noun o f a c e rt ain s eman t i c s t ru c t ure may b e c onvert e d i n t o another

noun o f a d i fferent seman t i c s t ruc ture . Thi s derivat ion may indi c a t e
c o l l e c t i on , l o c a t i o n , o r imi tat ion . There i s a s i ngle c a s e o f deriva
t i on which we may c a l l oppo s i t ion , where the prefix pVw ( N s ) - . . . is
invo l ve d , i . e . u t a n ' deb t ' v s . p i u t a n ' c redi t ' .
2.6.3. 1 . C o l l e c�io �
A c o l l e c t i on s p e c i fi cat ion indi c at e s a c o l l e c t i on o f individual

t hings . The s p e c i fi ca t i o n i s re f l e c t e d b y a redup l i c a t i on o f the first
s y l lab l e in combinat ion with the suffix . . - a n , and t he p r e f i x
.
pVw ( N s ) - . . . in comb inat ion with the s u f fix . . . - a n . Thi s m a y b e s hown

in the f o l l owing examp l e s and summari s e d b y Rule # 5 4 and Rule # 5 5
62
( where 2F refers t o a redup l i cat ion o f t h e first s y l lab l e ) :
t a n d u r a n ' p lan t ' t E t a n d u r a n ' a c o l l e c t i o n o f p la n t s '

k E m b a n 'flower ' k E k E m b a n a n ' a co l l e c t i o n of flowers '
g u n o n 'mountain ' p a g u n u n a n 'a mountain range '
0
k E b 6 n 'garden '
[ )
p a k E b 6 n a n " a p l an t a t i on '
Rule # 5 4 N
�
_
c ount
c o l l e c t ion
Rule # 5 5 [ N
c ount
) - +>
N
L
c o l l e c t i on [ 2F . . . - a n ] / [ v ( Ns ) - . . . . . . -an]
c ount
c o l l e c t ion
2.6.3.2. L a c.a.t.i.a n
A l o cat ion s p e c i f i c at io n indicat e s a p lace or general l o c at i on o f

t he obj e c t re ferred t o b y t h e noun . Thi s spe c i fi cat ion i s refle c t e d
b y t he p r e f ix pVw ( N s ) - . . . or k a - . . . � k E - . . . i n comb i nat ion w i t h the
s u f fi x . . . - a n . Thi s may b e shown i n t he fol lowing e xamp l e s and
summari s e d b y Rule # 5 6 and Rule # 5 7 :
l u r a h ' v i l l a g e may o r ' k a l u r a h a n ' v i l l a g e mayor ' s o ffi c e '

w o h ' t ra s h ' p a w u h a n ' tr a s h h o l e '
i d u ' sa l i v a ' p a i d 6 n ' s p i t to o n '
r a t u ' k ing ' k r a t 6 n ' k i ngdom, pa l a c e '
w i n e h ' s e ed l i ng ' p aw i n i h a n ' n u rs ery '
Rule # 5 6 N - �> N
location
N
L
Rule # 5 7 N - --::»
l o c a t i on
[ pVw ( N s ) - . . . . . . -an] /
[ ka - . . . � k E - . . . . . . -an]
l o cat ion
2.6.3.3. I m.i..ta.t.i.a n
A noun derivat ionally sp e c i fi e d as imi t a t i on refers to a c opy of a

r e a l i t y t hat i s c onveyed by the s eman t i c s t ru c t ure of the noun s o
derive d . T h e spe c i fi c ation i s refle c t e d b y a redup l i c at ion o f t he
noun in c ombinat i on with the su ffix . . . -an. Thi s may b e shown in the
fo l l owing e xamp l e s and summari s e d b y Rule # 5 8 and Rule # 5 9 :
63
o m a h ' ho u8 e ' o m a h o m a h a n ' to y h o u 8 e '

s e t a n ' de v i l ' s e t a n s e t a n a n 'a l i k e n e 8 8 of de v i l '
a n a q ' ahi ld ' a n a q a n a q a n 'do l l '
w6n ' p e r 8 0 n ' w 6 n w6 n a n ' effi g y , 8 aare arow '
Rule # 5 8 N - -+> N
imi t at ion
N
Rule # 5 9 N -- -iJ» L
imi t at io n
[ 2W . . . -an]
imi t a t i o n
2.6.4. No u n to V e rb De r i v a t i on
A noun- t o - ve rb derivat ion may invo lve enac tment , prov i s i on ,

orientat ion , or p r e d i c at i on .
2.6.4.1 . Ena ctment
An enac tment spe c i fi cat ion indicat e s a p e r fo rman c e with the noun
a s a b u i l t - i n obj e c t , i n s t rument , o r up s hot o f t he a c t ion r e fe rred t o
b y the verb . Thi s sp e c i fi c at io n i s q u i t e product ive , and refle c t e d in
t he surface repre sentation b y the prefix ( a ) Ns - . . . , the infix . . . - i n - . . . •
or t he infix . . . - um- . . . The fo l l owing examp l e s i l l u s t rate the ena c tment

derivat ion of a noun int o a verb :
Obj e c t :
t an d a n 'aat ' t u m a n d a n ' ta k e an a a t i o n '
w a n o n ' s hape ' w i n a n o n ' g i v e n a 8 hape a s '
d a l a n ' p uppe t p l ay e r ' n d a l a � ' a a t a 8 a pupp e t p l a y e r '
I n s t rument :
a n d 6 n ' ho r 8 e aart ' n a n d 6 n ' ta k e a h o r 8 e a a r t to g o '
a re t ' siakle ' n a r e t 'mow g r a s 8 w i t h a 8 i a k l e '
g r a j i ' 8 aw ' n g r a j i ' au t wi t h a 8 aw '
Up shot :
g a m b a r ' p i a ture ' n g a m b a r ' draw, p a i n t '
b u b o r ' p o r r i dg e ' m b u b o r ' m a k e p o r r i dg e '
g u l e ' 8 tew ' n g u l e ' m a k e 8 t ew '
The enactment derivat ion may b e indi ca t e d in the fol lowing rule s :
Rule # 6 0 N -- .;;.> V
a c t ion
64
V
a c t ion
L
Ru l e # 6 1 v -- -'3»
act ion { a } Ns- . · . . /
. . . - i n- . / • .
• • - um -
• /• • •
enac tment
2.6.4.2. P�O Vi4 i o �
Thi s deriva t i o n is produ c t i ve in a formal or l i t e rary u s age only .

I t c o n vert s a noun into a verb chara c t e r i s e d as a pro c e s s in whi c h the
noun s e rv e s as an ob j e c t o f provi s i on o r supp ly . The derivat i on i s
r e f l e c t e d b y t h e prefix a - . . . Thi s may ·be shown in the fo l l owing
e xamp l e s and s ummar i s e d b y Rule # 6 2 and Rule # 6 3 :
9a m a n 'weapon ' a g a m a n ' armed w i t h '
b 6 n a 6 ' w ea l t h ' a b 6 n a6 'provided with '
r u p6 ' appearanoe ' a r u p 6 ' ha v e t h e app earan a e o f '
w a n o n ' s ha p e ' a w a n o n ' ha v e a s hape o f '
Rule # 6 2 N - �> V
p ro c e s s
v
Rul e # 6 3 V -- --..,.>. pro c e s s
pro c e s s L
a- . . •
p rovi s i on
2.6.4.3. O�i e��a�i o �
The orient a t i on derivat ion indi c at e s an act ion re ferring t o a

movement towards certain p o i n t s o f t he comp a s s or l o c a t i o n . It i s
r e f l e c t e d b y t h e pre fix { a } N s - . . . Thi s may b e shown i n t h e f o l l owing
examp le s and summari s e d b y Rule # 6 4 and Rule # 6 5 :
k a n d a n ' s ta b l e ' � a n d a � ' r e turn to t h e s t ab l e '
g E g 6 n 6 ' s ky ' n g E g 6 n 6 ' fly '
1 6 r 'North ' n a 1 6 r ' g o t o t h e North '
k i do l 'South ' n i d o 1 ' g o to t h e So u t h '
Ru l e # 6 4 N - �> V
act ion
V
Rule # 6 5 V -- ---;!» act ion
act ion L
{ a } Ns - . . .
orientat ion
65
2.6.4.4. PAed�caz� o n
A noun may b e derived i n t o a s t ate verb , whi c h refers t o t he s t a t e

or condi t ion o f a pat i ent n o u n ( Chafe 1 9 7 0b : 1 4 3 ; 2 0 2 ) .
T h e normal
surface p o s i t i on of the verb so derive d , l i ke a genuine s t a t e verb ,
i s after the p a t i e n t noun , the end o f who se s t ru c ture may be marke d
by t h e word i k u ' that ' . There i s no linking word b e t ween the p a t i e n t
n o u n a n d t he s t at e verb , whi c h in Engl i sh i s norma l l y i n d i c a t e d b y a
form o f ' b e ' .
The fo l l owing sentenc e s , in a l l o f whi c h t he patient noun p r e c e d e s
the verb , i l lu s t rate the oc currence o f a s t a t e v e r b d e r i v e d b y means o f
a predi c a t i on spe c i fi c at ion from a w � o l e noun :
( 12 3 ) bojoku guru
my s p ou s e - t e a a h e r
'My w i fe i s a t e a a h e r '
( 12 4 ) s a r d i i ku t E n t a ra
Sardi - t ha t - s e r v i a eman
' Sa rdi is a s er v i aeman '
( 12 5 ) anaqe l an a � 86k t E r
h i s a h i Zd-ma Z e -p h y s i a i a n
' H i s s o n i s a p hy s i a ian '
( 12 6 ) mb a r E p ku m u r e t � s 8 e
m y e Zde s t a h i Zd-pupi Z - e Z em e n t a ry s a hoo Z
'My e Z de s t a h i Z d i s an e Z em e n tary s ahoo Z p up i Z '
The predi c at i on derivat ion may b e i n d i c a t e d in the fo l l owing rule s :
Rule # 6 6 N -- ..;;.> V
state
predication
V
Rule # 6 7 V -- --iI» state
state N
predi cat ion L
+ i ku
predi cat ion
2.7. T H E P ER I PH E R A L WORV
The Javan e s e peripheral words may b e subdivided into four t y pe s :

emo t i ve s , conj unc t i ve s , relators , s p e c i fiers . W i t h re feren c e t o t h e i r
relat ion t o a nuc lear word , emot ive s a r e r e l a t i v e l y t he mo s t i ndependent
p eripheral words .
2.7.1. The Emo t i ve s
An emo t ive s erve s a fun c t ion t o indicate the s t a t e o f t he emo t i on

66
o f t he speaker . The way a language ind i c at e s t h e s t a t e o f t h e emo t i on

o f i t s s p e ak e r s in d i fferent i n s t an c e s o f language use i s unde r s t andab l y
uni que .
The fol lowing are examp l e s o f Javan e s e emo t i ve s : a �o h , h 6 r 6 , l a ,
koq , w6n , r a q , t 6 .
2.7. 1 . 1 . T h e. Wond a � o h
Th i s word i s quite fre quent i n spee c h . I t may b e i n fre e vari at ion

with one o f t h e s e :a � o , a � u h , w a d o h , w a a u h , d o h , w a h . A man i fe s t at ion
of pain may b e e xp re s s e d by the word a � o h or one of its variant s :
( 12 7 ) a80h panase
ouch-the heat
' Ou c h ! It ' s ho t ! '
( 12 8 ) a � u h t a � a n k u koq i d a q
o uc h - my hand- s te p p e d o n b y y o u
' Ou c h ! You are s t e p p i n g on m y hand ! '
A man i fe s t at i on o f surp r i s e or awe may a l s o be expre s s e d by t h i s
word :
( 12 9 ) w a d o h m6 n t 6 r m u a � a r
wow ! - y o u r c ar -ne w
' Yo u h a v e a n e w car ! '
( 130) w a h a u w u r e w6� k u w i
wow ! - t h e he i g h t -p e r s on - t ha t
'How t a l l t h a t man i s ! '
An e n t reaty t o God may a l s o b e introduced by t hi s word :
( 1 31 ) doh gos t i m E l a s6n6 kawu l 6
o h - L o r d - h a v e mercy - I
' O h God. h a v e me rcy on m e '
( 1 32 ) �oh a l a h m i d a n E t n 6 kawu l 6
o h - Go d - h e a r ! - I
' O h God. p l e a s e h e a r me ! '
The word a d o h may be derived int o a nuc l e ar word , e . g . :
( 13 3 ) 6 j 6 � ad o h t a n p6 s E b a p
do n o t - l am e n t - w i t h o u t - ca u s e
' Stop lame n t ing for no r e a s o n '
( 1 34 ) panaduhe ora d i gub res
his lam e n ta t i o n - n o t - h e eded
'Hi s l am e n t a t i o n w e n t u n h e e de d '
2.7.1 .2. T h e. Wond h 6 r 6
Thi s word i s a l s o frequent in s p e e c h only . I t may o c c ur in

c omb ination with t6 whi c h immediat e ly f o l lows i t , i . e . h 6 r 6 t 6 , or
whi c h i s s eparat e d by a word or a suc c e s s ion of words , i . e . h 6 r 6 . . . t6 .
T h i s word r e f l e c t s imp a t i e n c e or fru s t ra t i on on the part o f the
67
speaker , such t hat the a t t e n t i o n o f the interlocutor i s c a l l e d for :

( 135) h 6 r 6 kowe E m6 h m E n E � ( t 6 )
y o u - refu s e - qu i e t
' Lo o k . aren ' t y o u g o i n g t o b e q u i e t ? '
( 136 ) h 6 r 6 ( t 6 ) d l e l e q a k e kowe m a l a h n e k a t l u � 6
b e ing warn e d- y o u - e ve n - t a k e r i s k - g o
' L o o k . w h y a r e y o u i n s i s t i ng on g o i n g i n sp i t e of my warni n g ? '
2.7.1 .3. T h e Wo�d l a
This word i s a l s o frequent in s p e e c h only . I t expre s s e s an empha s i s :

( 137) l a aku l ungoh E n d i
I - s i t-where ?
' A s for m e . where am I to s i t ? '
( 138) l a t E n a n gE l a s e s i d6 pEcah
rea l - t h e g la s s - e v e n t u a l l y - b r e a k
' We l l . a s I exp e c t e d. t h e g la s s i s now b r o k e n '
2.7.1 .4. T h e Wo�d k6q
Thi s word , whi c h i s iden t i c a l in surface repre sentat ion w i t h t he

suffix koq - . . . , exp re s s e s an empha s i s on a contrast b e tween what i s
e x p e ot e d and what i s a c t ua l . I t i s frequent in s p e e c h only :
( 139) kowe koq o r a l u n 6
you-no t-go
' Why d i dn ' t y o u go ? '
( 14 0 ) d i t u t u r i k6q n eye l
b e i n g a dv i s e d - s tubborn
' Why are y o u s t ubb orn l y ignoring my a d v i c e ? '
2 . 7. 1 . 5 . The Wo�d w6�
T h i s word , whi c h i s iden t i c a l with the nuc lear word w6� ' pe r s o n ' .
i s a l s o frequent i n s p e e ch only , and indicat e s a n empha s i s :
( 141 ) w6� a k u l 6 r 6 m u l 6 a k u o r a t E k6
I - s i c k- t h er e fo r e - I - n o t - come
'Since I was s i c k. I was no t ab l e to come '
( 142 ) w6� a k u o r a l u p o t m E k s 6 k6 q a r a n i
I-n o t - qu i l ty - y e t - a c c u s e d by y o u
' I a m i n n o c e n t . w h y d o y o u k e ep a c c u s i n g m e ? '
2.7. 1 .6. T h e W o �d r a q
T h i s word i s a l s o frequent i n s p e e c h only . I t expre s s e s s ome

knowle dge o r ant i c ipat ion of s ome t hing . I t normal l y o c curs in c omb ina
t i on with the word t 6 , whi c h o c curs at the end of a s e n t en c e :
68
( 14 3 ) kowe r aw u d o t t 6
you- smoke
' Yo u smo ked, di dn ' t y o u ? '
( 14 4 ) s i ma n s a i k i r a q wes p l n a ah
Siman - n o w- a Z re ady - m o v e
' S i m a n h a s a Z re a dy m o ve d '
2.7. 1 .7. The Wo�d t6
Thi s word i s a l s o frequent in s p e e ch only . I t expre s s e s an emp ha s i s

o r final i t y :
( 14 5 ) ayo gE l es t6
come on ! - fa s t
' Come o n , s ha k e a Z e g '
( 14 6 ) 6j 6 n ru s u h i a k u t 6
d o n o t - d i s t u rb - I
' S top di s turbing me '
2 . 7.2. T he C o n j u n ct i ves
A c onj un c t i ve fun c t io n s t o uni t e two s e n t e n c e s o r t w o words w i t h i n

a s e nt e nc e . There are s i x t y p e s o f c onj un c t i ve s : alt e rnat ive ,
i n c l u s ive , c o n t rast ive , c ondit ional , t emp oral , exp l anat ory .
2.7.2.1 . A!te�nati v e
A n a l t e rnat ive fun c t i o n s a s a n indicator o f cho i c e o f two e lement s .

The word i s u t 6w6 'or ' . The fo l lowing s e n t e n c e s i l lu s t rat e t he u s e o f
a n a l t e rnat ive :
( 14 7 ) n u n d a n 6 b a ke r u t 6w6 s a r d i
ca Z Z - B a k i r - o r - Sardi
' Ca Z Z B a k i r or Sardi '
( 14 8 ) kowe k E n 6 n E n t e n i u t 6w6 m a n k a t d l s e q
y o u -may-wai t - o r- depar t - e a r Z i er
' Yo u may wa i t or go e a r Z i e r '
( 14 9 ) a k u s e n l a l i u t 6w6 a ew e q e s e n n a r a n
I-who - fo rg e t - o r - h e - w h o - comp o s e
' E i t h e r I h a v e forg o t te n (it) , o r i t i s j u s t h i s imagina t i o n '
.
( 150 ) a n a q i k u c u k u p l o r o u t 6w6 t E l u w a e
c h i Z d - t h a t - e n o u g h - two- o r - thre e - o n Z y
' Tw o o r t h r e e c h i Z dr e n f o r a fam i Zy are e n o u g h '
I n e ve ry day spe e c h , the word 6 p 6 ' w h a t ' may be u s e d in l i e u o r
u t 6w 6 ' o r ' .
69
2.7.2.2. r n clu6 � v e
A n inc lus ive uni t e s t w o e lement s i n t o a r e l a t i v e l y large r e nt it y .

There are s everal i n c l us i v e s in J avan e s e : I a n ' an d ' , t o r ' m o r e o v e r ' ,
s a r t 6 ' ina Z u ding ' , k a r o ' w i t h ' .
The fo l lowing s e n t e n c e s i l l u s t rate t he u s e o f an inc l u s i v e :
( 151) bapaq I an i bu o ra 6n6
fa t h e r- a n d- m o t h e r - n o t - b e
'Fa t h e r a n d m o t h e r are n o t a t home '
( 15 2 ) s a r d i n a n s u I an s um i man s a q
Sardi - ta k e up w a t e r - and-Sum i - ao o k
' Sardi i s t a k i n g up wa t e r a n d Sumi i s a o o k i ng '
( 15 3 ) g i man p i n t E r to r s r E g E p
Giman - a Z e v e r-moreo v e r - i n du s tri o u 8
' Giman i s smart a n d i n du s tr i ou s '
( 154 ) p u j i k u m a r a � kowe s a r t 6 k u l 6w a r g a m u
m y w i s h e s - t o - y o u - i n a Z udi n g - y o u r fam i Zy
'My b e s t w i s h e s are for y o u a n d y o ur fam i Z y '
( 15 5 ) ' b a p a q ma� ka t m E � a n j a k a r t a ka ro i b u
fa t h e r - depa r t - t o - Jakar t a - w i t h -mo t h e r
' Fa t h e r g o e s t o Jakar t a w i t h m o t h e r '
2.7.2.3. C o nt�a6 t�v e
A contrast i ve indi c a t e s a c ontrast o f meaning b e t ween two e lement s .

There are some words o f t h i s t yp e : n a � e � 'but ' , s a n a j a n ' a Z though ' ,
m6 � k 6 ' de s p i t e ' . The fo l l owing s e n t e n c e s i l l u s t rate t h e u s e o f a
contrast ive :
( 156 ) a k u l u we n a n e n o r a d o y a n ma n a n
I - hungry - b u t - n o t -wan t - ea t
' I a m hungry, b u t I don ' t h a v e any appe t i t e '
( 15 7 ) s a n a j a n a y u �ewe q e d u r o n p ay u
a Z t h o u g h - b e a u t i fu Z - s he - n o t y e t - s o Z d
' D e sp i te h e r b e a u t y , s h e h a s n o t y e t s ua a e e d e d in g e t t i n g a
h u s b an d '
( 1 58 ) a e w e q e a y E m w a e m6 n k6 o r a d uwe � uw e t
h e - aa Zm� on Z y - de s p i t e - n o t - ha v e -m o n e y
' H e i s a Zways a a Z m , a Z t h o u g h h e i s s ho r t o f m o n e y '
2. 7.2.4. C o nd�t�o nal
A condit ional only re l a t e s sentence s . I t ind i c at e s a c o n di t ion o r

imp l i cat ion . I t o c curs i n the b eginning o f a s e n t e n c e whi c h c o n ve y s
t he condi t ion . There are some words o f t h i s type : y e n ' if ' , m a n 6w6
' if ' , a ft g E r ' i f ' , u p 6m6 ' if ' . Amongst c e rt ai n sp eakers , the word
l a m o n ' i f ' , whi c h is c ommon l y used i n s t age performan c e s , i s also u s e d .
The fol lowing s e n t en c e s i l l u s t rate the u s e o f a condi t ional :
70
( 15 9 ) m a n 6w6 a k u l u l o s a r E p s l a m E t a n
if-I- p a s s - wi Z Z - o ffe r a t h an k s g i v i ng m e a Z
' If I p a s s m y exam i n a t i o n , I w i Z Z offer a thank s g i v i ng m ea Z '
( 16 0 ) yen o ra u d a n a k u a r E p u m b a h u m b a h
i f- n o t - ra i n -I-wi Z Z - do Z aundry
' If it is n o t ra i n i n g , I w i Z Z do my Zaundry '
( 161 ) a � g E r kowe m u � g a h kowe t a q j a q m E � a n s E m a r a n '
i f- y o u - b e p romo t e d - y o u - I t a k e - to - Semarang
' If you are promo ted, w e s ha Z Z go t o Semarang w i t h y o u '
( 162 ) u p 6m6 a k u � E r t i a k u o r a t a k6 n kowe
if-I-know-I-no t - a s k - y o u
'If I h a d known, I wo u Z d n o t h a v e a s k e d y o u '
2.7.2.5. T e m p o �al
A t emporal marks a reference t o t ime . I t o c curs b e fore a s e n t e n c e

c onveying t he re ferenc e o f t ime , whi c h o c curs i n re lat i on with anot he r
sentence . There are s everal words o f t h i s type : s a d u r u n e ' b efore ' ,
b u b a r '" s a w i s e ' after ' , s i n a m b i '" k a m b i 'whi Z e ' , s a j r o n e ' du r i n g ' ,
s a s uw e n e ' during t h e p e ri o d o f ' , s a p l 6 q e ' s i n c e t h e time o f ' , n a l i k6 '"
d e q '" r i k 6 1 6 ' w h e n ' , and a n g E r ' any time ' , whi c h a l s o re fle c t s a c on
di t i on ( v i de 2 . 7 . 2 . 4 . ) .
The f o l l owing sentenc e s i ll u s t rate the use o f a t emp oral :
( 16 3 ) s a d u r u n e a k u � a m b o t g awe s E p e a a w a e o r a d u we
b e fo r e - I - w o rk - b i cy c Z e - o n Z y - no t - ha v e
' Be fore I g o t a j o b , I di d n o t have e v e n a b i c y c Z e '
( 16 4 ) s aw i s e u d a n e t E r a n l a n i t e k a t 6 n r E s e q
after- t h e rai n - b r ig h t - t h e s k y - ap p e a r - c Z ear
' A ft e r t h e ra i n s to p s , t h e s ky Z oo k s c Z e a r '
( 165 ) i ra m6c6 b u k u k amb i n u � g 6 n i aB i n e
Ira - r e a d - b o o k - w h i Z e - wa t c h - h e r y o u n g e r s i b Z ing
' Ira read a book w h i Z e she b a b y s a t h e r y o un g e r b ro t h e r '
( 166) s a j r o n e a k u 1 6 r 6 p a r d i t i l e q p e n p i n �o
duri ng- I - s i c k- Pardi - v i s i t - time s - two
' Wh e n I was s i ck , Pardi v i si t e d m e twice '
( 167 ) s a p l oq e a k u 6 n 6 n o m a h o r a t a u u d a n
s in ce t h e t i m e o f- I -b e - i n hou s e - n o t - e v e r - r a i n
' S i n c e I was b a c k home ( s om e time ago ) , t h e re h a s b e e n n o r a i n '
( 16 8 ) d e q a k u 6 n 6 k E l a s l o r a a k u 1 6 r 6 ma l a r i a
w h en - I- b e - c l a s s - two - I- s i c k-ma l aria
' Wh e n I was in t h e s e co n d grade, I got ma laria '
( 169 ) a n g E r a k u m a n a n k u c e n k u m E s t l n j a l oq
a n y t im e - I - e a t-my c a t - fo r s u re - a s k
' A n y t i m e I e a t , m y c a t a l wa y s a s k s fo r some '
71
2.7.2. 6. E xplanato�y
An exp lanat ory introdu c e s a s e n t e n c e t hat fun c t i on s as e it h e r a

s ource or a t arget o f exp lanation o f the mean ing c onveyed by another
re l a t e d sentenc e . The re are a numb er of words o f this t y p e : ma rg6
' b e caus e ' , j a l a r a n ' b e ca u s e ' , m u l 6 ' t h e r e fore ' , a w e t ' b e ca u s e ' , s a r e h n e
' b e ca us e ' , s u p 6 y 6 ' i n order t h a t ' , m u r e h ' i n o r de r t h a t ' .
The fol lowing sentenc e s i l lu s t rate the u s e o f an explanat ory :
( 17 0 ) a k u o ra l u �6 ma rg6 u d a n
I - n o t - g o - b e cau s e - ra i n
'I do n o t go, b e ca u s e i t r a i n s '
( 171) a k u 1 6 r6 m u l 6 o r a b i s 6 t E k 6
I- s i c k - t h e re fo r e - n o t - ab l e - come
' I was s i c k, t h e refore I was n o t � b l e t o come '
( 17 2 ) g6g 6 r k a s e p j a l a ra n b a n e n g E mbes
Gogor - l a t e - b e ca u s e - t h e t i r e - f l a t
' GogOI' i s l a t e , b e ca u s e h e h a d a f l a t t i re '
( 173 ) i s e h s o r e w e s p E t E � awe t m E n a o H
s t i l l - a ft e r n o o n - a l re ady - dark- b e ca u s e - c l o u d
' I t g e t s dark e a r l y , b e ca u s e i t i s c l oudy '
( 17 4 ) sa rehne k E s E I aku a r E p � a so a i seq
b e ca us e - t i re d- I -w i l l - r e s t - fi r s t
' I w i l l fi r s t re s t , b e ca u s e I a m t i re d '
( 175 ) a k u m l ay u s u p6y6 o ra k a s e p
I- run- i n o rder t h a t - n o t l a t e
' I run i n o rder no t to b e l a t e '
( 17 6 ) m u r e h kowe l u l o s s i n a u 6 s e n s r E g E p
i n orde r t h a t - y o u - p a s s - s t u dy -w h i c h - i n du s tr i o u s
' Yo u h a v e t o s tu dy hard, i n o rder tha t y o u m a y p a s s '
2.7.3. Re l a t o r
A re lator r e fers and attaches a s e n t e n c e t o an ant e cedent irre s p e c t

ive o f whether t h e ant e c e dent i s refle c t ed in t h e surface repre sentat ion
o r not . There i s only one re lat o r : s e � 'which, who ' .
The f o l l owing senten c e s i l lu s t rat e t h e u s e o f a re l at o r :
( 17 7 ) se� kasep ora o l eh m l Ebu
w ho - l a t e -n o t -may - en t e r
' Th o s e w h o are l a t e a r e no t a l lowe d to e n t e r '
( 178) a k u w E roh s e � j 6g6 t a m a n
I - s e e - w h o - g u ard-park
'I saw the man who guards the park '
72
2. 7.4. The Spec i fi e rs
A s pe c i fi e r func t ions to p rovide further diagno s t i c s o f a nuc l e ar

wo rd . There are two t yp e s o f spe c i fiers : ( a ) t ho s e t hat spe c i fy a
verb , ( b ) t ho s e t hat spe c i fy a noun .
2.7.4. 1 . T h e Ve4b S p e ci 6ie4
A ve rb s p e c i fi e r s p e c i f i e s a verb in t e rms o f its negat i on , fre

quen c y , s t age .
The n e gat ive s p e c i fier o f a verb i s the word o r a 'not ' .
The frequency sp e c i fi e r o f a v e rb i s one o f such words a s s E p i s a n �
p e n s E p i s a n ' o n ae ' , p i n d o � p e n p i n d o ' tw i a e ' , k E r E p ' frequ e n t l y ' ,

a r a n ' s e l dom ' .
The st age s p e c i fier o f a verb i s one o f s u c h words as i ag i ' i n the
proae s s o f ' , d u r o n ' n o t y e t ' , a r E p ' w i l l ' , m E n t a s ' ri g h t aft e r ' .
The fo l l owing senten c e s i l lu s t rate the use o f a verb s p e c i fi e r :
( 179) t a n g a k u o r a �ambot gawe
m y n e i g h b o ur - n o t -work
' My n e i g hb o u r do e s not work '
( 180 ) aku wes man an s E p i san
I - a l re a dy - e a t - o n a e
' I h a v e a l ready e a t e n o n a e '
( 181 ) ma r d i k E r E p t i l e q I b u n e
Mardi - o fte n - v i s i t - hi s m o t h e r
' Mardi v i s i t s h i s mo t h e r fre q ue n t ly
( 18 2 ) deweqe a r an t u r u e n omah
h e - s e l dom - s l e ep - i n - ho u s e
' H e s e l dom s l e e p s a t home '
( 183) a k u d u ron a do s
I -n o t y e t - ta k e a s howe r
' I h a v e no t t a k e n a s h o w e r y e t '
( 18 4 ) i bu l ag i mas aq
mo t h e r - i n t h e p ro a e s s of- a o o k
' Mo t h e r i s a o o k i ng '
( 18 5 ) g u r u k u a rE p n a n do r j a gon
m y t e a a h e r- w i l l - p l a n t - a o rn
' My t e a c h e r wi l l p l a n t a o rn '
( 1 86 ) s a r i m a n m E n t a s ma � a n
Sariman - ri g h t aft e r- e a t
' Sariman h a s j u s t fi n i s h e d e a ting '
2 . 7.4.2. T h e N o u n S p e ci 6 i e4
A noun spe c i fi e r refers to a ne gat ion or a p rep o s i t ion .

The negat ive spe c i fi e r of a noun i s the · word d u d u ' no t ' � Thus
Javan e s e has an e ff e c t i ve nuclear word iden t i f i e r , s i n c e the ve rb
73
negat i v i s e r i s o r a 'not ' .

Th e prepo s i t i on i s one o f s u c h words as e n 'in, at ' , s 6 k 6 ' from ' ,
m E n a � ' t o ' , m a r a � ' t o ' , k a � g o ' fo r ' . The first prepo s i t ion i s q u i t e
frequent ly used as a euphoni c e l ement and at t ached b e fore a n u c l e ar
word in a produc t i v e way t o form many c omp l e x prep o s i t i on s : e � + d uw o r
' h i g h ' > n d u wo r ' ab o v e ' , e . g . n d u wo r me j 6 ' o n t h e tab l e ' , e n + j E r �
' d e ep ' > n j E r o ' i n s i de ' , e . g . n j E ro g uw6 ' i n t h e a a v e ' .
The prepo s i t ion m E n a � ' to ' , whi c h alway s o c c urs b e fore a noun
indi cating a l o c at ive goal of s ome movement , i s some t imes t h e only
surface marker imp lying a de l e t e d verb o f movement .
The fo l l owing s e n t en c e s i l lu s t rate t h e u s e o f a n o un spe c i fie r :
( 18 7 ) i k i d u d u m r i c6
t h i s - n o t - p ep p e r
' T h i s i s no t p e p p e r '
( 188 ) l u n g u h 6 n d u wo r w a t u k u w i
s i t - o n - s to n e - t h a t
' S i t on t h a t s t o n e ! '
( 1 89 ) p a m a n t E k6 s 6 k6 s aw a h
un a l e - aome - from - r i ae fi e l d
' Un a l e aom e s from t h e r i a e fi e l d '
( 19 0 ) i bu mEna� j akarta
mo t h e r - t o -Jakarta
'Mo t h e r goes t o Jakarta '
( 19 1 ) a k u u ro n � uwe t m a r a n p a n i t i a ko r b a n b a n j e r
I - a o n t r i b u t e - mo n e y - to - aomm i t t e e - v i a to m - f l o o d
' I a o n t r i b u t e d some money t o t h e f l o o d r e l i ef aommi t t e e '
( 192) b a p a q g awe l a y a n a n k a n g o a k u
fa t h e r- m a k e - k i te - fo r - m e
' Fa t h e r m a k e s a k i t e f o r m e '
CHAPTER 3
THE STRUCTURE OF THE SENTENCE
3. 1 . V e� b Functio n T y p e&
I f a verb as a variab le i s s ymb o l i s e d by s u c h a l e t t e r as ' f ' , and

if a noun as a vari ab l e is symb o l i s e d b y s u c h a l e t t e r as ' x ' , 'y' ,
' z ' , and the like , a symb o l i s at ion s u c h as f ( x ) , where t he re i s one
predicate e lement and one argument , f ( x , y ) , f ( x , y , z ) , where the verb
fun c t ion i s c on s t ant and where t here are two and three argumen t s
respe c t i ve ly , may b e u s e d t o repre s e nt a Javan e s e s en t en c e where one ,
two , or t hree nouns may o c cur in re l a t i on t o the same verb .
The fun c t ion symb o l f ( x ) i s exemp l i fi e d by s u c h a s e n t e n c e as ( vide
p. 29) :
(2) k l am b i k u r E � E t 'My s h i r t i s di r t y '
W i t h re fere n c e t o an Engl i s h sentence s u c h as shown by t h e g l o s s ,
t h e s ynt a c t i c a l re lat i on s hip b e t ween t he s t a t e verb ' di rty ' and t h e
pat ient noun 'my s h i r t ' i s repre s e n t e d b y t he copula ' i s ' , a n d den o t e d
in the fun c t i on symb o l b y t h e p arenthe s e s . W i t h re ferenc e t o a Javan e s e
s e nt e n c e s u c h as ( 2 ) a n d o t hers s imilar t o i t , t h e relat ionship b e t we e n
the s t a t e verb a n d the p a t i e nt n o u n i s r e f l e c t e d mere l y b y the j ux t a
p o s i t ion o f t he verb and the noun , with the que s t i on o f a p art i cu l ar
s urface ordering b e i n g o f s e condary importan c e .
In ( 2 a ) b e l ow we have f ( x , y ) , where t he verb fun c t ion i s c o n s t an t
w i t h t w o nouns related t o t he verb inst ead o f one :
( 2a) k l amb i ku l uweh r Eg E t t i n i mb a n k l amb i mu
my s h i r t -mo r e - di r ty - t han - y o u r s h i r t
'My s h i r t i s dirt i e r t ha n y o u r s '
We s h a l l c a l l f ( x ) such as exemp l i f i e d by ( 2 ) a one-p l a c e verb
func t i on , and f ( x , y ) s u c h as e xemp l i fi e d by ( 2 a ) , whi c h happens t o b e
derive d from two s imp l e senten c e s , a two-p l a c e verb fun c t i on .
W i t h reference t o a Javan e s e s imp l e s e n t e n c e , i . e . a s e n t e n c e
75
76
c on s i s t ing o f one verb c o n s t ruct ion and n o t result ing from a deri vat ion
of two or more s e n t en c e s , the re are four t yp e s of verb s di fferen t i at e d
o n t he b a s i s o f t h e i r valence fun c t ions : ( i ) z ero-p lace verb s ; ( i i )
o n e - p l a c e verb s ; ( i i i ) two- p l a c e verb s ; ( i v ) three-place verb s . For
c onvenien c e , no d i s c u s s i on is g i ven of four- p lace verb s , e . g . in s u c h
c a s e s as : I p c arri e s Q from R t o S ' , s i n c e t he e x t e n s ion s e ems limi t
les s , i . e . I p carrie s Q from R t o S , t hen t o T , t hen t o . . . e t c . I
3. 1 . 1 . Z e ro - P l ace Verb
A z e ro - p l a c e verb i s a verb t he valen c e o f whi c h n e c e s s it at e s a non

o c c urren c e of a noun for the reason t hat the noun i s always pre d i c t ab le
and never o c curs obl i gat orily in t he sent en c e .
I n Engl i s h , such sent e n c e s a s ' I t s n o w s ' , 'It is a o Zd ' , ' I t i s dark ' ,
s e em t o fit i n thi s c r i t erion o f z ero-p lace funct ion o f the verb , i . e .
' sn o w ' , ' ao Z d ' , and ' dark ' re spe c t i ve l y . I n t h e s e sentenc e s , 'it ' is
o n l y a gramma t i c al argument , sub s t i tut ing a l o g i c a l one t hat refers t o
' t h e s ky ' , ' the night ', or ' the weather ' , and as s u c h i t i s a l s o
norma l l y re ferred t o a s a dummy subj e c t .
I n a Javan e s e sentence the n u c l e u s o f whi c h i s a zero-place verb ,
t h e dummy argument i s not needed . Such a sentence a l s o r e fers t o a
met eo r o l o g i c a l condit ion , where the nominal e l ement , i . e . l a n e t ' t he
s ky ' , h 6w 6 ' a i r , w e a th e r ' , i s alway s known . I n t h e s e sentence s , n o
s u r f a c e o r dummy i n d i c a t o r o c curs .
In rare c i r c um s t an c e s where t he noun i s expres s e d , it i s genera l l y
c a l l e d for b y a p hon o l o g i c a l c o n s t rai�t , e . g . rhy t hm , or b y a further
s p e c i f i c a t i on indicat ing place o r t ime , s o t hat a balan c e in the rhyt hm
o f s p e e c h may b e maintained .
The fol lowing are senten c e s w i t h a zero-place verb , where a nominal
e l ement i s non- e x i s t ent :
( 19 3 ) t l E t e q ' I t dri z z Z e s '
( 19 4 ) u d a n ' I t ra i n s '
( 19 5 ) m E n d o n ' I t is a Z o u dy '
( 19 6 ) a a E m ' I t i s ao Z d '
I n approp riate phy s i c a l context s , each of the sentenc e s above i s
independe n t l y adequat e , i . e . no argument i n favour o f c a l l ing t hem
e l l i p t i c al s e n t e nc e s s eems n e c e s sary . It i s , howeve r , p o s s ib le to find
s e nt en c e s of t h i s t ype in t he n e i ghb ourhood of another s en t enc e :
( 19 7 ) memea n e p u l u n E n # t l E t eq
t h e Z aundry - ao Z Z e a t ! - i t dri z z Z e s
' Bring i n t h e Z aundry, i t h a s b e gun t o dri z z Z e '
77
( 19 8 ) udan H ayo �eyop

i t rai n s - l e t u s - fi n d s h e l te r
'It i s raining, l e t ' s fi nd a s he l te r '
( 19 9 ) � g 6w66 p a yo n H m E n aon
oarry ! - umbre l l a - i t ' s o lo u dy
' Carry an umbre l l a , i t i s c la u dy '
( 2 00 ) m l E b u6 nomah H aaEm
e n t e r ! - i n t h e hou s e - i t ' s c o l d
' Come i n t o t h e h o u s e , i t ' s oo l d '
3.1 .2. On e - P l ace V e rb
A one-place verb has a valence for a s i ngle noun . I t i s chara c t e r i s ed

by a s ingle s e l e c t i onal spe c i fi cat ion . In t h i s s e n s e , a s t a t e verb , an
act ion verb , or a pro c e s s verb i s a one-place verb .
The normal surface order o f the e lement s o f a s e n t e n c e in whi c h a
one-place verb o c curs as i t s n u c l e u s i s : N V. For empha t i c p urpo s e s ,
the order i s reversed .
The fol lowing are sent e n c e s where a one-place verb o c curs :
S t at e :
( 2 01 ) a s uku c l l eq
my dog - sm a l l
'My dog i s sma l l '
( 2 02 ) b o j o k u 1 6 r6
my w i fe - s i c k
'My wife i s s i c k '
Act ion :
( 203) bay i ne nanes
t h e b a b y - cry
' Th e baby cri e s '
( 204 ) ta�gaku mbE �6q
m y n e ig h b o u r - s oream
'My n e ig hb our s or e am s '
Pro c e s s :
( 205) l ay a � a n e mu l oq
t h e k i t e - flown up
' Th e k i te i s f l y i n g '
( 206 ) s a m i n a h s u ma p o t
Sami na h - fa i n t
' Sami n a h fa i n t e d '
3.1 .3. T wo - P l a c e V e r b
A t wo - p l a c e verb i s a verb that b y virtue o f i t s s eman t i c val ence

d i c t at e s the p r e s e n c e o f two nouns . A two-place verb i s spe c i fi e d by
at least two s e l e c t ional unit s . One o f t he s e s e l e c t i onal unit s i s
s t a t e , a c t ion , o r p ro c e s s , whi c h i s i n c omb i nat ion w i t h experient i a l ,
78
b e n e fac t j ve , o r l o cat ive , thus forming nine di fferent type s o f two-p l a c e

verb s . The combinat ion forming a two- p l a c e verb may a l s o c on s i s t o f
ac t ion and pro c e s s , o r act ion and p ro c e s s and experient i a l . A c c o rd
ingly , e leven t y p e s o f two - p l a c e verb s are known . They have b e en
ment i oned in 2 . 5 . 5 . , 2 . 5 . 6 . , 2 . 5 . 7 . , 2 . 5 . 8 . , 2 . 5 . 9 . , 2 . 5 . 1 0 . , 2 . 5 . 1 1 . ,
2 . 5 . 1 2 . , 2 . 5 . 1 3 . , 2 . 5 . 1 4 . , and 2 . 5 . 1 5 .
The surface order o f t h e e lemen t s o f a sentence in whi c h a two-place
verb fun c t i o n s as its n u c l e u s i s under certain c o n s t rain t s o f c ohe s io n
o f the s e n t e n c e e l ement s . I f the verb i s spe c i fi e d a s act ion , the agent
forms an ent i t y , and the verb with the o t her noun forms anot her ent i t y .
I f t he verb i s experien t ial , the experi e n c e r noun forms an ent i t y , and
t he verb with the other noun forms anothe r . I f the verb i s l o cat ive ,
t he l o c at i ve noun and t he verb form an ent i t y , whi l e the other noun
forms anot her . I f the verb i s bene fact ive , the bene fi c i ary noun forms
an ent i t y , and t he verb w i t h other noun forms another . The se c ohe s i on
c o n s t raint s have a s ign i fi cant imp l i cat i on on the c on t rast between a
norma l , i . e . non-a ffe c t ive surface order and an a ffe c t ive orde r . The
normal order is N l V N 2 . The affe c t ive order i s V N 2 N l , where a
t o p i c a l i s a t i o n o f a verb s t ru c t ure , not a noun s t ru c t ure , t ake s p l ac e .
The f o l lowing e x amp l e s i l lu s t ra t e t he contrast b etween a normal
orde r ( o dd numb ers ) and an affe c t ive order ( even numb ers ) :
A c t ion :
( 20 7 ) s am l J an n a n d o r te 1 6
Samijan -p Zan t - ca sa v a
' Samijan i s p L a n t i n g c a s a v a '
( 208) n a n d o r t e 1 6 s am i j a n
Experient i a l :
( 2 09 ) aku b6s E n masaqanmu
I - b o r e d - y o u r c o o k i ng
' I h a v e no more appe t i t e for your coo k i n '
( 21 0 ) b6 s E n m a s a q a n m u a k u
Locat ive :
( 211 ) m a n u q e m e n c 6q e � p a y 6 n
t h e b i rd- p e rc h - i n- r o o f
' The b i rd i s p e rc h i ng on t h e roof '
( 212 ) menc6q en pay6n manuqe
Bene fac t ive :
( 21 3 ) g6g6 r s ug e h k6n c6
Co g o r - ri c h - fr i e n d
' Cogor has a L o t o f fri e nds '
( 214 ) s u g e h k 6 n c6 g 6 g 6 r
79
3.1 .4. T h ree- P l ace Verb
One o f t h e three nouns n e ce s s it at e d b y a thre e -p lace verb norma l l y

fun c t ion s as a n Agent . I n the c a s e o f the ab s e n c e o f a n agent , two
o f the nouns are l o c a t i ve s , alt hough only one is retained in the surfac e
repre sentat i on .
Javan e s e t hre e - p l a c e verb s may be sub divided into five t y pe s :
b e n e fact ive , c omp lement a l , a c t i on - l o c at ive , experient ial , pro c e s s
l o c at i ve .
3.1 .4. 1 . T h e T h � e e - Plae e B e n e 6ae�i v e V e� b
The t hree-p lace bene fact ive verb s may b e subdi vided i n t o t w o type s :
dire c t t ran s fe r verb s and indire c t t ransfer verb s .
A dire c t t ran s fer verb s e l f- s u f f i c i e n t l y conve y s the meani ng o f
t h e t ran s fe r o f ob j e c t b etween t he agent noun and t h e bene f i c i ary noun ,
e . g. weneh ' g i v e ' , s u m b a n ' ao n tr i b u t e ' , d o m ' d i 8 t r i b u t e ' , u r o n ' a hi p
w a re s ' i n h e ri t ' , u l o n ' ha n d o v e r ' . The s e verb s are marke d i n the
in ' ,
surface b y the prepo s i t ion m a r a � ' to ' , whi c h precedes the b en e fi c i ary
noun .
An indi re c t t ran s fer verb i s where the act ion i s spe c i fi e d as a
reference t o a s e rvi c e , in whi c h the t ran s fer o f ob j e c t i s performed
c on s e cut ive to the s ervi c e , e . g . t u k u ' b uy ' , m a R s a q ' a o o k ' , g aw e ' m a k e ' ,
j a e t ' 8 ew ' , t a n d o r ' p l an t ' , p E s E n ' order ' . The s e verb s are marked i n
t he surface b y the prepo s i t ion : k a � g o ' fo r ' , whi c h p r e c e d e s the
b e n e f i c iary noun .
The surface order o f the c omponen t s o f a s e n t e n c e with a t hr e e - p l a c e
b e n e fact ive v e r b in whi c h t he agent i s t o p i c a l i s e d i s as f o l l ows :
agt pat ben

N v N ( m a r a 1\ / k a 1\ g o ) N
Examp l e s :
Dire c t t rans fer :
( 215) i b u � u mban g u l 6 m a r a n b u l eq
m o t h e r - ao n trib� t e - 8 ugar - t o - a u n t
'Mo t h e r a o n t ri b u t e 8 8 ugar to a u n t '
( 216) ma l i n e n u l u n i t a mpa r ma r a n c a n u q e
t h e t h i ef- hand o ve r -rop e - to - a a a omp l i a e
' Th e t h i e f handed o v e r a r o p e to h i 8 aaaomp l i a e '
Indire c t t ran s fer :
( 21 7 ) i b u n j ae t r o k k a n g o s um i
mo t h e r - 8 e w - dr e 8 8 - fo r- Sumi
'Mo t h e r i 8 making a dre 8 8 for Sumi '
( 218) b a p a q g awe a i n k l e q k a n go i b u
fa t he r - ma k e - 8 too l - for-mo t h e r
' Fa t h e r m a k e 8 a 8 to o l fo r m o t h e r '
80
When t h e pat ient noun i s t o p i c al i s e d , t h e surface order i s a s

fo l lows :
pat agt ben

N v N (maran / kango) N
In t h i s orde r , i f the agent i s the speaker or t he interlo cut o r , i t
i s p r e fi x e d t o the verb , i . e . t a q - . . . and k6q - . . . Otherw i s e , the pre
a t
fix i s d i - . . . and � i s rea l i s e d b y a noun . Indire c t t rans fer verb s
d o n o t i nvolve any s uffixat ion , whe reas direct t ransfer verbs may
invo l ve the suffixation o f . . . - a k e .
Examp l e s :
Dire c t t ran s fe r :
( 219) g u l a n e d i s um b a � a ke i b u m a r a � b u l eq
' Th e a ugar i a a o n t ri b u t e 4 to aunt by m o t h e r '
( 22 0 ) t a m p a r e d i u l o ri a ke ma l i n e ma r a � c a � u q e
' Th e rope waa handed o v e r t o t h e a a a omp l i a e b y t h e t hi e f '
I n dire c t t ran s fe r :
( 22 1 ) r o k e d i j a e t i b u k a � g o s um i
' Th e dre s a i a b e ing made for Sumi by m o t h e r '
( 22 2 ) d i n k l i qe d i gawe b a p a q kango i b u
' The a t oo l i a made for m o t h e r by fa t h e r '
When t he b e n e fi c i ary noun i s t op i c a l i s e d , the surface order i s as
f o l l ow s :
ben pat agt

N v N ( dene� / karol N
I f t he agent i s t h e speaker or t he interlo cut o r , it i s prefixed t o
t h e verb , i . e . t a q - . ' 1 ' and k o q -
. . ' y o u ' , and t h e p eripheral word
. . .
d e n e � 'by ' o r k a r o ' b y ' is alway s omi t t e d , o t heri s e , the prefix i s

d i - . The dire c t t ran s fe r verb s may invo l ve the u s e o f the suffix
. .
. . . - ( n } i , t he indire c t t rans fe r verb s invo l ve the u s e o f t he pre fix

. . . -a ke .
Examp le s :
Dire c t tran s fe r :
( 223) b u l eq d i s um b a n g u l 6 i b u
' A u n t g e t s augar from m o t he r '
( 22 4 ) c a n u q e d i u l u n i t a m p a r ma l i n e
' The a aaomp l i c e waa handed o v e r a rope by t h e t hi e f '
I n d i r e c t tran s fer :
( 22 5 ) s um i d i j ae t a ke rok i b u
' S um i w i l l g e t a dre a s made by m o t h e r '
( 22 6 ) i b u d i g a w� q a k e a i n k l e q b a p a q
'Mo t he r wi l l g e t a a to o l made b y fa t h e r '
81
3. 1 .4.2. T h e T h � e e - Plac e C o mplemental V e � b
A c omplemental verb i s a n act ion-pro c e s s v e r b t hat invo lves a c hange

of the condi t i on of the pat i ent from one s t a t e t o another ( b ut vide
Chafe 1 9 7 0b : 1 5 6 - 1 5 8 ) . The spe c i fi c a t i on o f t he change i s b rought about
b y t h e s e l e c t i onal spe c i fi ca t i on c omp lem�nt a l , whi c h n e c e s s i t a t e s the
presence o f a c omp l ement t o indi c at e t he new condi t ion t he patient is
in. The patient noun and t he c omp lement noun re fe r t o an ident i c a l
emp i r i c a l ent i t y . The o rder o f the e ffe c t o f the ac t i on , howeve r , i s
c lear : the c omp lement noun n e c e s s ar i l y re fers t o t he upshot o f t h e
act i on i n s t igat e d b y t he agent u p o n t he p a t i e n t .
The s e are e x amp l e s o f c omp l ement a l verb s : p i l e h ' choo s e . e Le c t ' .
a n k a t ' appo i n t . n o m i na t e ' . a r a n ' n a m e . a'ccu s e ' . a n g E p ' co n s i de r ' .
The s emant i c s t r u c t ure o f a comp lement al v e rb i s c harac t er i s e d b y
i t s c ohe s i on w i t h the c ompl ement noun . T h e c omp lement noun , a n d in
fact t h e c omp l ement al verb s t ru c t ure , can never b e t o p i c al i s e d .
The surface o rder o f the c omponent s o f a sentence in whi c h a t hree
place c omp lemental verb o c curs is e i ther :
agt pat c ompl
N v N N
where a t o p i c a l i sat i on o f the agent takes p lace , o r :
pat c ompl ag t
N v N N
where t he p a t i ent noun i s t o p i c al i s e d . The f i r s t surfa c e o rder i nvo l v e s
a n a ffixat i on o f the prefix ( a ) Ns- . . . , a l o n e or in c omb inat ion w i t h t he
suffix . . . - ( n ) i , the s e cond surface order invo lves the affix at ion o f
t he prefix d i - . . . and the u s e o f the p e ripheral word : d e n e � ' b y ' in
front o f t he agent noun .
The fol l owing sentenc e s i l l u s t rate t he u s e of a c omp lement a l verb
( where odd numb ers re fer to an agent t o p i c a l i s a t i on , even numbe r s t o
a p a t i ent t op i c a l i sat ion ) :
( 22 7 ) r aq y a t m i l e h paq h a r t6 p re s i ae n
p e op l e - e l e c t -Pak Bar t o -pre s i de n t
' The p e o p l e e l e c t e d P a k Barto pre s i den t '
( 22 8 ) paq h a r t 6 d i p i l e h p re s i a e n d e n e n r aq y a t
' Pak Bar t o was e l e c t e d p r e s i den t b y t h e p e o p l e '
( 229 ) pama re n t a h � a � ka t s a e b a n i b u p a t i k l a t e n
g o v e rnme n t - app o i n t - Sa e b an i - re g e n t - K l a t e n
' T h e g o v ernm e n t app o i n t e d Sa e b a n i r e g e n t o f K l a t e n '
( 2 30 ) s a e b a n i d i a� k a t b u p a t i k l a � e n d e n e � p a ma r e n t a h
'Saebani was appo i n t e d r e g e n t o f K La t e n b y t h e g o ve rnme n t '
( 231) t 6 !\ g 6 t M g 6 � a r a n i s a m i j 6 ma l i � e
n ei g hb o ur s - name-Sam i j o - t h e t h i e f
' T h e n e i g h b o u r s a c c u s e d Sam i j o o f b e i ng t h e t h i e f '
82
( 2 32 ) s a m i j 6 d i a r a n i ma l i n e d e n e n t 6 n g 6 t 6 n g 6
' Samijo wa s a a a u s e d of b e ing t h e t h i e f by t h e n e i g h b o u r s '
(233) paq l u rah n a n g E p aku s a d u l o r
v i Z Z a g e mayor- a o n s i de r - I- s i b Z i ng
' Th e v i Z Z a g e mayo r p Z e d g e s bro t he r h o o d w i t h m e '
(234) aku d i an g E p sadu l o r denen paq l u rah
' I a m a o n s i d e r e d a bro t h e r by t h e v i Z Z a g e mayor '
The fol lowing c on s truct ions , in which t he c omp lement noun i s
t o p i c al i s e d , are not a c c ep t ab l e :
(235) * s a d u l o r d i a� g E p aku dene� paq l u rah
(236) *p res i a�n d i p i l eh paqha rt6 denen r a q y a t
( 237) * b u p a t i d i a n k a t s a e b a n i d e n e n p a ma r e n t a h
( 238) * ma l i n e d i a r a n i s a m i j o d e n e n t 6 n g"6 t 6 n g 6
3.1 .4.3. T h e Th4 e e Plaee A e�io n - L o ea�i v e Ve4b

-
An ac t ion- l o c at i ve verb , as shown in 2 . 5 . 1 1 . , imp l i e s an a c t ion of

movement or dire c t i on whi c h involves the change o f l o cat i on o f t h e
agent . A change o f l o ca t i on l o g i c a l l y involves o r i g i n a n d goal . In
surface repre sentat ion , howeve r , one o f t he l o c at ive nouns required b y
t h e s emant i c s t ru c t ure o f the verb i s not real i s e d , a n d only t h e one
whi ch is r e l e vant t o the part i cular context is use d . I n s ome cas e s ,
when the most relevant focus i s o n t h e act ion i t se l f , even b o t h t he
origin and the goal are not r e f l e c t e d in the surface repre s e n t a t i on .
The s e are examp l e s of t hre e-place act i on-lo cat ive verb s : l u n 6 ' go ' ,
a l e h 'move ' , u n s i ' f Z e e fo r safe ty ' , l e m b a r ' j ump ( o n h e i g h t s ) ' , b u ll a l
' de p ar t ' , e n g 6 q ' tu rn ' .
The l o c at ive noun , origin or goal , can never be t o p i c al i s e d . The
verb s t ru c ture , howeve r , may be t o p i c a l i s e d in a f fe c t ive u s e s , w i t h
the origin l o cat ive and the g o a l l o c a t i v e forming a c ohe s i on w i t h i t
( vide p . 7 8 ) .
The fo l lowing are the surface orders o f t h e c omp o n e n t s o f a s e n t e n c e
( where l o r re fers t o origin , log re fers t o goal ) :
agt lor log

N V (N) (N)
lor log agt

V (N) (N) N
The fol l owing s e n t e n c e s i l lu s t rate the use o f a thre e -p l a c e a c t i on

l o c at i ve verb , in which the origin l o c at i ve noun i s not refl e c t e d in
t he s urface repre sentat ion :
( 2 39 ) r a n t i l a g i l u n 6 m E t't a � p a s a r
Ran t i - i n t h e pro a e S 8 o f- g o - to -mark e t
' Ran t i i s now away i n t h e marke t '
83
( 240) becaqe wes �a l eh mE�a� eyupan

t h e p e dicab- a � re a dy - mo v e - t o - shade
' T h e p e dicab h a s a � r e ady moved t o t h e s hade '
( 241) boj one R u R s i m E � a � des6
his wife - f� e e for s afe ty - to - v i H a g e
' H i s wife f� e e s for s a fe ty t o t h e country '
( 242 ) b aj i �e m l emba r m E � a � wuwu � a n
t h e s q u i rre � - j um p - t o - ridge o f roof
' T h e s q u i rre � h a s j ump e d t o t h e r i dg e of t h e r o o f '
( 24 3 ) kapa l e bu�a l mE�an c i r Eb6n
t h e c h i p - de p a r t - to - Ci r e b o n
' The s h ip depa r t s for C i r e b o n '
( 24 4 ) g r o b a k e me � g 6 q m E � a n p E k a r a � a n
t h e oxca r t - turn - t o - y ard
' The oxcart has t u rn e d t o the y ard '
3.1 .4.4. T h e T h � e e - Pla c e E x p e��ent�al V e� b
A three-place experient i a l verb require s two experiencer noun s . One

of t h e s e a l s o fun ct i o n s as t he inst i gator of t he act ion t hat has an
experience as it s c on s equenc e . The other experiencer noun fun c t i o n s a s
a part i c ipant o f the experienc e . A t h i rd noun require d b y the verb
refers t o an obj e c t , ab s trac t or concre t e , t o whi c h the experience i s
relat e d .
The se are examp l e s of t hree- p l a c e experient ial verb s : w u l a n ' teach ' .
t a k 6 n ' a s k ' . t u d o h ' s how ' . t E p o n ' a cquai n t ' .
The normal s ur fac e order o f the e l emen t s o f a s e n t e n c e w i t h a three
p lace experient ial verb is as fo llows :
expl pat exp2

N v N N
where e x p l refers t o t h e agent , and exp2 r e fers t o t h e part i c ip ant ,
whi c h i s introdu c e d b y t he peripheral word : ma r a � ' t o ' .
The fol lowing s e n t e nc e s i l l u s t rate the o c curren c e o f a t hree- p l a c e
experient ial ve rb :
( 24 5 ) s a rd i mu l a n p E ncaq ma ran anaqku
Sardi - te a c h - s e �fdefe n s e - to-my c h i � d
'Sardi t e a c h e s m y c h i � d t h e a r t o f s e � fdefe n s e '
( 24 6 ) bapaq t a k6n j E n E �mu m a r a n a k u
fa t h e r - a s k - y o u r nam e - to - I
' Fa t h e r a s k s m e y o ur n am e '
( 24 7 ) i b u n u d o h a ke g a m b a r k u m a r a � k a n c a n e
mo t h er - s how-my p i c t u re - t o - h e r fri en d
'Mo th e r s ho w s my p i c ture to h e r fri end '
( 24 8 ) i r a n E p o � a k e a a i n e ma r a n a k u
Ira - acqua i n t - h e r y o un g e r s i b � i ng - to - I
' Ira in trodu c e d h e r y o u n g e r b ro t h e r to m e '
84
A t o p i c a l i sa t i on o f the p art i c ipant i s a l s o normal . In this case

t he verb invo lves t h e affi xat i on o f t h e pre fix d i - . . . a n d t he p e ripheral
word d e n e � i s norma l l y used b e fore the agent noun . The surface order
is as f o l l ows :
exp2 pat expl

N v N dene� N
The fo l lowing senten c e s i l lu s t ra t e the t o p i c a l i s a t i on o f the

p art i c ip ant :
( 24 9 ) a n a q ku d i wu l a� p E n c a q d e n e � s a rd i
' My c h i l d i 8 taug h t t h e art of s e l fdefe n s e by Sardi '
( 2 50 ) a k u d i t a k6 n i j E n E � m u d e n e � b a p a q
, I was a s k e d y o u r name b y fa t h e r '·
( 251) k an cane i b u d i t u d u h i g a mb a r k u d e n e � i b u
' My m o t h e r ' s fri e n d i s s hown my p i a ture by mo t he r '
( 252) a ku d i t E po � a k e a a i ne d e n e n i r a
' I am i n trodu c e d to h e r y o u n g e r b r o t h e r by Ira '
3.1 .4.5. T h e T h � e e - Plaee P�o e e4 4 - L o eat� v e V e� b
A t hree-place p ro c e s s- l o cative verb i s s imilar t o a three-place

ac t ion- l o c at i ve verb in t hat two l o c a t i ve nouns , one re ferring to t h e
origin a n d ano t her t o goal , a r e requi red b y the s eman t i c s t ru c t ure o f
the verb .
The s e are e xamp l e s o f Javan e s e t hree-p l a c e proc e s s - l o c at ive verb s :
1 6 r 6 t ' s l i de ' , k e n t e r ' w a 8 h e d away ' , u l o q 'fly ' , u � g a h ' promo t e ' .
A s i n t he a c t i o n - l o cative verb , one or even the two l o c a t i ve nouns
may be redundant in the surface repre s entat ion . The surface orders o f
t he s ent en c e c omponent s are a l s o s imilar t o t h o s e whe re an act ion
l o c a t ive verb o c curs ( vide P . 8 2 ) , i . e . :
pat lor log

N V (N) (N)
lor log pat

V (N) (N) N
The · s e c ond surface order i s u s e d for affe ct ive purpo s e s .

The fo l l owing examp l e s i l l u s t rate the o c curren c e o f a t hree-p l a c e
p r o c e s s - lo c at i ve verb :
( 25 3 ) g E n aene m l 6r6t mE�a� ta l an
t h e t i l e - s l i de - to - gu t t e r
' The t i l e s l i d e s down t o t h e g u t t e r '
( 25 4 ) g u b u k e k e n t e r m E � a n r6w6
t h e h u t - w a s h e d away - to - 8wamp
' The hut wa s w a s h e d away to the swamp '
85
( 255) l ay a � a n e m u l oq m E � a H l a� e t
t h e k i t e - fl y - to - sky
' Th e kite i s f Z y i ng t o t h e sky '
( 256 ) g6g 6 r m u n g a h m E � a n kE l a s t E l u
Gogor-promo t e d- to - a Z a s s - t h r e e
' Go g o r i s p romo t e d t o t h e t h i rd grade '
3.2. S I M P L E S EN T E N C E
A s imp le s e n t e n c e i s a c on s t ru c t ion w i t h a s ingle verb . In this

s e n se what w e have ment ioned a s z e ro - p l a c e verb c o n s t ru c t ions ( 3 . 1 . 1 . )
are s imp l e s e n t e nc e s , alt hough , in t e rms o f t rans format ional genera t i ve
grammar t h e y wou l d b e c on s i de re d as non-kerne l s e n t en c e s , s in c e they
fai l the c r i t e rion o f comp l e t en e s s ( Cook 1 9 6 9 : 4 2 ) . A s imp le sentence
i s also de fin e d as an af firmat ive s t a t ement , i . e . i t i s not a c ommand ,
a que s t i on , nor a negative s t atement . A s imp le s e n t e n c e i s c hara c t e r i s e d
b y an a c t ive i n f l e c t ional sp e c i fi c ation o f the verb , i f t h e verb i s
sub j e c t t o s u c h a s p e c i fi cat ion . A s imp le s e n t e n c e i s n o t derived from
more t han one verb c o n s t ru c t ion . A p e ripheral word i s never c a l l e d for
o b l i gatorily in a s imp l e s e n t en c e .
Non- s imp l e senten c e s may b e sub-divided int o t hree t y p e s :
(1) mod i fi e d s imp le senten c e s ,
(2) compound s e n t en c e s ,
(3) c omp l e x sentence s .
3.3. M OV I F I EV S I M P L E S EN T E N C E
A mo d i f i e d s imple s e n t e n c e i s d e r i v e d from a s imp l e s e n t e n c e b y

means o f an opt i onal pro ce s s , in whi c h n o add i t i onal verb c on st ru c t i on
i s invo l ve d . Thi s p ro c e s s has t o do with a fur t her spe c i fi cat ion o f
t he verb o r t he noun , whi c h may c a l l for t h e u s e o f a p eripheral word .
A s h i ft o f the focus on certain e l ement s for affe c t ive purp o s e s i s
a l s o respon s i b l e for a mod i f i c a t i on o f a s imp l e s e n t en c e .
S ome modi f i c at ions t hat may be app l i e d t o the verb o f a s imp l e
s e n t e n c e are negat ion , frequen c y , s t age , a l l o f whi c h have b een
ment ioned in 2 . 7 . 4 . 1 . ( vide p . 7 2 ) , t ime , ques t i on , c ommand , and
potentialit y . A mod i fi c a t ion o f a s imp le sentence invo lving a further
spe c i f i c a t i on o f a noun may b e in t e rms o f its negat ion ( vide 2 . 7 . 4 . 2 . )
or i t s c on j un c t ion w i t h anot h e r noun . No di s cu s s io n o f t h e negat ion
of a verb or a noun w i l l b e repeat e d here . The s e spe c i fi ca t i on s , whi l e
t yp i c a l , are b y n o me an s exhau s t i ve .
86
3. 3. 1 . F r e q u e n cy
A mo d i f i c a t i on o f a s imp le sentence in t e rms o f t he frequency

re fe rred to b y t he s eman t i c s t ru c ture of t he verb i s of two t y pe s . One
i s where t here i s a relevant re lat i on b e tween the frequen c y sp e c i fi ca
t ion and i t s a c t u � l c ountab i l it y , and t he other is in whi c h such a
relat ion i s irre levan t . For examp le , the p e ripheral word : maneh
' ag a i n ' may i n i t s e l f b y c o n s i dered a s revealing a c ountab le frequenc y ,
s i n c e it refers to ' one ' e x t ra frequenc y . On t he other han d , s u c h
pe ripheral w o r d s a s : k E r E p ' fr e q u e n t ' , a r a � ' s e Ldom ' , s6q ' o c c a s i o na L L y '
l a c k any relevan c e t o c ountab i l it y .
A p r o du c t ive frequen c y sp e c i fi e r t hat i s re levant t o c ountab i l it y
i s repre s en t e d b y t h e p eriphera l word : -kapen � p e n ' t ime ' , wh i c h
a lway s p r e c e d e s a nume ral s u c h as : s l j l ' on e ' , l o re ' tw o ' , t E l u
' t h r e e ' , p a p a t ' fo u r ' , l i m6 ' fi v B ' , E n E m ' s ix ' , p i t u ' s e v e n ' , w6 l u
' e i g h t ' , s 6 n 6 ' n i n e ' , s E p u l o h ' t en ' , s E w E l a s ' e L e v e n ' , r o l a s ' tw e L ve ' ,
r 6 n p u l o h ' tw e n t y ' , s E l i ko r ' tw e n t y - o n e ' , r o l i k u r ' tw e n t y - two ' , s E l awe
' tw e n t y - fi v e ' , s e k E t ' fifty ' , s E w i d a q ' s ixty ' , s a t e s ' o n e h u n dre d ' ,
and s o fort h . There are only two ordinal numeral s i n Javan e s e :
sEp l san � p i s a n ' fi rs t ' and p i n d o ' tw i c e ' . W i t h t h e s e ordinal numeral s ,
t h e spe c i fi e r k a p e n � p e n ' time ' i s opt i onal .
In the surface representat ion , the frequency s p e c i fiers t hat are
re l evant to c ountab i li t y fo l l ow the verb , and t ho s e t hat are not r e l e
vant t o countab i l i t y pre cede the verb . T h e f o l l owing s e n t en c e s
i l lu s t rate t he fre quency s p e c i f i cat ion o f a verb :
( 257 ) a k u m a n a n ( p e n ) p i n do
I - ea t - { ti me } - tw i c e -
, I e a t twice '
( 258) d eweqe 1 6 r6 p e n t E l u 6n6 en p a r a n
h e - s i c k - t ime - thre e - b e - i n - s trange L a n d
' H e was s i c k t h re e t i m e s w h e n he wa s away '
( 259) l a y a n a n e t u m a n s a n ma n e h
t h e k i t e - ca u g h t on - a g a i n
' The k i t e was caught on ( i n t h e tre e ) a g a i n '
( 26 0 ) aku kE r E p man an
I - o ft e n - e a t
,I often e a t '
( 26 1 ) d ew e q e a r a n 1 6 r6
h e - s e L dom- s i c k
' H e i s s e L dom s i ck '
( 262 ) l aya�ane tansah tuma�sa�
t h e k i t e - a Lway s - ca u g h t o n
' The k i t e was a Lway s caug h t o n i n t h e t r e e '
87
3.3.2. Stage
A modi fied s imple sentence result ing from the s p e c i f i c a t i on o f t h e

verb in t e rms o f i t s s t age i s charact eri s e d by the p r e s e n c e o f s u c h
p eripheral words as : i s e h ' s t i H ' , l a g i ' i n t h e proc e s s o f ' , d u r o n
' n o t y e t ', u w e s w e s ' a Z ready ' , a r E p ' w i Z Z ' , m E n t a s ' r i g h t aft e r ' ,
t E r o s ' con t i n u o u s Zy ' , s i d 6 ' e v e n t ua Z Zy ' . The s e words spe c i fy s t at e
verb s as w e l l a s non- s t a t e verb s .
I n the surface repre s ent a t i on , t he s p e c i f ie r : t E r o s ' c o n t in u o u s Zy '
norma l l y follows a s t a t e verb , but it may prec ede or fol low a non- s t a t e
verb . Other s t age s p e c i fi e rs always p r e c ede the verb t h e y s p e c i fy .
The fol lowing are examp l e s o f modi fi e d s imp le senten c e s where a stage
s p e c i fi e r o c c urs :
( 263 ) g 6 g 6 r i s e h ma R a n
Gogor- s t i Z Z - e a t
' GogOI' s t i Z Z e a t s '
( 2 64 ) g e m b 6 11 1 a g i n E s u
Gemb o n g - i n t h e pro c e s s of-angry
' Gembong is angry now '
( 26 5 ) s um i d u ron ados
Sum i - n o t y e t - t a k e a b a t h
' Sumi h a s n o t t a k e n a b a t h y e t '
( 266) l eo w e s man a n
L e o - a Z r e a dy - e a t
' L e o h a s a Z ready e a t e n '
( 26 7 ) asuku a r E p l 6 r6
my do g - w i Z Z - s i ck
'My dog w i Z Z b e s i ck '
( 26 8 ) t u t i m E n t a s l u ll 6
Tu t i - r ig h t aft e r - g o
' Tu t i h a s j u s t c o m e from trave Z Z i n g '
( 26 9 ) m i n a h s i d 6 d a d i ma n t e n
Mina h - e v en tua Z Zy - b e come - b r i de
'Mi n a h fina Z Z y g e t s marri e d '
( 270 ) s a r d i t e r o s � a m b o t g aw e
Sardi - co n t i n uo u s Z y -work
' Sardi c o n t i nu ou s Zy w o r k s '
( 271) s a r d i l 6 r6 t E ros
Sardi - s i c k - co n t i n u o u s Z y
' Sardi i s con t i n u ou s Zy s i ck '
The peripheral word t E ro s ' co n t in u o u s Z y ' i s i dent i c a l in form w i t h
the p eripheral t emp oral word t E r o s ' then ' . Thi s may b e shown in t h e
f o l l owing c ompound sentence :
( 272) j am p i t u a k u t a n i # t E ros a k u a d o s
hour - s e v e n - I-wake up - t he n - I - t a k e a b a t h
' I wo ke u p a t s e v e n , then took a bath '
88
3. 3. 3. T i me
The mean i n g o f a verb , whet her it is s t at e or non- s t at e , may be made

s p e c i fi c by a t ime re feren c e , whi c h is r e f l e c t e d in t he surface by a
p eripheral word or a c o n s t ru c t i on of words t hat fun c t ion as a p eripheral
word .
The t ime re feren c e norma l l y p r e c e d e s a sentence or i t s verb , a l t hough
for emp hat i c o r affec t i ve purp o s e s i t may fo l low a sentence of i t s verb .
I t never o c curs b etween l o c a t i ve nouns or b e tweeen a l o c a t i ve verb and
a l o c at i ve noun .
The s e are examp l e s o f words t hat refer t o t ime re feren c e s : wl�1
' y e s t erday ' . s e s o q ' tomorrow ' . m a u ' ju s t now ' . m E n ko ' b efore l o n g ' .
t a o n i k I ' t h i s y e a r ' . m a u b E n i ' la s t n i g·h t ' . m E n ko s o r e ' th i s e v e n i n g ' .
The f o l l owing are mo d i fied s imp l e s en t e n c e s c harac t e r i s e d b y t ime
reference s :
( 27 3 ) a k u w i n i 1 6 r6
I- y e s t erday - s i a k
' I w a s s i a k y e s t e rday '
( 27 4 ) s e s o q s u m i � a m b o t g a we
tomorrow- Sum i -work
' Tomorrow Sumi w o r k s '
( 27 5 ) b6 i s a i k i I Emu
b o y - no w - fa t
, B o y i s fa t now '
( 276 ) a ' w' q e m a u n a � e s
h e - j u s t n o w - ary
' H e a r i e d j u s t now '
( 27 7 ) m E n ko s a rd i b u a a l m E � a n s Ema ran
b e fore l o n g -Sardi -depar t - t o - Semarang
' To day Sardi w i l l go t o Semarang '
( 278) i b u t aon i k i m u l a n a l j ab a r
m o t h e r- y e a r - t hi s - t ea a h - a l g e b ra
' T h i s y e a r mo t h e r t e a a h e s a lgebra '
( 2 79 ) mau bEn i aku t u r u
j u s t n o w - n i g h t - I- s l e ep
'I s lept last night '
( 280 ) b a p a q m E � k o s o r e g aw e l a y a n a n
fa t h e r- b e fo r e l o n g - e v en i ng - ma k e - k i t e
' Fa t he r i s g o i n g t o m a k e a k i t e t h i s e v en i ng '
3.3.4. Question
A que s t i on asks for some in format ion . In the surface repre sentat ion ,
a que s t ion i s refle c t e d by such words a s : 6 p 6 ' w h a t ' . s 6 p 6 'who ' ,
p i y e ' how ' . E n d i 'where ' .
W i t h or wit hout the pre sence o f a que s t i on wore , a que s t ion may a l s o
89
b e indicated b y a r i s ing int onat ion . When a q u e s t i o n i s focused on a

noun , it i s r e f l e c t e d b y t he pronoun s 6 p 6 'who ' for a noun s pe c i fi e d as
+Human , or t he pronoun 6 p 6 'wha t ' for a noun spe c i fi e d a s -Human , or
t he pronoun E n d i ' w he r e ' for a noun s p e c i fi e d as l o c at ive .
A que s t i on may a l s o be f o c u s e d on a verb . A que st ion t hat i s f o c u s ed
on a verb may b e general , i . e . it s e e ks for t he answer ' Ye s ' or ' No ' ,
or s e l e c t i onally orient e d , i . e . t he quest ion has t o do w i t h a part i c ular
sp e c i fi c at ion of t h e verb . A general que s t ion may be r e f l e c t e d b y the
marker , i . e . p eripheral word : 6p6 ' ? ' , whi c h is ident i c a l i n surface
form wi t h t he pronoun 6p6 ' w h a t ' , or the marker : o ra 'or n o t ? ' , whi c h
i s ident i c al in surfac e form w i t h t he peripheral word o r a 'not ' .
The marker 6 p 6 ' ? ' i s u s ed when new in forma t i on i s s o ught for . The
marker o r a 'or no t ? ' is u s e d when a confirmat i o n , ne gat ive or p o s i t ive ,
i s s ought for .
A s e l e c t i onally oriented que s t i on i s re fle c t e d by the word p i y e ' ho w ' ,
i f t he verb providing t he informat ion i s spe c i fi ed a s s t a t e o r p ro c e s s .
I f t he verb i s s p e c i fied as act ion , the quest ion word i s a c on s t ru c t i on
of 6 p 6 , whi c h may b e rendered as ' do w ha t ? '
The y e s - no quest ion invo lves what we may c a l l addit ive modi fi c at i on ,
whi le other que s t i on s involve what we may cal l s ub s t i t ut ive modi fi cat i on .
That i s , to s e e k for an answer ' Ye s ' or ' Now ' , it i s ne c e s sary t o intro
duce t he word 6p6 or o r a into a s imp l e s e n t e nc e , whereas in any other
t yp e o f que s t ion it i s n e c e s sary t o int roduc e a que s t i on word a s we l l
a s d e l e t e a word t hat t h e quest ion word rep l a c e s i n the que s t i on .
Figure 7 shows a d iagram t hat summari s e s the t yp e s o f que s t ions and
t he que s t ion words i nvo l ve d :
F I G U T< E 7
general/yes-no
{ new in format ion : 6 p 6 '? '
con firmat ion : o r a ' o r no t ? '
verb
s e l e c t i on a l ly { s t at e/pro c e s s : p i y e ' how '
j
oriented act ion : 6 p 6 ' do w ha t ? '
Que st i on
+ human : s6p6
noun -human : 6 p 6 'what '
locat ive : End i ' w h ere '
90
3.3.4.1 . Y �� - N o Qu�� z i o n
The word o r a ' o r no t ? ' alway s o c curs at t he end o f a s e n t en c e , whi c h

ends in a r i s ing intonat i on . The word 6 p 6 ' ? ' may oc c ur a t t h e begin
ning o f a s e n t e nc e , or b e tween a t o p i c a l i s e d noun and a verb , or, in a
que s t ion t hat e xpre s s e s a s t rong c ur i o s i t y or incre du l it y , fol lowing a
s e n t e n c e whi c h ends in a ris ing intonat ion and a s l ight p aus e , and the
word 6 p6 i t s e l f i s pronoun c e d with a r i s ing int onat ion . The two r i s i ng
intona t i on s are markers t o avoid an amb i gu i t y with another que s t ion o f
a d i fferent meaning t hat e nd s in a fal l ing int onat ion . The contrast
may b e s hown in the fol lowing e xamp l e s ( where # = fal l ing int onat i on ,
/ = r i s ing int onat ion ) :
( 281 ) kowe 1 6 r 6 6 p 6 #
y o u - s i c k -w h a t ( ki n d )
' Wh a t are y o u s uffe r i n g from ? '
( 282 ) kowe 1 6 r 6 / 6 p6 /
you-sick- ?
' A r e y o u r ea Z Z y s i c k ? '
The fo l lowing are e xamp l e s o f ye s -no que s t ion s , where it ems numbered
wit h a refer t o s t at ement c ount erpart s , whi c h are not n e c e s sarily
re s p on s e s t o the que s t i on s :
( 283) 6 p 6 kowe m a n a n
?-you-eat
, A re y o u e a t i ng ? '
( 284 ) kowe 6 p 6 1 6 r6
you- ? -sick
' A r e y o u s i ck ? '
( 285) kowe � E r t i o r a
y o u - u n de r s tand- o r n o t ?
' Do y o u unde r s tand o r no t ? '
( 28 6 ) s a rd i kE s E l o r a
Sardi - t i r e d - o r n o t
' I s Sardi t i r e d o r n o t ? '
( 283a) aku manan
I- e a t
' I a m e a t ing '
( 284 a ) a k u 1 6 r6
I- s i c k
,I am sick '
( 2 85a ) aku n E r t l
I-unders ta nd
' I unde r s tand '
( 2 86a ) s a rd i k E s E l
Sardi - t i r e d
, Sardi i s t i r e d '
91
A c omb inat ion o f 6 p 6 ' ? ' and i y 6 ' y e s ' forms a que s t ion , whi c h mean s
' Is i t true ? ' :
( 28 7 ) 6 p 6 i y 6 'Is i t true ? '
In t h i s que s t ion , the word 6 p 6 fun c t ions as a s ub s t i t u t e for a noun
or a fu l l - fledged s e n t e nc e , whi l e the word i y 6 ' y e s ' fun c t i ons as a
sub s t i t ut e for such a c on f i rmat i ve s t a t e verb as b E n E r ' true, corre c t ' ,
� 6 t 6 ' fa c t ua L ' , t E n a n ' r e a L ' . Thi s may b e shown a s fo l lows :
pat
N V
state
D
N 'V Sentence
I
bEn E r
, true '
The r e s p o n s e t o t h i s t y p e o f quest ion i s norma l l y repre s e n t e d b y t he

c on firmat ive word , or i t s denial : o r a 'no ' . Thus the f o l lowing sen
t en c e i s not a c c e p t ab l e , since t he noun i s ret ained in the surfac e :
( 288) * c r i t a n e i y6
t h e s to ry - y e s
3. 3.4.2. Que4 t�o n w�th p i y e
The word p i y e 'V p r i y e ' how ' asks for s ome informat ion ab out t he
s t a t e or the c hange o f the s t a t e o f a pat i ent noun .
In the surface repre s en t a t i on , the word p i y e may p r e c e de or f o l l ow
a pat i ent noun .
The f o l l owing are examp l e s of que s t ions w i t h p i y e ' how ' , where
i t ems numb ered with a refe r to s t atement c ount e rpart s , whi c h are not
n e c e s s ar i l y re spon s e s t o the que s t i o n s :
( 289 ) p i ye E� d6ke
how - t h e egg
'How is t h e e gg ? '
( 290 ) sop i re p i ye
t h e dri v e r - how
' Wh a t happ e n s to t h e dri v e r ? '
( 29 1 ) p i ye r u pa n e
how- t h e appe aran c e
' Wh a t do e s h e L o o k L i ke ? '
( 29 2 ) p i y e k E l uwa r g a m u
h o w - y o u r fami L y
' How i s y o u r fami L y ? '
( 2 89a ) E n�6ke kumamba �
t h e egg - f L o a t
' T h e egg f L o a t s '
92
( 290a ) sop i re ma t i
t h e dri ve r - de a d
' Th e dri v e r i s dead '
( 2 9 la ) rupane bagos
t h e app earan a e - handsome
, He is handsome '
( 2 9 2 a ) k u l 6w a r g a k u s l a m E t
my fam i ly - s a fe
'My fam i ly i s we l l '
3.3.4.3. A czio � Que� zio �
The Javan e s e word 6 p 6 'what ' may probab ly appropriat e l y b e c a l l e d a

' pro- ve rb ' in the s ame way t hat a noun sub s t i t u t e i s c a l l e d a p ronoun ,
s i n c e i n a quest ion about the a c t ion s p e c i fi c a t i o n of a verb , t he word
a c t u a l l y fun c t i on s a s a verb . As a verb s ub st i t ut e , the word 6 p 6 ' do
w h a t ? ' i s subj e c t t o t he a ffixat i o n o f t he prefix ( a ) Ns- . . . , d l - . . . ,
t a q - . . . � d a q - . . . , k6q - . . . , with or wit hout t he suffix . . . - E n , . . . - 6 ,
or . . . - a ke ( vide 2 . 4 . ) .
The surface p o s i t ion o f 6 p 6 ' do w ha t ? ' i s under the c o n s t raint s
ment ioned on p . 1 7- l 8 .
The f o l l owing are examp l e s o f act ion que s t ions , where i t ems numb e r e d
w i t h a r e f e r t o s t a t ement c ounterpart s , whi c h a r e not n e c e s sari ly
answers to t he que s t i on s :
( 29 3 ) p a rd i l ag i n6p6
Pardi - i n t h e pro a e s s of-do wha t ?
' Wh a t i s Pardi do i n g ? '
( 29 4 ) kowe n 6 p 6 s a i k i
y o u -do wha t ? - n o w
' Wh a t a r e you do i n g n ow ? '
( 29 5 ) b a p a q n a p aq a ke b 6 i
fa t he r - do w ha t ? -Boy
' Wh a t do e s fa t h e r do to B oy ? '
( 296) kowe a r E p 6 p 6
y o u -wi l l - do w ha t ?
( 2 9 3a ) p a rd i l ag i t u ru
Pardi - i n t h e p ro a e s s o f- s l e e p
'Pardi i s s l e ep i ng '
( 294a) aku sa i k i l u�goh
I-now- s i t
' I am s i t t i n g now '
( 2 9 5a ) b a p a q � g u y a � b 6 1
fa t h e r - b a t h e - Boy
' Fa t h e r is b a t h i ng Boy '
( 2 9 6a ) a k u a r E p t u r u
I-wi l l - s leep
' I a m g o i ng to s l e ep '
93
A s a sub st i t u t e o f an a c t ion verb , the word 6 p 6 may a l s o b e u s e d in

non-que s t ions , where the mean ing o f the word i s ' do s o m e t hing ' .
The fo l lowing are e x amp l e s where the word 6 p 6 ' do s o m e t h i n g ' oc c urs
( where a redup l i c at i on o f the word is normal ) :
( 29 7 ) b ay E m i k i kapaq n6 kono
s p i n a c h - t h i s - do s o m e t h i n g ! - t h e re
' Do wha t e v e r y o u Z i k e w i t h t h i s s p in a c h '
( 29 8 ) s i ma n l a g i o r a n 6 p 6 n 6 p 6
Siman - i n t h e pro c e s s of-n o t - do s o m e t hing
' Siman is doing n o t h i ng '
3.3.4.4. Que4 z�o n w�zh s 6 p 6 ( Human N o u n )
The word s 6 p 6 , whi c h we may c a l l int errogat ive p e rsonal pronoun ,

may replace an agent noun , a pat i ent noun , a bene f i c i ary noun , or an
experiencer noun .
The fo l l owing are e xamp l e s whe re s 6 p 6 'who ' o c cur s :
( 299 ) s6p6 l un6 mE�an s ragen
who - g o - to -Sragen
' Who g o e s to Srage n ? '
( 30 0 ) s 6 p 6 1 6 r6
who - s i c k
' Who i s s i ck ? '
( 30 1 ) b a p a q n u k6 q a k e s E p a t u s 6 p 6
fa t h e r - b uy - s h o e -w h o
' Who do e s fa t h e r b uy s h o e s fo r ? '
( 302 ) s6p6 mu l a� s E j a r a h
who - t e a c h - h i s t o ry
' Who t e a c h e s h i s t o ry ? '
3. 3.4.5 . Que4 zio n w�zh 6 p 6 ( No n - Human N o u n )
I n some cas e s , t he u s e o f 6 p 6 ' w ha t ' i s not amb iguous , for e x amp l e s :

( 30 3 ) i b u n u k6q a ke i r a 6p6
mo t h e r - b uy - Ira - w h a t
' Wh a t did m o t h e r buy for Ira ? '
( 30 4 ) b a p a q � a n ke n 6 p6 m E � a n t o k o
fa t h e r - carry - w ha t - t o - s to r e
' Wha t d i d fa t h e r carry t o t h e s to re ? '
A s we have s e en in s e n t en c e s ( 2 8 1 ) and ( 2 8 2 ) , howeve r , t he u s e o f
6 p 6 in intonat ionle s s cont ext s may give r i s e t o s ome amb i gUit y .
3.3.4.6. Qu e4 zio n w�zh E n d i
The word E n d i ' w h e r e ' s e rve s a fun c t ion t o sub s t i t u t e for a l o c a t i ve

noun . A c c ordingly , it i s sub j e c t t o the appro riate prep o s i t ion for a
94
part i c ular s p e c i f i c at ion . That i s , i f t he l o c at ion i s s t a t i onary , t he

p re p o s i t ion i s e � ' i n, a t ' , which may be pre ceded by the euphon i c
e lement 6 n 6 , a locat ive marker t hat i s iden t i c a l in form w i t h t h e only
s t a t e - l o c at ive verb i n Javane s e , i . e . 6n6 ' b e , exi 8 t ' ( vide p . 3 5 ) , and
whi c h i s d e l e t e d if t h i s s t a t e - l o c at ive verb o c c urs , but whi c h may o r
m a y not b e pre s ent w i t h a n y other verb . Thi s prep o s i t ion i s norma l l y
b lended w i t h t he word E n d i : e � E n d i "' 6 n 6 e n E n d l '" n e n E n d l . I f t he
l o c at i ve noun refers t o origi n , the prep o s it ion i s s 6 k 6 '" s 6 ft k6 'from '
( vide 2 . 3 . 2 . 2 . ) . I f the l o c a t i ve noun r e fers t o goal , the p repo s i t ion
i s m E l'l a � 'to ' .
The f o l l owing are que s t ions with E n d l , where i t ems n umb e re d w i t h a
re fer t o s t at ement c ount erpart s , whi c h are not n e c e s s ari ly respon s e s t o

the que s t i o n s :
( 30 5 ) i ra 6n6 � E n d i
Ira - b e - w h e r e
, Whe r e i 8 Ira ? '
( 30 6 ) kayune kumamba� ne�En d i
t h e t i m b e r - fL o a t - where
' Wh e r e i 8 t h e t im b e r fLoa t i ng ? '
( 30 7 ) kowe l'I a mb o t g aw e e � E n d i
y o u -work-where
' Wh e r e do you work ? '
( 30 8 ) s u m i l u ri 6 m E l'l a � E n d i
Sum i - g o - to - w h e r e
' Wh e re did S u m i g o ? '
( 30 9 ) b a p a q t E k6 s 6 k 6 n E n d i
fa t h e r- co m e - from-where
' Wh e r e d i d fa t h e r come from ? '
( 30 5 a ) i ra 6n6 en kama r
Ira - b e - i n - room
' Ira i8 i n t h e room '
( 30 6 a ) k a y u n e k u m a m b a n n e n k a l i
t h e t im b e r - f L o a t - i n- r i v er
' Th e timber i8 f L o a t ing i n t h e r i v e r '
( 3 0 7 a ) a k u l'I a m b o t g a we n e n s awa h
I-work - in - r i c e fi e L d
'I work in t h e r i c e fi e L d '
( 30 8a ) s u m i l u n 6 m E l'l a n s E ko l a h a n
Sum i - go - to - 8 choo L
' Sumi g o e 8 to t h e 8 ch oo L '
( 30 9 a ) b a p a q t E k6 s 6 k6 p a b r e q
fa t h e r - com e - from - fa c t ory
' Fa t h e r arri v e d from t h e fac tory '
95
3.3.4.7. Que� �io n wi�h k E n 6 + 6p6

A que s t i on may a l s o s e e k for s ome in format i on ab out a c ertain reas o n .
Thi s q u e s t i o n may be fo c u s e d on the verb or the noun , or the who le
s eman t i c s t ru c t ure o f the sentenc e . In Engl i s h we may u s e t he word
'why ' for t h i s purp o s e . Javan e s e u s e s a con s t ru c t i on of the word 6 p 6
'what ' , o r j us t ' ? ' , whi c h i s preceded b y t he word k E n 6 ' co n n e c t e d to ' ,
r e s u l t ing i n a c ombinat ion : k E n 6 6p6 � k E n � � 6 p 6 ' w hy ' . This c ombina
t i on p r e c e d e s a sentenc e :
( 310 ) k E n � n 6 p 6 kowe n E s u
why - y o u- angry
' Why are you angry ? '
3.3.5. C o mm a n d
A c ommand spe c i fi e s an a c t ion verb i n a way t hat the a c t ion i s t o

b e inst igat e d b y a n agent noun t hat always refers t o t he i n t e r l o c ut or .
As in Engl i s h , the agent noun i s always opt i onal in t he s ur face repre
sentat i on of a Javan e s e c ommand .
A c ommand may b e p o s i t ive o r ne gat ive . A p o s i t i ve c ommand i s
re fle c t e d b y the affixat ion o f the suffix . . . - E n o r . . . - 6 ( vide
2.6.1.2. ). The suffix . . . - 6 may invo l ve the a f fixat ion o f the prefix
( a ) Ns . . . , t he su ffix . . . - E n does not invo l ve any p r e fi x at ion .
-
A negat i ve c ommand i s refle c t e d by t he p eripheral word 6 j 6 ' do n o t ' ,

whi c h always p r e c e d e s the verb .
The fol l owing are e xamp l e s o f senten c e s c harac t e r i s e d as negative
command :
( 31 1 ) 6 j 6 l u n g o h ke n e
do n o t - s i t - h e r e
'Do not s i t here '
( 31 2 ) 6j 6 n u l e s l ay a �
do n o t - wr i t e - Z e t te r
' D o n o t wri t e a Z e t t e r '
( 31 3 ) kowe 6 j 6 l u R 6
y o u - do n o t - g o
' Do n o t go '
In some cas e s , a command may a l s o spe c i fy a non-ac t ion verb , but
which i s p o t en t i a l ly s p e c i fiab l e as an a c t i on-experien t i a l ( vide 2 . 5 . 9 . ) .
For e xamp l e :
( 314 ) kowe 6 j 6 n E s u
y o u - do n o t - angry
'Do not b e angry '
96
3. 3.6. P o t e n t i a l i ty
A mo d i fi cat ion o f a s imp l e sentence t hat s p e c i fi e s t he verb in t erms

of i t s p o t e n t i a l i t y has to do w i t h the expan s ion of the meaning of the
verb on the basis o f s u c h notions a s p e rmi s s i on , probab i l i t y , o r
c ap ac i t y .
P e rmi s s ion i s indi c ated in the surface b y t he word o l e h ' p e rm i t t e d '
or k E n 6 ' p e rm i t te d ' . Probab i l i t y i s indicated b y the word b i s 6 'may ' .
Cap a c i t y i s i n d i c a t e d b y t he word b i s 6 ' can, ab Z e ' .
The p e ripheral word o l e h 'p e rmi t t e d ' i s iden t i c a l in s urface form
w i t h t he bene fac t i ve verb o l e h 'get ' . The p e ripheral word k E n 6 'per
m i t t e d ' i s iden t i c a l with anot h e r peripheral word t hat o c curs in c om
b inat i on with t he que st ion word 6 p 6 , i . e . k E n 6 6 p 6 ' w hy ' . The p e riph
eral word b i s 6 'may ' , which i s i dent i c a l in surface form with the
p eripheral word b i s 6 ' can, ab Z e ' , i s genera l l y in c omb i � a t i o n w i t h
ano t h e r p eripheral word , i . e . u g 6 ' a Z so ' , t o form b i s 6 u g 6 'may , p e rhap s ,
p r o b ab Z y ' , whe reby a n amb igu i t y with b i s 6 ' ca n , ab Z e ' i s avo i de d . The s e
p o t e n t i a l i t y indicators pre c e de the verb , a n d in the c a s e o f b i s 6 u g 6
' m a y , p er h ap s ' , it may a l s o p re cede a sentence .
The f o l l owing are examp l e s o f sentenc e s where the verb s are
c harac t er i s e d by a sp e c i fi c ation of p o t e n t i a l i t y :
( 31 5 ) s a r i de n o l e h m a n a n d a g e n
Saridi n - p e rm i t te d - e a t - m e a t
'Saridin m a y e a t me a t '
( 316 ) kowe k E n 6 l u � 6
y o u - pe rm i t t e d-go
' Yo u may go '
( 31 7 ) s u m i b i s 6 ug6 kod a n a n
Sum i - p e rhap s - g o t r a i n e d
' P e r h a p s Sumi i s he Z d by t h e rain '
( 31 8 ) anaqku b i s6 � l a� i
my c h i Z d- can- swim
'My c h i Z d can swim '
3.3. 7. T h e Con j u n c t i on o f N o u n s
A modi fi c a t i on o f a s imp l e sentence may invo lve an expan s ion o f a

n oun t hat o c curs in it int o a larger uni t , whi c h re s u l t s from c onj o in
ing t he noun with at least another noun . The c onj oining o f noun s t hat
is of i n t e r e s t here is one t hat is re f l e c t e d i n the surface by t he
c onj unct ive : I a n 'and ' .
Fun c t ioni ng t o conj o i n two sent e n c e s o r two words within a senten c e
( vide 2 . 7 . 2 . 2 . ) , t he word I a n ' a n d ' i s a c c ordingly t o b e i n t ro du c e d i n
a s imp l e s e n t e n c e and , as w e s ha l l see in 3 . 4 . , a l s o in a c ompound
s en t e n c e . Thi s s eems j u s t i fi ab le , s ince by introdu c ing the c onj unc t ive
97
in t he two l e v e l s we have a device for c l ar i fying s u ch amb iguous sen

tences as :
( 31 9 ) b a p a q I an i b u n u k6q a k e s E p a t u i r a
fa t h e r - a n d-mo t he r - b uy - s h o e s -Ira
' Fa t h e r and mo t h e r b uy s h o e s for Ira '
( 3 20 ) s u m i I an s a r d i n un doh k a t e s
Sum i - and-Sardi - p i c k -papaya
' Sumi and Sardi p i c k papaya s '
In e i t he r o f t h e s e s en t e n c e s two s eman t i c readings are p o s s ib l e .
One reading a s s i gn s t o the c onj oined nouns a funct ion as partners in
the inst iga t i on o f the act ion , whi l e another reading a s s i gn s t o the
conj oined nouns a funct ion as independent i n s t igat ors o f the s ame
ac t i on .
The i n t rodu c t ion o f I a n ' an d ' in a s imp le sentence as w e l l as in a
c omp ound sentence i s not wit hout pre c e dent . In Engl i s h , it i s known
t hat for explai n j ng s u c h amb iguous s e n t e n c e s a s :
i. John and Mary b ought the new b oo k b y J o hn S t e i n b e c k
ii . The man and the woman wai t e d for t he t rain
t he word ' and ' should b e introdu c e d in b ot h s imp l e x and comp lex
s e n t e nc e s ( Smith 1 9 6 9 : 7 5 - 7 9 ) .
W i t h re feren c e t o a mod i fi e d s imp l e s e n t en c e , b a p a q I a n i b u ' fa t h e r
a n d mo t h e r ' , and s u m i I an s a r d i 'Sumi a n d Sardi ' are c ompound unit s ,
e a c h o f which expanded b y the conj un c t i on o f b a p a q ' fa t h e r ' and i bu
'mother ', and s u m i ' Sumi ' and sard i 'Sardi ' re s p e c t i ve l y .
To empha s i s e the uni t y o f the compoun d , the word : k a ro ' w i t h ' may
be u s e d in p la c e o f I a n
' a n d ' , thus Nl k a ro N 2 . When the comb inat ion :
k a r o N2 i s separat e d from t he pre c e ding N l , t he c omb inat ion k a r o N l
refers t o s u c h a not ion i s ' in c ompany w i t h N 2 ' .
The f o l l owing s e n t e nc e s show t he contrast between : Nl k a r o N 2 and
N l X k a r o N 2 , where X refers to a verb or a c o n s t r u c t i o n of a verb :
( 321) b a p a q k a ro i b u n u k6q a ke s an � a l i ra
fa t h e r-wi t h -mo t h e r - b u y - s a n da l - Ira
' Fa t h e r and m o t h e r ( to g e t h e r ) b u y s s a n da l s for Irs '
( 322) bapaq n u k6q a ke s a n � a l i r a ka ro i b u
fa t h e r- b u y - s a n da l -Ira - w i t h - m o t h e r
' Fa t h e r , accomp a n i e d by mo t h er, b uy s s a n da l s for Ira '
3.4. C O M PO U N V S EN T E N C ES
The c o n s t raints on the compounding o f sent e n c e s t hat app ly t o

Javan e s e , un like the c omp ounding c haract e ri s t i c s app l i c ab l e t o nouns
( vide 3 . 3 . 7 . ) , are quite di fferent from t h o s e t hat app ly t o Engl i s h .
A comp ound sentence i s a surface repre s en t at ion o f a t l e a s t two
s imp le senten c e s , whi c h are c on j o ined t ogether under the fo l lowing
98
r e s t r i c t i on s :
i. I de n t i c a l e l emen t s are not repeat e d in t he final s urface
repre s e n t at i on .
ii . None o f t he conj oined e l ement s fun c t ions t o mo di fy or provide
any diagn o s t i c of another . In other words , no conj oined e l ement i s
subordi nat e d t o any other .
iii . The conj o ining of the s imp l e s en t e n c e s invo l v e s the u s e o f one
of t he c onj unc t i ve s , i . e . alt ernat ive ( vide 2 . 7 . 2 . 1 . ) , i n c l us i ve
( vide 2 . 7 . 2 . 2 . ) , or c on t ra st i ve ( vide 2 . 7 . 2 . 3 . ) , in whi c h a negative
spe c i fi e r , i . e . o r a 'not ' ( vi de 2 . 7 . 4 . 1 . ) or d u d u ( vide 2 . 7 . 4 . 2 . ) ,
may b e invo l ve d .
Re s t ri c t i o n s i . - i i i . are re spon s i b l e for the f o l l owing surface order
rul e s , where X and Y repre sent two di fferent verb s ; P , Q, R, S , T, Z
repre sent any re l evant nouns t hat may be required by t he s eman t i c
s t r u c t ure o f t h e verb in a sentenc e ; N l V N2 N 3 as a normal surface
order of sentence e l emen t s ( vide P . 7 8 ) is repre se n t e d b y [p X R Z ] ,
[ Q X S Z ] , [ Q Y S Z ] , [ R X R T ] , e t c . ; Con refers t o any conj unc t ive ;
a , b , and c refer t o the first sentence t o b e conj o i ne d , the s e c ond
s e n t en c e , and t he re s u l t ing c ompound s en t e n c e respe c t i ve l y ; + re fers to
t he c ompounding p r o ce s s :
Rul e # 6 8 a[P X R z ] + b [ Q X S Z] - -?
c [ P X R Z Con Q S ]
Ru l e # 6 9 a[P X R z ] + b [Q Y S z] - �
c [ p X R Z Con Q Y S ]
Ru l e # 7 0 a [ P X R z ] + b [R X R T] - -7
c [ P X R Z Con T ]
Rul e # 7 1 a[P X R Z] + b[P Y S Z] - �

c [ P X R Con Y S Z ]
Rule # 7 2 a [ P X R Z ] + b [Q X R Z ] - ---+
c [ P Con Q R Z ]
The f o l l owing senten c e s i l lu s t rate t he app l i cat ion o f the p re c e ding

rule s for c ompounding s e n t en c e s . Ru le #68 app l i e s t o s e n t en c e s ( 32 3 )
( 3 2 5 ) , t he s u c c e s s i on o f whi c h i s i n t e rms o f a , b , and c a s ind i c at e d
in t h e rul e . Rule # 6 9 app l i e s t o s e n t en c e s ( 3 2 6 ) - ( 3 2 8 ) , Rule # 7 0 t o
sen t e n c e s ( 3 2 9 ) - ( 3 31 ) , Rule # 7 1 t o sentenc e s ( 3 3 2 ) - ( 3 34 ) , a n d Rule # 7 2
t o s e n t en c e s ( 3 3 5 ) - ( 3 3 7 ) , a l l w i t h the same p rovi s o .
( 32 3 ) b a p a q n u k6 q a k e s E p a t u i r a
fa t h e r - b uy - s h o e s - Ira
' F a t h e r b uy s s h o e s for Ira '
99
( 324 ) i b u n u k6 q a ke t a s i r a
m o t he r - b u y - b a g - Ira
'Mo th e r b u y s a bag for Ira '
( 325 ) ba paq n u k6 q a ke s E p a t u i r a I an i b u t a s
fa t h e r - b u y - s h o e s - Ir a - an d-mo t h e r - b a g
' Fa t h e r b u y s s h o e s f o r I r a and m o t h e r b u y s a b a g fo r h e r '
( 326) b a p a q n u k6 q a ke s E p a t u I ra
' Fa ther b u y s s h o e s for Ira '
( 32 7 ) i b u � g a we q a k e r 6 k i r a
mo t he r -ma k e - dr e s s - Ira
' Mo th e r m a k e s a dre s s for Ira '
( 328) b a p a q n u k6q a k e s E p a t u i r a I a n i b u " g aw e q a ke r 6 k
fa t h e r - b uy - s ho e s - Ira-and-mo t h e r - �a k e - dr e s s
' Fa t h e r b u y s s h o e s for Ira and mo't h e r m a k e s a dre s s for h e r '
( 329 ) b a p a q n u k6 q a k e s E p a t u I r a
' Fa t he r b u y s s h o e s for Ira '
( 3 30 ) b a p a q n u k6 q a ke s E p a t u g 6 g 6 r
' Fa t h e r b u y s s h o e s for Gogo r '
( 331 ) b a p a q n u k6 q a ke s E p a t u i r a I a n g 6 g 6 r
' Fa t he r b u y s s h o e s fo r Ira and Gogor '
( 332) b a p a q n u k6q a ke s E p a t u i ra
' Fa t h e r b u y s s h o e s for Ira '
( 333) b a p a q n g aw e q a k e d o l a n a n i r a
fa t h e r-make - t oy - Ira
' F a t h e r m a k e s a toy for Ira '
( 334) b a p a q n u k6 q a k e s E p a t u I a n � g a w e q a k e d o l a n a n i r a
' Fa t h e r b u y s s h o e s and m a k e s a toy· for Ira '
( 335) b a p a q n u k6 q a k e s E p a t u i r a
' Fa t h e r b u y s s h o e s for Ira '
( 3 36 ) i b u n u k6 q a k e s E p a t u i ra
'Mo t he r b u y s s h o e s for Ira '
( 33 7 ) b a p a q I an i b u n u k6 q a ke s E p a t u I r a
' Fa t he r and m o t h e r buy s h o e s for Ira '
The introduc t i on o f the word : I a n ' an d ' in t he l e v e l o f s imp l e
sent e n c e s t ak e s care o f one s eman t i c reading where N l I a n N 2 in s e n t e n c e
( 3 3 7 ) i s con s i dered a s o n e u n i t ( vide 3 . 3 . 7 . ) , whi l e t he introdu c t ion
o f t he c onj un c t ive in the level of c ompound s en t en c e s i s re s p on s i b l e
for t he d i s t in c t ion o f t h e two agent s o f s u c h a p o t ent i a l l y amb iguous
sentence as ( 3 3 7 ) .
The f o l l owi ng examp l e s i l l u s t rate the use of a c on t rast ive conj un c t ive
whi c h invo lve s a negative spe c i fi e r :
( 338) i k i dudu l e l e nanen wE l ot
t h i s -no t - aa t fi s h - bu t - e e Z
' Th i s i s no t a a a t fi s h , b u t a n e e Z '
100
( 339 ) a k u o r a n E s u n a n e n ma n k E l
I-no t - an g ry - b u t-annoy e d
' I am n o t a n g r y , b u t annoy e d '
3.5. C O M P L EX S ENTEN C ES
A c omp l e x sentence i s a surface repre sentat ion of at least two

simp l e sentence s , i n whi c h a p ro c e s s o f emb e dd ing o f one s imp le s e n t e n c e
i n t o anot he r , i . e . the mat r i x s e n t en c e , i s invo l ve d . The emb e dded
sentence is sub ordina t e d to the mat r i x sentenc e , i . e . it serve s to
p rovide further s eman t i c di agno s t i c s for t he mat ri x .
I n t h e surfac e , t h e presence o f an emb edded sentence may b e i n d i c a t e d
b y a relator o r a c onj un c t i ve , whi c h always p r e c e d e s i t or i t s reduced
form , o r i t may b e repre sent e d merely b y its verb .
Javan e s e comp l e x senten c e s may be subdivided into t hree t y p e s :
( a ) t ho s e where the emb e dding pro c e s s invo l v e s a c omplement at ion t o
t h e noun o r nouns o f t h e mat rix sentenc e , ( b ) those where t h e emb e dding
pro c e s s invo lves a c omp l ementat i on t o the verb of t he mat rix sentence ,
and ( c ) t h o s e where the embe dding p ro c e s s involve s a spe c i fi c a t ion o f
t he who l e s eman t i c s t ru c t ure o f t he mat rix senten c e .
The emb e dded sentence t hat func t i on s t o c omp l emen t a verb or a noun
i s generally inc luded within the matrix s e n t en c e , in whi c h a p hy s i ca l
b oundary s u c h a s pause i s alway s opt i onal . The emb edded sentence t hat
serves to s p e c i fy or mo d i fy the who le s eman t i c s t ru c t ure o f the matrix
sentence is generally s ep arat e d from t he mat rix b y an o b l igat ory
b oundary , normally in t he form of a ri s in g intonation and a s l ight
p au s e .
3.5.1 . N o u n a n d V e r b C om p 1 e me n t a t i o n s
I f t h e mat rix sentence i s a c o n s t ru c t i on o f a verb spe c i fi e d a s non

s t a t e , only a noun comp l ement a t i on oc curs . I f the mat r i x s en t e n c e is
a c o n s t ruct ion of a state verb , a noun comp l ement a t i o n a s we l l as a
verb comp l ement a t i o n may o c cur .
3.5. 1 . 1 . Pati ent N o un C o mplementati o n
T h e s t ru c t ure o f a c omp l e x sentence i n whi c h a c omp l ementat ion o f

t he p a t i e n t noun o c c urs w i t h a non- s t a t e verb may b e indicated in t he
fo l l owing rule and exemp l i fie d by sentence ( 3 4 0 ) , whe re Sem re fers t o
t he emb edded s e n t en c e :
101
Rule # 7 3
pat agt
v -- ....;;:p. V N N
ac t ion a c t i on
proc e s s proc e s s
Sem
mEnaEm
' b ury '
uwoh
' tras h '
~
uwuhe 6n6 k Eb6n
' t h e tra s h - b e - garden '
bapaq
, fa t h e r '
( 34 0 ) b a p a q mE n � E m uwoh s e n 6n6 k E b6 n
fa t h e r - b ury - tr a s h - w hi c h - b e -garden
' F a t h e r b u r i e d the tra s h w h i c h wa s i n the garden '
S i n c e t he word 6 n 6 a l s o s erve s as a part of a comp l e x prepo s i t ion

( vide p . 3 5 , p . 7 3 ) , t he use of the relator s e � ' w h i c h ' in ( 3 4 0 ) i s
c ru c i a l . The d i fferent i s s hown i n sentence ( 3 4 1 ) :
( 341) b a p a q m E n a E m uwoh 6n6 kEb6n
fa t h e r - b u ry - tra s h - i n - garden
'Father buried t h e t ra s h i n t h e garden '
Here the word en whi c h norma l ly oc c ur s after t he word 6 n 6
o
' in , at ',
i s not re f l e c t e d in t he surfac e .
3.5. 1 .2. Ag en� N o u n C o mplem e n�a�� o n
The s t ru c t ure o f a c omp l e x sentence i n whi c h a c omp l emen t a t i on o f

t h e agent noun o c curs may b e indicated in t h e fo l lowip-g rule and
e x emp l i fied by sentence ( 3 4 2 ) , where the re lator is opt i onal :
Rule # 7 4
I I
I
pat agt
v -- ->:<> V N N
act ion act ion
Sem
g awe
'make '
l aya�an
' kite '
bocah
' ki d '
�
bocah i ku l u ngoh
kid- t ha t - s i t
' Th a t k i d i s s i t ti n g '
( 342 ) b o c a h ( s e � ) l u � g o h i k u g a we l a y a n a n
k i d- { w ho } - s i t - t h a t -ma k e - k i t e
' T h e k i d who i s s i t t ing t h e r e i s m a k ing a k i t e '
102
S i n c e an act ion-pro c e s s verb may have two o r more val e n c e s and t hus
require t wo or more nouns ( vide p . 7 5 ) , a c omp l e x sentence may invo lve
two or more embedded sentence s , whi c h s erve t o c omp l ement t he noun s t hat
o c c ur i n i t . The stru c t ure of a comp le x sentence in which a comp lemen
t a t i on to the agent noun and a c omp l emen t at ion to the patient noun o c c ur
may b e i n d i c a t e d in t he fol lowing rule and exemp l i fied b y s e n t e n c e
( 3 4 3) :
Rule # 7 5
I
V - �> V
I p h
N
I
ah
N
ac t ion a c t ion
Sem
mE toq anaq
6anaqe 6n6 56 1 6 w6� w6n i k u 1 ungoh
'mee t ' ' chi Z d ' h i s - c h i Z d - b e - Sa Za 'man ' man- t ha t - s i t
'His c h i Z d is in ' Th a t man i s
Sa Z a ' s i t t ing '
( 34 3 ) w6� s e n l u �goh i k u mE toq a n a q e se� 6n6 56 1 6

m a n - w h o - s i t - t h a t - m e e t - h i s c h i Zd-who - b e - S a Z a
' Th e m a n w h o i s s i t t ing t h e re i s m e e t i n g h i s c h i Z d w h o i s in Sa Z a '
3.5.1 .3. Pati e nt N o u n C o mp l e m e ntati o n with a P4o e e4 4 V e4 b
T h e s t ru c ture o f a c omp l e x s e n t e n c e in whi c h a c omp lement a t i o n o f

the pat i e n t noun oc curs w i t h a pro c e s s verb may b e indicated i n the
fo l l owing rule and exemp l i fied b y sentence ( 3 4 4 ) :
Rule # 7 6
I
I
j
pat
V - --;.> V N
proc e s s pro c e s s
kumamban
' f Z oa t '
kayu
' t im b e r '
A
ka y u n e a m b r o q
t h e t i m b e r - fa Z Z down
' Th e timber fe Z Z down '
103
( 34 4 ) k a y u n e s e n amb roq kumam b a n

t h e t imb e r - w h i a h - fa Z Z dow n - f Z o a t
' T h e t i mb e r w h i a h fe Z Z down i 8 f Z o a t i ng '
3.5.1 .4. V e�b C o mpl e m e n�a�� o n
The s t ruct ure o f a comp l e x s en t e n c e in which a comp lement a t i on o f a

verb , i . e . a s t at e verb ( vide 3 . 5 . 1 . ) , o c c urs may b e indicated in t he
fol lowing rule and e xemp l i f i ed by s e n t e n c e ( 3 4 5 ) :
Rule # 7 7
I
I
pat
N
state state
Sem
s rEgEp
' in du s t r i o u 8 '
�s a r d i � a m b o t g awe
Sardi -work
sard i
'Sardi '
, Sardi w o r k 8 '
( 34 5 ) s a r d i s r E g E p n am b o t gawe
Sardi - indu8 t r i o u s - wo r k
'Sardi i s i ndus t r i o u s to work '
The d i s t in c t ion b e t ween a noun c omp l emen t at ion and a verb comp l e
men t at i on may n o t b e c l early s hown in t h e s urface repr e s e n t at ion ,
part i c ularly in such c a s e s where a s in g l e s urface form o f two di fferent
verb s is i n vo l ve d . For e x amp l e , s e n t e n c e ( 3 4 6 ) and s e n t e n c e ( 3 4 7 ) ' s e em
t o b e i de n t i c a l in s t ruc t ure as far as t h e verb c omp lement at ion goe s :
( 346) s a r d i s En E n n rewan i i b u n e
Sardi - Z i k e - he Z p - h i 8 m o t h e r
' Sardi Z i k e s t o h e Zp h i s m o t h e r '
( 34 7 ) s a r d i s r E g E p n rewan i i bune
Sardi - in dus t r i o u 8 - h e Z p - h i s m o t he r
' Sardi i s i n du s t r i o u 8 i n he Z p i n g h i 8 m o t h e r '
But t he word s E n E n repre sent s t wo d i s t i n c t verb s , one i s a s t at e
verb , another a non- s t at e verb :
( 348 ) sard i sEnEn
Sardi - happy
, Sardi i8 happy '
( 34 9 ) sard i sEnEn sate
Sardi - Z i ke -m e a t g r i Z Z 8
'Sardi Z i k e s m e a t g ri Z Z 8 '
104
I n ( 3 4 6 ) t he verb s E n E � i s c learly spe c i fi e d a s non- s t at e , whi c h

fun c t ions a s t he n u c l e u s o f t he senten c e , whi c h i s s t ru c t urally iden t i
cal w i t h ( 3 4 9 ) , i . e . : N V X where X i s t h e phrase : � rewa� i i b u n e
' h e Zp h i s m o t he r ' i n ( 3 4 6 ) , hut the noun : s a t e ' m e a t gri Z l s ' in ( 3 4 9 ) .
Furt hermo re , t he phrase : n r e w a ;; i i b u n e ' he Zp h i s m o t her ' in ( 3 4 6 ) i s
o b v i o u s l y derived from a s imp l e sentence :
( 35 0 ) s a rd i n rewan l i b u n e
' Sardi he l p s h i s m o t h e r '
In o t h e r words , whereas ( 3 4 7 ) i s configurat ionally iden t i cal w i t h
( 3 4 5 ) , where a verb c omp l ementation i s invo l ve d , ( 3 4 6 ) is of a totally
d i f fe rent c o n f i gurat ion , where a noun c omp leme n t at i on i s invo lved ,
whi c h may b e i n d i c at e d in the fol lowing . ru l e :
Rule # 7 8
agt/exp
V V N
act ion act ion
experient i a l expe rient ial
p at
N
Sem
I
sEnEn
�s a r d i " rewa" i i b u n e sard i
' like ' Sardi - h e lp- h i s m o t h e r 'Sardi '
' Sardi he l p s h i s m o t h e r '
Another evidence t hat in ( 3 4 6 ) we have a noun c omp leme n t at i on as
cont r a s t e d to a verb c omp leme ntat i on as s hown in ( 3 4 7 ) i s shown by t he
a c c e p t ab i l i t y of the t o p i c ali sat ion of the phrase : " r e w a " i i b u n e ' he lp
h i s m o t h e r ' as shown in ( 3 5 1 ) b e l ow , in which the phrase c learly
fun c t ions as a noun . S u c h a t o p i c a l i s at i on , in whi c h an i n f l e c t i onal
s p e c i f i c a t i on in t e rms o f p a s s i ve vo i c e i s invo lved ( vide p . 2 8 ) , is
not a c c e p t a b l e w i t h n r e w a n i i b u n e ' he lp his mo t h e r ' a s s hown in ( 3 5 2 )
b e l o w , where the n u c l e u s o f the sentence i s a s t a t e verb , which i s
never subj e c t t o a p a s s ive spe c i fi ca t � o n , i . e . *d i s rEgEp i .
( 351) n rewan i i b u n e d i s E n E n i s a rd i
he l p - h i s mo t h er - l i k e d-Sardi
' H e l p i n g his m o t h e r is l i k e d b y Sardi '
*n rewan i i b u n e d i s r E g E p i s a r d i
o 0
( 352)
105
3.5.2. Z e r o A n te c e d e n t
The word s e n ' w h o , w h i c h ' funct ions t o re fer t o i t s ant e c e de nt . An

ant e c edent may o r may not b e present in the surface repre sentat i on o f
a c omp lex s e n t en c e . I t i s generally ab sent when a c o n t e xt , mo s t ly non
l in gui s t i c , is c l e ar t hat an ant e c edent wi l l be redundant . T h i s ab s e n c e
o f ant e c edent in t he surface may b e c a l l e d a c a s e o f z e ro ant e cedent .
Z ero ant e c edent takes p l ace when the ant e c e dent i s sp e c i fi e d as +Human
and -Unique . For examp l e , in a pub l i c announc ement where it is c ommon ly
unde r s t o o d t hat s 6 p 6 w a e ' w h o e v e r ' i s t o be c o n c e rned w i t h the subj e c t
mat t er o f t h e announcement , t h e ant e c edent i s ab sent :
( 35 3 ) s e n n Emeq ma t i
who- t o u c h -dead
' (Any one ) who touches w i L L b e dead ' .
Sent e n c e ( 3 5 3 ) , wh i ch may b e found in a c o n t e xt where a high
t en s ion u t i l i t y p o l e is aroun d , i s apparent ly comp l e x and derived from
sentence ( 3 5 4 ) and ( 3 5 5 ) , b o t h of whi c h are s imple sentence s :
( 35 4 ) s6p6 wae n Emeq l e s t req
who - o n L y - to u c h - e L e c tr i c i ty
'Any one touc h e s e L e c t ri c i ty '
( 355) s 6p6 wae ma t i
who - o n l y - dead
'Any one is dead '
The emb edding pro c e s s whi c h r e s u l t s in s e n t e n c e ( 3 5 3 ) may b e
i n d i c a t e d in t h e fol lowing rule :
Rule # 7 9
I
pat
I
V -- -;..> V N
state state
ma t i s6p6 wae n E meq l e s t req s6p6 wae

'dead ' w h o - o n L y - t o u c h- e L e c tr i c i ty who - o n L y
'Any o n e t o u c h e s e l e c t r i c i t y ' any o n e '
The re dundant repre sentat ion , i . e . where the ant e c e dent o c c urs , i s
e i t her ( 3 5 6 ) o r ( 3 5 7 ) :
( 356) s e n s 6 p6 n E m e q l e s t r e q m a t i
who -who - to u ch - e L e c tr i c i ty - de a d
'Any o n e who t o u c h e s e l e c t r i c i t y w i l l b e dead '
( 357) s6p6 s e n n Emeq l e s t req m a t i
'Any o n e who t o u c h e s e l e c tr i c i ty wi l l b e de ad '
1 06
In t he pro c e s s , the ant e c edent s 6 p 6 < s 6 p 6 w a e ' any o n e , w h o e v e r '

i s d e l et e d , so i s the word l e s t r e q ' e l e a t ri a i ty ' , s in c e the warning i s
given i n t he area o f e l e c t ri c it y .
Zero ant e c edent i s found in many st ereotyped sayings such a s :
( 35 8 ) se� s a l ah se l eh
who - wrong - n o t u s e d
' T ho s e w h o d o wrong w i l l b e pun i s he d '
( 35 9 ) s e n b E c e q k E t i t e q s e � 6 1 6 k E t 6 r6
who - g o o d- r eaog n i s e d- w h o - b ad- apparen t
' Th e g o o d a n d t h e bad w i l l b e d i s t i na t '
( 36 0 ) se� s aba r subor
who-patien t-prosperous
' Tho s e who are pa t i e n t wi l Z b e rewarded '
3.5.3. T h e S p e c i f i c a t i o n o f t h e W h o l e M a t r i x S e n te n c e
A n emb edded sentence t hat spe c i fi e s the who l e s emant i c s t r u c t ure o f

t he mat rix s e n t e n c e may b e i n t he form o f one o f what are generally
known a s adverb ial c lau s e s of c ondit ion , l o c at ion , manner , t ime .
3.5.3. 1 . C o nditio n al S en t e n c e
A c on d i t i onal s e n t e n c e expre s s e s a c ir c um s t an c e imp lying the c o n s e

que n c e t hat i s c o n t a i n e d in the mat ri x sentence . A c ondit ional s e n t e n c e
in J avan e s e norma l l y pre c e d e s the mat rix s e n t en c e .
The surfac e marker o f a condi t i onal sentence i s one of the four
condit ional c onj un c t i ve s : y e n ' i f ' , m a n 6w6 ' i f ' , a n g E r ' i f, pro v i de d ' ,
and u p 6m6 'if ' ( vide 2 . 7 . 2 . 4 . ) . Each o f t h e s e conj unc t ives int rodu c e s
t he emb e dded sentence in the surface l inear repre s entat i on .
The words y e n ' i f ' and m a n 6w6 ' if ' o c cur in a sentence chara c t e r i s e d
a s what i s general l y known a s Open Condit ion ( Zandvoort 1 9 6 6 : 2 1 8 ) . The
word m a n 6w6 ' i f ' is more s t y l i s h and l e s s frequent t han y e n ' if ' .
A d e l e t ion o f a noun from t he mat rix sentence i s norma l , when s u c h
a noun i s iden t i c a l w i t h a n o u n in the embe dded s e n t en c e . T h e f o l l owing
are condi t i onal s ent e n c e s where a noun has been deleted from the mat rix
s e n t e n c e ( vide a l s o sentence ( 1 5 9 ) ) :
( 36 1 ) y e n kowe 1 6 r 6 k E n o l e r e n
i f- y o u - s i a k - p e rm i t t e d- s top
' If you a r e s i a k , y o u may t a k e a b r e a k '
( 362) yen sum i 6n6 u n da n E n rene
i f- Sumi - b e - aa Z Z ! - he r e
' If S u m i i s i n , a s k h e r to aome h e r e '
In t he foll owing s e n t en c e s such a d e l e t ion i s not made , s i n c e t he
noun in t he mat rix sentence i s different from the noun in the embedded
s e n t en c e :
107
( 36 3 ) y � n kowe 1 6 r6 a k u o r a s i d 6 l u n 6
if- y o u - s i c k - I - n o t - e v e n t ua l l y - g o
' If y o u a r e sick, I wi l l n o t go '
( 364 ) y�n s u m i 6n6 aku a r E p m r6n6
i f- S um i - b e - I - w i l l - g o t h ere
' If Sumi i s i n , then I w i l l g o t h e r e '
The word u p 6 m 6 ' i f ' o c c urs i n a sentence c harac t e r i s e d a s what i s
known as Re j e c t e d Condit ion ( Z andvoort 1 9 6 6 : 2 1 8 ) .
The fol lowing are condit ional s e n t e n c e s whe re u p 6 m 6 'if ' i s used :
( 365 ) u p 6m6 a k u n E r t i m E s t i m E t o q kowe
i f- I - know - for s u r e - m e e t - y o u
' Ha d I k n o w n , I wo u l d h a v e m e t y o u '
( 366 ) u p 6m6 a � w � q e w a r a s a k u o r a w E d i
if- h e - s a n e - I- n o t - a fra i d
' If h e w e r e s a n e , I w o u l d no t b e a fra i d '
The word a n g E r ' i f ' may o c c ur in an open condit i onal s en t e n c e or i n
a c ondit ional sentence re ferring t o a p romi s e ( vide s e n t e n c e ( 1 6 1 ) ) .
The words y e n and a n g E r a l s o re f l e c t such a t emporal mean ing as 'when ' .
Th i s wi l l b e d i s c u s s e d in 3 . 5 . 3 . 4 .
In some cas e s , a condit ional s e n t e n c e i s not e xp l i c i t ly marked b y a
condit ional conj unct ive , part i c u larly when a zero ant e c e dent i s
invo lve d , e . g . :
( 367 1 s e n k� r i n u top l a wan
w h o - r e m a i n b e h i n d - c l o s e - do o r
'Those who leave la ter, (please) c lose t h e door '
3.5.3.2. L o cat� v e S e n t e n c e
A l o cat i ve s e n t e n c e c omp leme n t s a l o cat ive n o u n o f the mat r i x sen

t en c e t hat o c c urs as a c o n s e que n c e of a l o cat i ve s p e c i f i c at i on o f the
verb o f t he mat r i x s e n t e nc e . As a noun c omp l ementat i o n , a l o c at i ve
s e n t e n c e may i nvo l ve the use of the r e l a t o r s e n ' w ho , which ' ( vide
3.5.1.1. , 3.5.1.2. , 3.5.1.3. ). The l o c a t ive s pe c i fi c at ion o f t h e verb
and t he re l at e d noun i s i n d i c a t e d by one o f t h e prep o s i t i o n s men t ioned
in 2 . 7 . 4 . 2 .
The f o l l ow ing are comp l ex s e n t e nc e s where a lo cat ive s e n t e n c e o c curs :
( 368) j a m s 6 n 6 a k u k u d u ma n k a t m E n a n p a p a n s e n w e s d i t E n E r i c a r a n p r e n
h o u r - n i n e - I- mu s t - d ep a r t - t o - p l a c e - w h i c h - a l r e ady - m a r k e d - t w i g - b a m b o o
' A t n i n e o ' c l o c k I m u s t a l r e a dy h a v e g o n e t o t h e p l a c e w h i c h w a s
previo u s l y marked with a bamboo twig '
( 369 ) a k u t 6 m p 6 l a y a n s 6 k6 a a i k u s e n 6 n 6 j a k a r t a
I - r e c e i v e - l e t t e r - from - m y y o u n g e r s i b l i n g - w h o - b e - Ja ka r t a
'I got a l e t t e r from m y y o u n g e r b r o t h e r w h o i s n o w i n J a k a r t a '
108
3. 5 . 3. 3. M a n n e� S en t e n c e
A manner s e n t e n c e s p e c i f i e s t he verb o f t he mat rix sentence . I t may

b e introdu c e d b y a peripheral word s u c h as k 6 y 6 pa r i basan
' Zike ',
'pro v e rb i a Z Z y a s ' , o r t he c omb inat i on o f t he s e two words : pa r i basan ( e )
k6y6 'as if ' .
The fo l lowing are c omp l e x senten c e s where a manner sentence o c cur s :
( 370 ) s l t i b i non k6y6 b a b6 n ke l an a n k u � u q e
S i t i - i n p a n i a - Z i ke - hen - Z o s in g - h e r f Z e dg e Z i n g s
' S i t i i s i n a pan i a Z i ke a h e n Z o s ing h e r f Z e dg e Z i n g s '
( 371) a k u � a m b o t g awe p a r i b a s a n s i r a h t a q E n g o s i k e l s i k e l t a q E n g o s i r a h
I - w o r k - p ro v erb ia Z Zy a s - h ead- u a e d b y m e - Z e g - Z e g - u s e d b y m e - h e a d
' I work v e ry h a r d ( a s i f I u s e d my head for my Z e g and my Zeg
for my h e a d ) '
( 37 2 ) g E g E r k u g a t E l k 6 y 6 d l E n t o p t aw6n
my b a a k - i t a h i ng - Z i k e - a tung - b e e
'My b a a k i s i t a h i ng a s i f i t w e r e s tung b y a b e e '
3.5.3.4. T e m p o �al S e n t e n c e
A t emporal sentence fun c t ions a s a reference o f t ime in i t s

r e l a t i o n t o the seman t i c s t ru c t ure o f t he mat rix s e n t en c e .
In the surface repre sentat ion , a t emporal sentence may p r e c e de o r
fol low t he mat rix s en t e n c e . I t s o c currence i s introduced b y o n e o f the
t emporal words ( vide 2 . 7 . 2 . 5 . ) .
J avan e s e t empo ral senten c e s may b e sub divided into four t y pe s :
( i ) t ho s e t hat indicate a refe renc e of general t ime s equenc e in relation
t o t he mat rix senten c e , ( i i ) t h o s e t hat indicate a reference o f c o i n c i
den c e , ( i i i ) t h o s e t hat indicate a referen c e o f futuri t y , ( i v ) t ho s e
t hat indicate a reference o f p a s t t ime .
3.5.3.4. 1 . S e q u en t i a l Temp o r a l S e n t en ce
A s equent ial t emp oral sentence indicat e s a reference of t ime

s equen c e in t e rms o f s u c h not ions as ' b e fore X , Y ' , or ' after X , Y ' ,
where X i s the emb e dded senten c e , and Y i s t he mat r i x s en t enc e . A
s equent i a l t emporal sentence may b e i n t rodu c e d by the word s a d u r u n e
' b efore ' o r s aw i s e ' a ft e r ' .
The f o l l owing are comp lex s e n t e n c e s where a s equent ial t emp o ral
sentence o c curs :
( 373) s a d u r u n e a k u m a n k a t m E � a n i r i a n a k u � E k a r E m b a h k a ko n
b e fo r e - I- depa r t - t o - Iri a n - I - p u t f Z o w e r s on t h e gra v e - g randparen t
ma L e
' B efore I w e n t t o Irian I p u t f L o w e r s on t h e grave o f grand
fa t he r '
109
( 374) s a w i s e s a rd i 1 u�6 kampon k e n e d a d i t E n t r E m

aft e r - Sardi - g o - n e i g hb ou r h o o d - h e r e - b e ao m e -p e a a e fu L
' A f t e r Sardi L e ft. t h i s n e i g h b o u r h o o d b e aame s a fe '
3.5.3.4.2. C o i n c i den t a l T e mp o r a l S e n t en c e
·
A c oi n c i de n t a l t emp oral sentence indi c at e s a t ime re feren c e t hat i s
more or l e s s s imultaneous w i t h t h e t ime imp l ie d in t h e mat rix s e n t e nc e .
A c o i n c idental t emporal sentence i s introdu c e d by the word s a j r o n e
'during. w h i L e ' . o r t h e word a n g E r ( e ) . which i s a l s o u s e d t o i n d i c a t e
a condi t i onal sentence ( vide p . 1 0 7 ) a n d whi c h in a t emp oral s e n t e n c e
re f l e c t s the meaning : ' any time ' . The word a n g E r ( e ) ' any time ' may
induce t he u s e of the wovd m a .1 a h ' e v e n ' or mE s t i ' fo r s u r e ' .
The fo l l owing are c omp l e x senten c e s where a c o i n c idental t emporal
sentence o c curs :
( 375) s a j rone aku l un6 boj oku t u n g u omah
w h i L e - I- g o -my s p ou s e -w a t a h - h o u s e
' Whi L e I was awa y . my w i fe w a t a h e d t h e h o u s e '
( 376) a n g E r e i r a n g 6w6 p a y o n m a l a h o r a u d a n
any time - Ir a - aarry - um b r e L L a - e v en - no t - i t r a i n s
'Any time I r a aarr i e s an umbre L L a . it never rains '
In p l ac e o f a n g E r ( e ) 'any time ' . whi c h re fers t o a general i n s t an c e
o f repet i t ion . the word s a b E n ' ea a h time ' . wh i c h r e f e r s t o a n empha s i s e d
individual i n s t an c e , may b e u s e d , e . g . :
( 377) s a b E n a k u k r u n u s u w a r a m u k u p en k u d a d i b u a E k
e a a h t i m e - I- he a r - y o u r v o i a e -my e a r s - b eaom e - de a f
'Ea a h time I h e a r y o u r v o i a e . I aan n o t hear any t h i n g e L s e '
3.5. 3.4. 3. Fu t ure Temp o r a l Sen t ence
A fut ure t emp oral sentence provi d e s a fut ure t ime re feren c e . In
the surface repre sentat i on . when no empha s i s on the mat rix s e n t e n c e i s
invo l ve d , a future t emporal sentence precedes t h e mat r i x s e n t en c e .
Otherw i s e , it fo l lows the mat ri x senten c e .
A future t emp oral sentence i s introdu c e d b y t h e word y e n 'when ' .
whi c h i s i dent i c a l i n form w i t h the c op dit i onal marker y e n ' if ' ( vide
p . 1 0 7 ) . and whi c h may involve the use of t he word w e s ' a L r e ady ' . whi c h
pre c e d e s t he verb o f t h e t emporal s e n t en c e .
The u s e o f y e n i n a c ondit i onal sentence i s re spon s i b l e for the
amb i gui t y b e t ween a condi t i onal s e n t en c e and a t emporal sentenc e .
The fo l l owing are comp l e x s en t e n c e s where a fut ure t emp oral s e n t e n c e
o c c ur s :
( 37 8 ) y e n kowe w e s t E k a n s E m a r a � 6 j 6 l a l i k i r e m l a y a n a k u
w h e n - y o u - a L r e ady - arri v e i n - Semaran g - do n o t - forge t - s end- L e t t e r - I
.
' When y o u h a v e arri v e d in Semarang. d o n o t fo rge t to wri t e me '
110
( 379 ) yen kumb a h a n k u wes g a ren a k u l a g i b i s6 l un 6

w h e n - my ta undry - a t ready - dry - I - on t y t h e n - c a n - g o
' I w i t t o n t y b e ab t e to g o w h e n my taundry i s dry '
3.5.3.4.4. Pa s t Temp o r a l Sen tence
A p a s t t emp oral sentence provi d e s a past t ime referen c e . It norma l ly

p r e c e de s the mat rix sent e n c e .
A past t emporal sentence i s i n t ro du c e d b y the word n a l i k6 'when ' .
o r l e s s s t y l i shly by t h e word a e q 'when ' . o r t he c ombinat ion a e q n a l i k6
'when ' . A p a s t t emporal sentence may a l s o b e i nt rodu c e d b y t he word
s a s u w e n e ' du r i n g the p e r i o d o f ' or s a p 1 6 q e ' s i n c e t he time o f ' . where
t he re is an imp l i c at ion t hat the p r e s ent t ime is a l s o inc lude d .
The fo l l owing are c omp l e x sent enc e s where a past temporal sentence
o c c urs :
( 3 80 ) n a l i k6 g u n o n k E l o t n j E b l o k a k u l a g i g o l e q s E ko l a h a n
w h e n -moun t -Ke t u d - e xp to d e - I - i n t h e pro c e s s o f- s e ar c h for - s c h o o t
' Wh e n m o un t Ke t u d exp t o ded. I was t o o k i ng for a s c h oo t '
( 381) deq a k u i s e h c i l eq a k u s E n E � a d u j a� k req
w h e n - I- s ti t t - sma t t - I- t i k e - fi g h t - c r i c k e t
' Wh e n I was sma t t . I t i k e d t h e game of cri c k e t -fi g h t '
( 3 82 ) s a p 1 6 q e j o ko d a d i g u r u a e w e q e o r a t a u t u r u k e n e
s i n c e t h e t i m e o f-Jo k o - b e come - t e a c h e r - h e -no t- e v e r - s t e e p - h e r e
' J o k o h a s n e v er s t e p t h e r e s in c e h e b e came a t e a c h e r '
CHAPTER 4
SPEECH DECORUM AS A MEAN I NG MARKER
4.1 . S P E E C H D E C O R UM AS A M EA N I N G M A R K E R
S p e e c h decorum , a s a s y s t e m o f c o n s t �aints on l an guage u s e , i n whi c h

i s i nv o l ve d at l e a s t the proper c h o i c e o f vo cabulary i t ems , i s p r e
sumab ly b a s e d on extra-l ingu i s t i c fac t or s an d not l anguage spe c i fi c .
In Engl i s h , J o o s ( 1 9 6 7 ) re cogn i s e d di fferent s t y l e s o f usage , each o f
wh i c h i s only appropriate for a part i c ular purp o s e .
A d e s c r i p t i on o f s p e e c h d e c orum n e c e s sarily imp inge s upon the
grammat i c al a s p e c t as we l l a s the c ommun i cat i ve aspect o f t he l anguage
'
under c on s i de rat ion . The grammat i c a l a s p e c t has to do w i t h c l ar i f i c a
t io n s about sentence s t ru c t ure s and s e n t e n c e c omp onent s . The s e c lari fi
cat i o n s may b e n e c e s sary for t h e d i s t in c t i on of t he s t ru c tures o f , for
examp le , such Engl i s h expre s s ions as ' Go o d b y e ' , 'Have a n i c e t rip ' ,
' I ' l l see you ', ' S e e ya ' , ' Ta k e care ' . The c ommun i c at i ve a s p e c t has t o
d o w i t h c larificat ions about when and t o whom e a c h o f t h e expre s s i on s
may b e approp riat e l y u s e d . O n e o f t he s e c lari f i c at i o n s w i l l , f o r
i n s t an c e , s h o w u s t hat whi l e ' Go o d b y e ' may b e s a i d t o the pre s i dent o f
the Un i t e d S t at e s , ' Ta k e care ' may not . Thi s kind o f c lari fi c a t i on
c learly b e longs t o t h e s emant i c l e ve l , i f the l e ve l s o f s yn t ax and
s emant i c s c an , indee d , be s eparated at a l l . At t h i s l e ve l , the p i c t ure
of t he c on t e x t s of s p e e c h u s e , i . e . t he p art ing w i t h one ' s i n t e r l o c ut o r ,
c annot b e s a i d t o b e simp l i c i s t i c a l l y ident i cal . There are fact o r s
invo lved t hat have t o d o w i t h the educat i on , s o c i a l s t at u s , and p erhap s
p s y c h o l o g i c a l d i s p o s i t ion o f the speaker and l i s t en e r .
In other I n do-Europe an languages s u c h as Dut ch , Frenc h , and G e rman ,
t he propr i e t y o f addre s s ing one ' s i n t e r l o c u t o r as ' U ' or ' j e ' , ' tu ' o r
' vous ' , o r ' du ' or ' S i e ' i s under s t r i c t c o n s t ra i n t s i nhe r i t e d and
r e s p e c t e d b y the s p e e c h community conc e rne d . A nat ive speaker o f t h e s e
language s knows t hat h e h a s t o h e e d the c o n s t ra i n t s in o r d e r t hat h i s
III
112
s p e e c h n o t o n l y b e unde rst andab l e b u t a l s o a c c e p t ab l e . A s i s now

already known , t he d i fferent u s e s of the s e c ond-person-s ingular pro
nouns have t o do with t he type o f rel�tionship t hat obtains between a
speaker and hi s interlocutor ( vide Brown and G i lman 1 9 6 8 : 2 5 3 - 2 7 6 ) .
Javane s e s p e e c h decorum , whi c h has c ome under the att ent ion o f
l ingui s t i c s c ho lars for centuri e s , i s mani f e s t e d b y i t s comp lex s y s t e m
o f addre s s re ferenc e s , v o c abu lary usage , and affixat ions . I t i s gen
erally known t hat the h i s t ory of t he c omp l ex i t y of t he J avane s e v o c ab
ulary u s age i s q u i t e re cent . N o t unt i l the s ix t e en t h century d i d
Javane s e s p e e ch de c orum deve lop from a c omp l e x p ronoun s y s t em and word
ending variat i on into a more e labo rat e range o f choi c e s o f v o c ab u l ary
i t ems whe reby t he pres ent language is charac t e r i s e d ( Gonda 1 9 4 7 : 3 6 3 ) .
A s an i l lust rat ion o f t he comp le x i t y o f the Javan e s e pronoun s y s t em
and v o c ab u l ary u s age , a s t at e verb con s t ru c t i on such as :
I
pat
V N
state
' s i ck ' 'I '
may b e repres ent ed in the s urface s t ru c t ure by at l e a s t t hree sentence s ,

whi c h r e s u l t from the fact that 1 6 r 6 i s ' s i c k ' , s a k e t i s ' s i c k ' , and
g E r a h is a l s o ' s i c k ' , where as a k u is ' I ' , k u 1 6 is ' I ' , and d a l E m i s
also 'I ' .
A J avan e s e speaker o f Surukart a i s l ik e l y t o know t hat t h e f o l l owing
s e n t e n c e s are a c c e p t ab l e :
( 38 3 ) a k u 1 6 r 6 ' I am s i c k '
( 384 ) k u 1 6 s a k e t 'I am s i c k '
( 38 5 ) d a l E m 5 a k e t ' I am s i c k '
He may a l s o b e ab l e t o po int out t hat
( 386 ) d a l E m 1 6 r 6 'I am - s i c k '
i s a c c ep t ab l e in certain fami l ie s .
Howeve r , the Javan e s e s peaker w i l l react t o the fol lowing as
unac c ep t ab l e :
( 38 7 ) *aku saket
( 38 8 ) * ku 1 6 1 6 r6
( 389 ) *ku 1 6 g E rah
( 390 ) *da l Em g E rah
( 391 ) *aku gE rah
A general e xp l anat ion t hat may b e gi ven i's t hat s a k e t ' s ic k ' can
only be u s e d with the patient noun k u 1 6 ' I ' or the p a t i e n t ' noun da l Em
113
' I ' , b ut never w i t h t he pat ient noun a k u ' I ' , and a l s o t hat the s t a t e
verb g E r a h ' s i c k ' i s t o b e u s e d w i t h c are . T h e s t at e verb g E r a h d o e s
not al low ' fi r s t person ' as a referen c e t o t he p at ient noun it require s .
Thi s verb requires a p a t i ent noun t hat re fers t o someone whom t he
speaker respe c t s and c a l l s p a n j E n E n a n ' y o u ' , but not kowe ' y o u ' o r
s a m p e y a n ' y o u ' , in whi c h r e s p e c t as a c harac t e r i s t i c feature o f s p e e c h
c ommun i c at i on i s not a s pre dominant a s in p a n j E n E n a n ' y o u ' . There fore ,
in c i rcums t an c e s where g E r a h ' s i ck ' i s u s e d for a k u ' I ' , k u 1 6 ' I ' , or
d a l E m ' I ' , a s p e e c h de c orum vio l at ion t ak e s p l ace , s i n c e under the
Javan e s e social const raint s , an o vert s e l f- r e s p e c t i s conc e i t . Thi s
i s where the v i o l a t o r wi l l b e re ferred t o a s o r a j 6w6 ' n o t Javan e s e ' ,
o r o r a b i s 6 b 6 s 6 ' n o t ab l e t o s p e a k prop e r l y ' . The use o f a word t hat
is approp riat e l y app l i c ab l e to others but t o o good for one s e l f is a
c ommun i c ative mist ake .
Another examp le at hand i s an experien t i al verb c o n s t ru c t i on s u c h
as :
I
p at exp
V N N
experien t i a l
'see ' 'you ' 'I '
where ' s e e ' may b e w E r o h , s u m E r E p , or p e r s 6 ; ' y o u ' may be kowe ,

s a m p e y a n , or p a n j E n E n a n ; ' I ' may be a k u , k u 1 6 , or d a l E m .
A Javan e s e speaker wi l l know that ( 3 9 2 ) - ( 3 9 5 ) are a c c e p t ab le , and
t hat ( 3 9 6 ) may be u s e d b y educat e d int ima t e s and a l s o b y a w i fe to her
husban d but not v i c e vers a :
( 39 2 ) a k u w E r o h kowe 'I s e e y o u '
( 39 3 ) k u 1 6 s u m E r E p s a m p e y a n 'I s e e y o u '
( 394 ) ku 1 6 s um E r E p p a n j E n h n a n 'I see you '
( 395 ) d a l E m s u m E r E p p a n j E n E n a n 'I s e e y o u '
( 396 ) a k u w E r o h p a n j E n E n a n 'I s e e y o u '
I f the experien c e r noun i s ' y o u ' i n s t e ad o f ' I ' , and i f t he p a t i ent
noun i s ' I ' i n s t ead o f 'you ' , a Javan e s e speaker wi l l also know t hat
( 3 9 7 ) - ( 4 0 0 ) are a c c e p t ab l e , and t hat ( 4 0 1 ) may normal ly be u s e d b y
educat e d int ima t e s and a l s o b y a w i fe t o h e r husband b ut n o t v i c e ver s a :
( 39 7 ) kowe w E r o h a k u ' Yo u s e e me '
( 3 98 ) s a m p e y a n s u m E r E p k u 1 6 ' Yo u s e e m e '
( 39 9 ) p a n j E n E � a n p e r s 6 k u 1 6 ' Yo u s e e me '
( 400) p a n j E n E � a n p e r s 6 d a l E m ' Yo u s e e me '
( 4 01 ) p a n j E n E � a n p e r s 6 a k u ' Yo u s e e me '
114
Logi c a l l y , s e n t en c e s ( 3 9 2 ) - ( 3 9 6 ) are fac tually equivalen t , i . e . one

of t hem c an not b e t rue if any one of the others is fal s e ( vide L e e c h
1969 : 9 ) . S o a r e s e n t e n c e s ( 3 97 ) - ( 4 0 1 ) . B u t t he f a c t t hat s ome l o g i c a l
equivalence does p reva i l among e i ther o f the t w o s e t s o f sent e n c e s doe s
not p rovide any c lari fi c at ion as to when and t o whom a Javan e s e s p e aker
may u s e one of ( 3 9 2 ) - ( 3 9 6 ) , or, in the case of t he interchange o f t he
experien c e r noun and the p at ient noun , one o f ( 3 9 7 ) - ( 4 0 1 ) .
In the mo s t o ve r s imp l i fied t rans format ional generat ive t e rms , w e
may pre s en t the s t ru c t ural de s c r i p t i on ( SD ) o f senten c e s ( 3 9 2 ) - ( 396 ) b y
mean s o f a t re e - diagram whi c h i s a l s o similarly app l i cable t o senten c e s
( 397) - ( 401 ) , e . g . :
a. S
NP
------ VP
N
� V N,
Pron Verb Pron
aku wE roh kowe

ku 1 6 s um E r E p s am p e y a n
d a l Em pan j En Enan
' '
'I ' see 'you '
b. S
NP VP
N
�
V N
Pron Verb Pron
kowe wE roh aku

s ampey an sumErEp ku 1 6
panj EnEnan pe r s 6 da l Em
' '
'you ' see 'I '
Apparent ly , a c larifi cat i on mus t b e p rovided conc erning the intro

du c t i on of p e r s 6 '
see
'
a s a l e x i c al e n t ry in the SD of b . ' Yo u see me
'
,
whi c h i s a b s e nt in t he SD o f a . 'I see you ' . I n other words , what i s

involved here i s more t han a mere ordering o f l e x i c a l entri e s , the
approp riat e choice o f which i s to be explained in t erms of · s eman t i c s
rat her t han syntax .
115
W i t h re ference t o Javan e s e senten ce s , a t l e a s t s u c h as s hown b y

( 3 9 2 ) - ( 4 0 1 ) , t he c h o i c e o f t he approp riate words h a s t o b e det e rmine d
by a s e t o f s e l e c t ional ru l e s q u i t e di fferent in nature from t ho s e
sugge s t e d in t ran s format ional gene rat ive grammar , where s u c h s o c i a l
fac t ors as di fferen c e s o f age , s t at u s , ran k , are obviously l e ft o u t o f
acc ount . The s e fa c t o r s are e s s e n t i a l in Javane s e , and are respon s i b l e
f o r t he c o n s t ra i n t s t hat make o n e sentence more c ourt eous t han anot her .
'
G iven s u c h s e n t e n c e s as 'I see y o u ' and ' Yo u see me , an Eng l i s h
speaker wi l l know t hat t he f i r s t sent e n c e t e l l s h im what t h e sp eaker
experien c e s , i . e . see ing his interlo cut o r , whe reas the se cond s en t e n c e
t e l l s h i m what h i s i n t e rlocut o r experien ce s , i . e . s e e ing t he speake r .
The s e t wo di fferent mean i ng s are a l s o p e r c e ivab le i n t h e Javan e s e sen
t en c e s ( 3 9 2 ) - ( 3 9 6 ) as cont rast e d t o ( 3 9 7 ) - ( 4 0 1 ) . However , despite t he
t ran s l atab i l i t y o f senten c e s ( 3 9 2 ) - ( 3 9 6 ) into 'I see you ' , and t he
'
tran s latab i l i t y of senten c e s ( 3 9 7 ) - ( 4 0 1 ) into ' Yo u see me , there are
c o n s t raint s that are imp o s e d on a Javan e s e speaker whi c h forb i d the
haphazard use o f ( 3 9 2 ) - ( 3 9 6 ) or ( 3 9 7 ) - ( 4 0 1 ) wit hout t aking i n t o con
s i de rat ion t o whom he i s speak ing . Thi s rai s e s the que s t i on whether
senten c e s ( 3 9 2 ) - ( 3 9 6 ) have the same re feren t , i . e . 'I see you ' , and
also whether senten c e s ( 39 7 ) - ( 4 0 1 ) have the same re ferent , i . e . ' Yo u
'
see me .
We s h a l l maintain t hat s en t e n c e s ( 3 9 2 ) - ( 3 9 6 ) are di fferent s e n t en ce s ,

i . e . having di fferent referen t s � whi c h can only , inc i dent al ly , b e
t ran s l at e d i n t o Engl i s h as 'I see you ' . S imilarly , s e n t e n c e s ( 3 9 7 )
( 4 0 1 ) a l s o have di fferent re ferent s , whi c h Engl i s h i s only c ap ab l e o f
'
t ran s l at ing as ' Yo u see me . Our p o s i t ion here i s b a s e d on a Chafean
a s s ump t ion t hat in any language t here i s always an imbalan c e b e tween
the vast repertoire o f meanings and t h e limited repert oire of phy s i ca l
e lement s t hat c an c on ve rt t h e meanings i n t o s ound in a one-to-one
c orre sponden c e . In other words , a c a s e o f one -many map p i ng , e . g .
where X i s a meaning , Y and Z are surface repre sentat ions , and Y i Z ,

i s rare i n language , whereas a c a s e o f many -one mapp in g , e . g .
116
where X and Y are meanings and X I Y , and - Z i s a s urface repre s e n t at i o n ,

i s frequent in language .
In s e n t e n c e s ( 3 9 2 ) - ( 3 9 6 ) and ( 3 9 7 ) - ( 4 0 1 ) , we have what would look
l ike :
where X " ' X = meanings ; Y . . ' Y surface repre sentat ions ; X I X I

2
l n l n l
X · . . et c . ; Y I Y I y . . . e t c .
3 l 2 3
The meaning d i fferen c e s are det e rmined by t he di fferent t yp e s o f
re l a t i o n s h i p s whi c h a s p e aker choo s e s t o e s t ab l i s h t oward h i s int e r
l o c ut o r , and which are a c c o rdingly refle c t e d in the di fferent s urface
repre s e n t at i o n s . Obvious ly , s u c h factors as formali t y , int imacy ,
r e s p e c t , c ourte s y , s t at us equal i t y or di fferen c e , whi c h p lay a s i gn i fi
c ant role on the p art of a speaker for s i z ing up , commun i c at ively , h i s
i n t e r l o cut or , b e long t o t he e x t ralingu i s t i c realm . A c c o rdingly , t h e re
i s more t han one , c o l o urle s s , t y p e o f re lationship b e tween a speaker
and his i n t e r l o cut o r . The re lat i on s h i p may b e s a i d to b e Horizonta l ,
i . e . where it i s d i re c t e d t oward an equal , or Downward , i . e . where it
is d i re c t e d t oward an interlo c ut o r o f inferior s t atus , or Upward , i . e .
where it i s dire c t e d t oward an i n t e r l o c ut o r o f sup e rior s t atus .
Furt hermore , v i ewed from e i ther s ide o f t he s p e e c h part i c ipant s , regard
l e s s of a c t ua l s o c i a l di fferen c e s , the relat i on s hip may b e re c ip r o c a l
o r non-re c ip ro c a l .
To a c e rt a in ext ent , t h e c h o i c e o f app ropriate l e x i c al and synt a c
t i c a l e l emen t s i s a mat t e r o f s e l e c t ional r u l e s as sugge s t e d b y Chomsky
( 1 9 6 5 : 9 6 - 9 7 and 1 1 3 - 1 2 0 ) , part i c u larly t h o s e that have t o do with t h e
c ho i c e o f l e x i c a l e n t r i e s charac t e r i s ing the l e x i c a l e l emen t s o f a
s en t e n c e . I t i s gene ra l ly known , howeve r , t hat t rans format ional gen
e rat ive grammar does not inc lude in i t s con s i derat ion the exp lanat ion
of s e n t e n c e use and c omp rehen s ion in t e rms o f the c ommun i c at i ve at t i t ude
of t h e speaker t oward h i s i n t e r l o c u t o r ( vide Kat z and Fodor 1 9 6 3 : 1 7 1 - 1 7 4 ;
a l s o Kat z 1 9 6 4 : 4 , n . l ) . Thi s i s mo st probab ly b e c au s e s u c h a communi
cat ive a t t i t ude i s not re fle c t e d in the surface repre s e n t at i on o f
Engl i s h i n any way t hat i s similar t o what i s re fl e c t e d i n Javane s e
surface represen t at ion .
In t he framework that i s f o l l owed in t h i s s t udy , it seems correct t o
a s s ume t hat t h e u s e o f Javan e s e s e n t e n c e s may b e de s c ribab le a s t aking
t he fol l ow ing s t age s :
117
e stab li shment
of re lat ionship � � �
S t age I S t age I I S t age I I I S t age IV
Whi l e s t ages I - IV are obviously commun i c ative s t age s , whi ch are

dep i c t e d a s b e ing s equen t ial j us t for t he sake of c onven i en c e , they are
nevert h e l e s s para l l e l with the s t ages of the c onvers ion of meaning to
sound as sugge s t e d by Chafe ( 1 9 7 0b : 5 6 ) . S t age I is c o n c omitan t with
t he p�o c e s s e s of s eman t i c format i on , s e l e c t i onal spe c i fi c at i on ,
infl e c t i onal s p e c i f i cat ion , and p e rhap s a l s o deriva t i onal s p e c i f i c a t i on .
Under the c o n st raints t hat originate from s t age I , stages I I - I V are
governed b y ru le s of the l e x i c a l s p e c i ficat ion p ro c e s s e s whi c h are
responsib le for the d i s t i n c t ion b e tween the Javan e s e c ourt e o u s words
and the non-courteous words , as well as t ho s e words where c ourt e s y is
irre levan t .
4.2. TRAV I T I ON A L TERM I N O L OG I ES O F S P E E CH V E C O R U M
T h e n o t i on t hat the s t o c k o f the Javan e s e l e x i c on c on s i s t s o f t he

s o - c a l l e d Ngoko , i . e . non- court e ous , words an d non-Ngo ko , i . e .
c ourt eous , words has b e en known not only in the grammars o f J avan e s e
ac c e s s i b le t o u s , b u t a l s o among s pe akers o f Javan e s e .
The t e rm Ngoko derive s from the redup l i c at e d s t em ko , whi c h forms
the b a s i s of t he word kowe 'you ' , t he ' t u ' and not the ' vous ' form o f
t he s ingular s e c ond person ( " De benaming ' ngoko ' i s e e n we rkwoordsvorm ,
gemaakt van den verdub b e l den s t arn '7ttn1'Z waaru it ook '7tWn� 11111 ont s t aan
i s " , Walbe ehm 1 8 9 6 : 2 9 ; vide a l s o Prij o hoet omo 1 9 3 7 : 2 5 ) .
In general , a non-Ngoko word i s a l s o known as Krama , whi c h refers
t o ' propri et y ' o r ' c ourt e s y ' , a not ion whi c h also app l i e s t o ' marriage '
or ' get marrie d ' as a vert ex o f c o de-ab iding s o c ial re l at ion s hip
b e t ween a man and a woman . The use o f Ngoko words , p art i c ularly when
a swit ch from t he use o f Krama words is invo lve d , is a l s o known as
Nungkak Krama , l i t eral ly ' s t ep on the court e s y c o de ' , where d i s re s p e c t
o r e ven di s dain t oward one ' s i n t e r l o c u t o r may deve lop .
In the t radit ion of J avane s e grammar wri t i n g , the Javan e s e l e x i con
has b e en subj e c t t o c la s s i f i c a t i on from two t o t e n in number . The
modern t rend is in favour of t he c las s i fi cat ion into two c l a s se s :
Ngoko words and Krama words ( Purbatj araka 1 9 5 8 ; Horne 1 9 6 4 : 4 ) . More
de t a i l e d c l a s s i fi cat i on s and t e rms other t han Ngoko and Krama , howeve r ,
s t i l l p e r s i s t in some p l a c e s ( Po e dj o so e darmo 1 9 6 8 ; Sumuk t i , 1 9 7 1 ) . A
t y p i c a l examp le at hand i s a t e xt b ook u s e d in Teacher High S c hoo l s ,
whi c h has been reprint e d several t ime s . Apparent ly b orro w i ng fre e ly
118
from the e x i s t i ng t radit i onal c l a s s i f i ca t i on s , Padmo s o ekot j o ( 1 9 5 8 : 1 3-

1 7 ) p re s e n t e d e i ght c l a s s e s of J avan e s e words as fo l l ows :
1. Ngoko , u s ed by c h i l dren among t hems e l ve s , by o l der p e r s on s t o
younger p e r s on s , b y mas t e rs t o their s e rvan t s , where re s p e c t i s ab s ent .
2. Ngoko Andap
a. Antya Ba s a , u s e d by o lder persons to h i gh-ranking younge r
p e rsons , and b y memb ers of t he privi leged c la s s who are int imate w i t h
e a c h o t he r .
b. Basa Ant y a , u s e d b y o l de r p e r s on s t o high-ranking younger
p e r s on s .
3. Basa Madya
a. Madya Ngoko , u s e d b y sma l l t raders among t hems e l ve s .
b. Madyant ara , u s e d by memb e r s o f the lower middle c l a s s among
t hems e lve s , an d by a memb e r of the privileged c l a s s to anot he r and t o
h i s l owe r-ranking kin .
c. Madyakrama , u s e d by a w i fe t o her husban d , when the husban d
i s a memb er o f the privi leged c l a s s .
4. B a s a Krama
a. Krama Lugu , u s e d b y c ommon p e o p l e among t hems e l ve s , and b y
o l de r p er s o n s t o young s t range rs w h o have no rank .
b. Muda Krama , u s e d b y younger p e rsons t o o l der person s , b y
s t uden t s t o their t eacher , and b y memb ers o f t he p rivi l e ge d c l a s s
among t hems e l ve s .
c. Wreda Krama , u s e d by o l der p e r s on s t o y ounger p e rs on s .
5 . Krama Inggi l , s im i lar t o Muda Krama e x c e p t for t h e u s e o f
' a d a l em ' , ' a b d i d a l e m ' , ' k aw u l a ' , o r ' a b d i - d a l e m - k a w u l a ' in l ieu o f
' k u l a ' ; i t i s u s e d b y memb e r s o f t h e lower c l a s s e s o f s o c i e t y t o
memb e r s o f t he higher c l as s .
6. Krame De s a , u s e d b y p e a s ant s and i l l i t e rat e s .
7. Basa Kasar , rude language , u s e d by angry person s .
8. Basa Kadat on ( Basa Bagongan ) , u s e d wit hin a p a l a c e b y memb ers
o f the royal fami ly and the king ' s sub j e c t s among t hems e l ve s .
Amp l e i l l u s t rations were a l s o supp l ie d w i t h t h i s c l as s i fi c a t i o n .
Thi s kind o f c l a s s i fi c a t i on , whi c h keeps appearing in many works on
t he grammar o f Javane s e , i s sub j e c t t o s e vere crit i c i sms . Not only
is the de s c ript i on o f t he social s t rata m i s l eadin g , b ut also t h e main
b a s i s for di fferent usage s , mo s t probab ly due t o t he s t riving for a
perfe c t de s cript ion o f subt le di fferent iations o f u s age s , i s b lurred .
The only indicat ion o f t he p i vo t a l b a s i s for di f ferent usage s shown
in t he t radit i onal l i t e rat ure is the ever-pre sent , but neverthe l e s s
corre c t , warning t hat Krama Inggi l ' high court e ous ' words are never t o
b e app l i e d f o r one s e l f . As w e shall see , however , t h e di fferent u s age s
119
fol low a s e t o f more or l e s s regular rules whi c h b e ar o n t h e d i f fe rent

t y p e s o f re lat ionships a speaker s e l e c t s t o use with his i nt er l o c ut o r .
The Ngoko-Krama d i s t i n c t ion , a s a lingui s t i c and s o c i a l c o n s t raint ,
cannot b e ignore d . What i s mo s t p e rt inent t o u s , howeve r , i s not what
word is Ngoko and what other word is Krama , but rather what r e l at ion
s hip t here is b e t ween t he speaker and his interlo c u t o r , whi c h ent a i l s
t h e inevitab l e c ho i ce o f appropriate vocabulary i t ems .
4 . 3. AVVRESS R E F ER EN C E S AS PA RAMETERS
The view t hat a k u 'I ', k u 1 6 ' I ' , and d a l E m ' I ' are words of di f fe r
ent meanings as are kowe 'you ' , s a m p e y a n ' y o u ' , and p a n j E n E n a n ' y o u ' ,
s e ems more t en ab l e t han , for i n s t anc e , a p o s i t ion whi c h cal l s t hem
morpho l o g i c a l varian t s . One obvious reason i s t hat the di fferent
d i s t ribut ions of t he words are not d e t e rmine d b y any surfa c e c on s t rain t ,
but rather by s eman t i c one s .
Furt hermore , i f we t ake into c on s i deration the not i on o f l ingui s t i c
' s i gn ' a s generally unde r s t o o d i n t h e S au s s urian t radi t ion , our p o s i t ion
also s e ems j us t i fiable . A c c ording t o de Saus sure ( 1 9 6 6 : 6 6 ) a l ingu i s t i c
s ign i s a p s y c h o l o g i c a l a s s o c iat ive c omb inat ion o f concept and acous t i c
image . Thi s ent i t y , l i ke the s i des o f a p i e c e o f p ap e r , i s indi s so lub le
in the s e n s e t hat e a c h e x i s t s only b y v i rtue o f t h e i r a s s o c iat ion , and
a l s o t hat a b re aking down of e it h e r aspect wi l l r e s u l t i n the d e s t roying
t he l ingui s t i c s ign a s a unit .
I f we use de Saus sure ' s repre sentat i on o f a l ing�i s t i c s ign :
we would a c c o rdingly have s ep arat e ent i t ie s for s u c h notions referring

to t he first p e r s on t hat Eng l i s h has only one equivalent , i . e . ' I ' , as
may b e shown a s fo l l ows :
� � �
� � �
In other words , in Javan e s e th ere are , at l e as t , t hree di f fe rent
concept s re ferring t o what i s known as ' t he first p e r s on ' , whi c h are
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t hree di fferent acous t i c image s . T h i s d i f fe rent iat ion
of the n o t i on of ' the first person ' into t hree di fferent concept s i s
j u s t i f i e d b y the fact that a Javan e s e speaker v i ew s h�s relat i on s hip
120
w i t h h i s addre s see i n one o f vari ous way s , e ac h o f whi c h i s marked in

hi s use of lan guage b y a di fferent set o f p ronoun s , where a haphaz ard
i n t e rchange is l ike ly to mar the c ode of propriet y , t hough not n e c e s s
ari l y o f comp rehen s i on . Thi s is c l early contrary to the view t hat a k u
'1 ', k u 1 6 ' 1 ' , and d a l E m ' 1 ' are mere ly surface varian t s or synonyms ,
whi c h may be d e s c rib e d as a one-many mapp ing in t he f o l l owing way :
By t he same t oken , we cannot say t hat ' y o u ' means exac t ly the s ame
as ' t h o u ' in Engl i s h . Yet , the Saus surian n o t i on t hat s e ems conveni ent
for de s crib ing the d i s t in c t ion b e t ween a k u '1 ', k u 1 6 ' 1 ' , and d a l E m ' 1 ' ,
and a l s o the d i s t in c t i on b e t ween ' y o u ' and ' t ho u ' , does not seem t o
ac c ommo date n e c e s s ary c lari fi c a t ions o f what word t o u s e t o whom .
We owe mo s t probab l y t o Hj ems l e v for h i s e l ab orat ion o f the
Saus surian c on c e p t o f lingu i s t i c s ign . Hj ems l e v ac c e p t e d de Saus sure ' s
c o n c e p t o f the a s s o c i at i ve comb inat ion o f Concept and Acou s t i c Image ,
whi c h Hj ems l e v c a l l e d Content and Expre s s ion re spe c t i ve l y . But Hj ems l e v
r e q u i r e d furt her t hat di s t in c t ion b e made b etween form a n d sub s t an c e
in b o t h l e ve l s o f content and expre s s ion . A c c o rdingly , Hj ems le v ' s
not ion of l ingui s t i c s ign may be repre s e n t e d as fo l lows :
content
expre s s ion
This e l aboration o f t he d i s t i n c t ion o f content and expre s s ion i s

r e s pon s i b l e for t he d i s t i n c t i on between the form o f expre s s ion , i . e .
the s o - c a l l e d -emics o f t he s y s t em in whi c h the s i gn i s a c omponent ,
and t he s ub s t an c e of expre s s i on , i . e . the -etics or t he phy s i cal
e lement s out o f whi c h the form o f expre s s i on i s ab s t rac t e d . In a
language , t h e s e e lement s are the s p e e c h s ounds .
On the content p lane , �e a l s o have t he form o f content , i . e . the
-emics o f meaning o r conc ept , whi c h i s an ab s t ract ion o f the - e t i c s
or t he sub s t an c e o f content , i . e . the seman t i c u s age ( vi de · Hj emslev
1961 : 106 ) . I n t h i s framework , enough room s e ems t o b e p rovided t o
121
a c c ommodate di fferent s emant i c usage s unde rlying t he u s e o f di fferent

words such as a k u 'I ' , k u 1 6 ' I ' , d a l E m ' I ' , e t c . The s e d i fferent usages
c on s t i t u t e the sub stance o f content , whi c h , on the form s ide o f t h e
content , refl e c t s a c on c ept t hat re fers t o ' fi r s t person ' .
The Chafean framework u s e d in t h i s s t udy s eems qui t e similar t o the
H j ems l e vi an approach t o the not ion o f l in gu i s t i c s i gn . A c c o rd i ng t o
Chafe , i n the same way t hat phone t i c s t ru c t ure i s an ab s t ract c on figur
at ion of s p e e c h s o un d s , s eman t i c s t ru c t ure cons t i t ut e s a theore t i cal
construct whi c h re fle c t s an ab s t ract i on o f obs ervab l e fac t s t hat are
within t he area of mean i n g . For examp l e , in Chap t e r 1 we have s e e n t hat
t he phone t i c s t ru c t ure of the Javan e s e s p e e c h s ounds is repre s en t ab le
as a mat rix o f fun c t ional e n s emb l e s o f q i s t i n c t ive feat ure s , whi c h are
e s t ab l i shed in t e rms of s u c h art i c ulat o ry p ropert i e s as are as and t yp e s
o f o c c lus ion in t h e s p e e c h trac t . A l t hough meaning lacks the tangi
b i li t y of s ound , i t i s neve rthe l e s s sub j e c t t o obs ervat i on , e . g . in
t he c a s e of native speakers b y means o f i n t ro s p e c t ion , o r even b y mean s
o f v e r i f i c at ion with s eman t i c t e st s , e . g . t h o s e o f the kind a s sugge s t e d
b y Leech ( 1 9 7 0 : 3 4 3- 3 6 4 ) .
S e n t e n c e s ( 39 2 ) - ( 3 9 6 ) and ( 3 9 7 ) - ( 4 0 1 ) reveal a c a s e where two o r
more very s imi lar , b ut not i dent i c a l o r fre e l y i n t e rchangeab le , meanings ,
whi c h a c c ordingly are s ub j e c t t o ab s t r a c t i on into d i fferent s eman t i c
s t ru c t ure s , are r e f l e c t e d i n t he surface s t ru c t ure b y two o r more d i f
ferent phy s i c al rep r e s e n t a t i on s . Fol lowing Chafe ( 1 9 7 1a : 1 2 ) , we may
rep resent the s i t uat ion as f o l l ows :
where Y and Z are two di fferent s urface s t ru c t ure s , r e f l e c t ing t wo

di f fe rent s eman t i c s t ru c t ure s , i . e . W an d X , e a c h o f whi c h fun c t i o n s
as a n ab s t ract theore t i cal c o n s t ru c t o f the meanings m a n d n r e sp e c t ive
ly , whi c h j us t due to their b e ing s im i l ar t o each other � are ind i c at ed
by t he i r c lo s e pro x imit y .
I n o t her word s , t he fa c t t hat in the area o f meaning sent enc e s ( 3 9 2 )
( 3 9 6 ) , and a l s o b y t h e same token s ent en c e s ( 3 9 7 ) - ( 4 0 1 ) , have a s ing l e
c ount erpart i n Engl i s h , i . e . 'I see y o u ' and ' Yo u see me
' r e sp e c t iv e l y ,
i s fort u i t ou s . Even more prec i s e l y , sent enc e s ( 3 9 2 ) - ( 3 9 6 ) may hav e t o
b e repr e se n t ed a s f o l l ows :
122
- .- W � Y a k u w E r o h kowe
#1 ' - - - - - -
-
m 'I see you
R � T ku 1 6 s umE r E p sampeyan
n 'I see you #2 ' - -
0 'I see you #3 ' - - - - - - S � K k u 1 6 s um E r E p p a n j E n E n a n
P 'I see you #4 ' -
- - _
-
_
L � v d a l Em s um E r E p p a n j E n E n a n
q 'I see you #5 '- - _
X � Z a k u w E roh panj E n E n a n
I n t he t radi t i onal stud i e s o f J avan e s e s p e e c h d e c orum , a l s o known
as s p e e c h l e v e l s , the d i s cu s s i o n s have gener a l l y b e en fo c u s e d on t he
areas of Y , . . . Z , i . e . t he areas o f surfac e d ifferenc e s , w i t h sket c hy
exp lanat ion of t he areas of meaning , i . e . m , . . . q. A l t hough t h i s i s
not c omp let e l y erroneou s , what i s lac king i s a c lar i f i c a t i on o f t he
ar e a s o f s emant i c s t r u c t ure , i . e . t he areas of W , X , whi c h i n our
v i ew l end t hems e l v e s to a d e s cript ion in t erms of the t yp e s o f relat i on
s h i p s t hat o c cur between a sp eaker and h i s interlocutor .
The i n i t ial pro c e s s o f language u s e , where a relat ionship bridge i s
e s t ab l i s he d by t he sp eaker t o c o v er a certain d i s t anc e , l et u s say
p s y c ho l o g i c a l a s we l l as s o c ial , b e t ween him and his i n t er lo cutor , i s
r e s p on s ib l e f or t h e d i s t inct i o n s o f degr e e s o f c ourt e s y . The number
and t y p e s of d i s t an c e s , and ac c ordingly t he degr e e s of c ourt e s y , are
o b v i o u s l y fluid . But we b e l i ev e t hat t o a c ertain degree forma l i sat ion
can be made o f r e lat ionships t hat o c cur between a sp eaker and h i s
i n t er l o cutor , par t i c ularly s in c e t he s e r el at i on s hi p s ar e r e f l e c t ed i n
t he s ur f a c e r e pr e s entat ion in a q u i t e r egular i s ed pat t er n . In this
extra-l ingu i s t i c area where a c ertain re lat ionship i s t o b e det ermined ,
s u c h q u e s t i on s as r e s p e c t , p o l i t enes s , kinship re lat ionship , educat ion ,
w ea l t h , f a c i a l app earan c e as w e l l a s c l o t hing and t he l i ke are inv o l v ed .
One o f t he mo s t apparent l ingu i s t i c mani f e s t at ions in t he e s t a b l i s h
ment of a r elat ionship i s t he o b l igatory c ho i c e of a certain addr e s s
reference f o r one ' s interlo cutor , whi c h s imu l t aneously imp l i e s t he
c ho i c e o f addr e s s ref erenc e for o n e se l f . S i n c e t h i s re lat ionship i s
det ermined b y t he sp eaker , and t hi s d e t ermin e s t h e appropriat e word for
'you ' and t he appropriate word for ' I ' , t h i s re lat ionship s y s t em seems
to f o l low t he law o f imp l i c at ion , which may repr e sented a s :
A f. . B
(----...
where A i s a word for ' y o u ' and B i s a word for ' I ' , b o t h of whi c h
apply u n d e r a c o n s t ra int t hat i s r e sp on s i b l e f o r t he c orrec t n e s s o f
t he f o l l owing :
1. kowe � a k u
2. s a m p e y a n +-----+ k u 1 6
3. panj En Enan � ku 1 6
4. panj E n E � a n � da l Em
5. panj EnEnan � aku
123
but not for t he f o l lowing :

6. * kowe � d a l E m
7. * kowe � k u 1 6
8. * sampeyan � da l Em
The l a s t t hr e e ' r elat i on s h ip s ' , i . e . 6 - 8 , are not a c c e p t ab l e , for
t her e is inc o n s i s t en c y in t he imp l i c at ion . That i s , o n c e it i s
det ermined t hat t he re lat ionship i s devoid of forma l i t y and deference
o n t he part o f t he sp eaker , t he word kowe ' y o u ' is s e l e c t ed . The
c ho i c e o f d a l E m ' I ' , however , is contrad i c t ory to t he f i r s t c ho i c e ,
since d a l Em ' I ' ind i cat e s hum i l i t y o f paramount imp ortan c e on the
part o f t he speaker . The use of t he expr e s s ion k u 1 6 ' I ' , where d e f
erenc e o f a l e s ser d egree t han d a l E m ' I ' i s involved , w i l l s t i l l rai s e
a c o nf l i c t i n t he d i s tance t yp e o f t h e r e lat ionship . The c h o i c e of
sampeyan ' y o u ' a l s o ind i c at e s t he ab s e n c e o f marked d e f er enc e or
hum i l i t y on t he p art o f the s peaker . The use o f s a m p e y a n ' y o u ' imp l i e s
t he u s e o f k u 1 6 ' I ' , or , in a c e r t a i n c o n t ex t , e s p ec i a l l y o n e where
some d i a l e c t a l i nfluenc e o f East J avan e s e u s ag e t ak e s p la c e , t he u s e
of a k u 'I ' . The use of da l E m ' I ' a s shown in 8 i s contrary t o t he
f ir s t c ho i c e .
In t he next pro c e s s , t h e e s t a b l i shed re lat i o n s hip b e t w e e n a speaker
and his i n t er lo c u t o r imp o s e s a c o n s traint on t he c ho i c e o f t he
approp r i at e l e x i c a l i t ems and synt a c t i c a l devic e s , p ar t i cularly a f f ix e s ,
t o form sentenc e s . For examp l e , a sp eaker who s e l e c t s , a l t hough not
n e c e s sari l y always over t l y u s e s ) p a n j E n E � a n ' y o u ' t o r e f er t o his int er
locutor will hav e t o use not only d a l E m ' I ' or ku 1 6 'I ', and in some
c a s e s probab ly a k u 'I ' , t o r e f er to him se l f , but also c er t a in word s
su c h as � a h a r ' ea t ' t o form p a n j E n E � a n d a h a r ' y o u e a t ' , and n E a 6 ' ea t '
to form k u 1 6 � E d 6 'I ea t ' or d a l E m n E � 6 'I e a t ' . The u s e o f * d a l E m
d a h a r or * k u 1 6 � a h a r to expr e s s 'I e a t ' w i l l b e a breach o f d e c orum .
An insult w i l l even b e invol ved if * k u 1 6 d a h a r ' I e a t ' or * d a l E m d a h a r
i s mat ched by * p a n j E n E � a n n E d 6 ' You e a t ' .
The relat ionship between a speaker and h i s interlocutor may b e
c la s s i f i ed into two typ e s . The f i r s t t y p e may b e u s ed rec ipro c a l ly
as w e l l as non-rec ipr o c a l l y . The s e c ond t y p e i s u s ed non-r e c ipro ca l l y
only . In modern Javan e s e , t he u s e o f t he s e c ond t yp e i s quit e l im i t ed .
I t c an b e found in t he language u sed in Java n e s e c l a s s i c a l p lays or
p lays d e p i c t i ng c ourt s t or i e s , and also in praying . I n this r elat ion
ship , t he sp eaker i s in an inferior statu s . The speaker w i l l r e f er t o
him s e l f as ka w u 1 6 l i t erally ' (your) subjec t ' , from whi c h t he l e s s
deferent word k u 1 6 ' I ' i s derived , a b d l d a l Em or abd i d a l Em kawu 1 6
l it erally ' y o ur s er v an t ' or ' y our s u bj e c t and s er v an t ' . The sp eaker
w i l l r e f er t o h i s int erlocut or , who from h i s p o int o f v iew i s alway s
124
o f a sup er ior statu s , e . g . G od , a d e it y , o r a king , a s s a m p e y a n d a l E m

l i t er a l l y ' y our fe e t ' , p a n j E n E n a n d a l E m ' y our wa L king s ti c k ' , or n a r s 6
d a l E m l it e r a l ly ' ( t he ground ) i n fron t o f y o u ' . Furt hermore , t he
addr e s s e e w i l l , or as requ ir ed by t he o c c a s io n i s supp o se d t o , refer
t o him se lf a s e n s on ' I ' and t o t he sp eaker a s s i r 6 ' y o u ' . Un l i k e m o s t
o f t he o t her t y p e s o f r e l a t i o n s hip s , t h i s non-rec ipr o c a l re lat ionship
i s not su s c ep t i b l e o f a swi t c h t o any ot her r e la t i o n s hip . Moreover ,
. interc hange of t he u s e of addr e s s re ferenc e s i s not p ermit ted .
Anot her non-r ec ipro cal r e l at ion ship i s l im i t e d in s ome gentry
oriented hou sehold s , i . e . where t he famil i e s ar e r e l a t ed t o some l ine
o f ar i s t ocracy or where t he fam i l i e s pre serve t he use o f addre s s
r e f e r en c e s supp o sedly c hara c t e r i s ing ar � st o crac y . I n t he s e c ir c l e s ,
t he infer ior-status speaker , e . g . a c hild , a j unior member o f the
Pam i l y , or a s ervan t , u s e s d a l Em ' I ' to r efer to him s e l f or her s e l f ,
and p a n j E n E n a n d a l Em o r n a n d a l E m ' y o u ' t o refer t o hi s o r her sup erior
s t a t u s i n te r l o c utor , e . g . a parent , a senior member of t he fami ly s u c h
a s un unc l e , aun t , a n d not infreque n t l y an o lder s i b l ing . T he addr e s s e e
w i l l u s e k o w e � a k u r e l a t i o n s hip t o t he s p ea ker .
In t he inv e s t i gator ' s own hou s e ho l d , and a l s o in many o t he r s where
t he hu s band and t he wife are educated , t hough not n e c e s sar ily o n t he
same leve l of a c hi evement , a d i ffer ent non-r e c ipro cal re l a t i o n s hip i s
u se d b e t we en t he hu sband and t he w i f e . The wife r e f e r s t o her hu sband
as panj E n E n a n a k u ' I ' . The hu sband refers to
' y o u ' and t o her s e l f a s
hi s wife a s kowe aku ' I ' .
' y ou ' and t o him s e l f as In o t her fami l i es ,
t he wife refers t o her husband as s a m p e y a n ' y o u ' and t o her s e l f a s
a k u ' I ' .. T he husband u s e s kowe � a k u r e l at i o n s hip a s above .
T he r e are t hr e e b a s i c t yp e s of relat ionships whi c h may be u s ed
r e c ipr o c a l ly in J avane se :
1. k o w e � a k u re lat ionship
2. s a m p e y a n � k u l 6 r e lat i o n s hip
3. p a n j E n E n a n � k u l 6 r e lat ions hip
I t w i l l have b e en under stood , t hat t he e s t ab l i s hment of kowe �
a ku re lat i o n s hip i s re spons i b l e for s u c h l e x i c a l s p e c i f i cat ions a s
i l lu s trated b y rul e s # 1 7 - # 3 5 .
Sup p o s e we u se such l e t t e r s as K , M , and P t o symbo l i se kowe �
a ku . s a m p e y a n � k u l 6 . and p a n j E n E n a n � k u l 6 r e lat i o n s h i p s
r e s p ec t iv e l y , whe r e t he que s t ion o f whe c her t he r o l e s of sp eaker and
addr e s s e e s hould be a s sumed by t wo d i fferent p er s o n s or t he same p er s on
i s irr elevan t , but where t he same p er s on a s sume s t he t wo ro l e s , t he
r e lat ion ship c ho s en is a lway s kowe � a k u . Then in a s imp l if i e d
manner of C hafe ' s model we m a y summar i s e t he s eman t i c proc e s s e s whi c h
t erm inat e i n t he l ex ic a l s p e c i f i c a t i o n s o f a J avan e s e word a s follows
125
( where U = nuc lear word ; H = p er ip heral word ; L = a b s t r a c t form o f a

r e l evant l e x i c a l i t em ; � ' in t he c on t e x t o f ' ) :
I. Format ion Pro c e s s
1. Word �{ � }
2. U
�> { : }
II. Sp e c i f i cat ion Pro c e s s
a. S e l e c t ional
�{ }
state
3. V
V
non - s t a t e
� l tate
4. V �> [ l V
�tate
[� 1
state
M
t at e
b. Lex i c a l
f kowe ' y ou ' l

5. 1 6 r6 ' si ck ' � t a k u 'I ' J
{ 'YOU'
}
sampeyan
6. saket ' sick ' �
'}
ku 1 6 'I'
7. [� l �> Jl
P
tate
9 E ra h
saket
' sick '
' s ick '

� panj E n E�an
� ku 1 6 'I '
'you
126
A s we can see here , we may say t hat 5 , 6 , and 7 are i n c omp lementary
distribution . But t he ir be ing s o is in no way d e termined by any surface
c o n straint s , but rat her b y semant i c o ne s , whic h o p erate under 4 , wher e
t he c ho i c e of a par t i c ular r e lat i o n s hip i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t he o b l iga
t ory c ho i c e of appropr ia t e addr e s s forms and l ex ic a l i t ems .
4.4. S TANVARV VS . NON - S TA NV ARV J A V A N ES E
W i t h r egard t o Engl i s h , i t has b e c ome fashi onab l e t o make a d i s t in c

t io n b e t ween t he s p e e c h of t he educated , generally known a s s tandard
Eng l i s h , and t he s o - c a l l e d non- s t andard Engl i s h . D i f f er en c e s wit hin
s t andard Eng l i s h , due t o d i f feren c e s o f t he leve l s o f educat ion ,
o c c upat i o n , soc ial s tand ing , and t ho s e of geograp h i c a l areas , are
minima l . Non-st andard Eng l i s h , o n t he o t her hand , shows var iat i o n s of
a muc h greater magni t ude . R i c h and aff e c t ive v o c ab u l ar i e s are found
out s i d e even the c e l ebrated Web s t er ' � Int ernat i onal D i c t ionary , whic h
t o a c ertain e x t e n t r e f l e c t s t he b a s i c port ion o f st andard Engl i s h .
W i t h r egard t o J avan e s e , t he s o - c a l l ed St andard Speec h i s b a s i c a l l y
geograp h i c a l ly a s w e l l a s soc i a l l y det ermine d . That i s , i t has gener
a l ly been a c c ep t e d t hat t he Javane s e s po ken in the t wo c it ie s o f
Surakart a and Y ogyakar t a b y t he educated and t h e gentry , i . e . t ho s e
who inher i t t he now meaning l e s s ari st ocracy -or iented l i fe trad i t ion
and ran k , and a l so t ho s e who are s imp ly in a whi t e - c o l lar o c cupat ion ,
i s t he m o s t p r e s t igious s p e ec h . Thi s acceptance o f the J avane s e o f
Surakar t a and Yogyakart a i s s hown b y t he fact t hat t h i s var i e t y o f
J avane s e i s t he one t hat i s t aught i n s c ho o l s i n and out s id e t he t wo
c i t ie s .
The main c harac t e r i st i c feature o f s t andard J avane s e , a s rea l i s ed
by t he c on straint s on t he c ho i c e of c orrect relat ionship , i s , a s
ment ioned earl i er , b a s i c al l y a r e f l e c t ion o f a n o u t l o o k where i t i s
d e s irabl e t o exalt one ' s i n t er l o c utor and t o u s e humb l e t erms t o refer
t o one s e l f . T h i s out l o o k mu s t have developed when subt l e soc ial d iffer
enc e s among t he speakers o f Javan e s � c ame to the a t t e nt io n o f t he s e
s p eaker s , who s e u s e of s p e e c h a c c ordingly c a l l e d for e laborat e d i ffer
ent i a t i o n s o f v o c abular i e s . One of t h e apparent examp l e s i s s hown b y
t he word k u 1 6 'I ' < k a w u 1 6 ' s ervan t, s u b j e a t ' , which r e f l e c t s a t r a c e
o f hum i l i t y . In some ar eas in t he nor t h p art of C entral J av a , p art i cu
larly in t he c i t ie s o f Tegal and P ekalongan , t he use of k a w u 1 6 ' I ' may
s t i l l be ob s erved .
N o n - s t andard J avane s e i s c hara c t e r i s ed by t he u s e of v o c abular i e s
whi c h are e i t her unknown in st andard Javane s e o r known o n l y a s ka s a r
' ru d e ' . Furt hermor e , in some areas , i t may a l so b e c haract e r i s ed by
a p ho n o l o g i c a l variat ion . For examp l e , in some d i al e c t s of East J ava ,
127
c e r t a in words hav e d if ferent vow e l s from t ho s e u s e d i n Surakar t a and

Yogyakart a . I n st ead o f i and u , e and 0 are u s ed :
St andard Non-st andard

p i t e q , a h i a ken ' p e t eq ' ahi aken '
t u t oq ' hi t ' t o t o q ' hi t '
Among cert ain speakers of t he s e d i a l e c t s , �owever , r e fined s p e e c h
t hat would b e p a s s a b l e t o s t andard Javan e s e sp eaker s a s f a r a s s p e e c h
d e corum i s c o n c erned i s a l s o not i c ed .
V i o l a t i o n s of s p e e c h d e c orum are normal l y due t o e i t her exa l t i ng
on e s e l f or exalt ing o ne ' s i n t e r l o cutor unnec e s sarily . The s e v iolat ions
are r e s p o n s i b l e for s u c h a lab e l l i ng o f t he speech u s e o f k r 6m6 d e 5 6
' v i l l age t y p e a o u r t e B Y ' , i . e . where sp ee6 h d e c orum go e s awry . An
e x amp l e of k r 6m6 de 5 6 i s where a speaker say s * k u l o p e r 5 6 i n s t e ad o f
t he corr e c t expr e s s ion k u 1 6 5 um E r E p ' I Bee ' , which is used in a context
where p a n j E n E n a n p e r 5 6 ' You B e e ' , or l e s s cour t e o u s ly but neverthe l e s s
a l s o corre c t : 5 a m p e y a n 5 um E r E p ' y o u B e e ' i s used .
I n s uf f i c i ent e x p o s ure t o St andard Javane s e i s a l s o r e s pon s i b l e for
t he c r ea t i o n o f what is known a s ' hyper c orre c t form ' . This hyper corr e c t
f orm i s u s ed a s a c ourt e o u s word by a sp eaker who i s not aware t hat t he
c ourt e s y imp l i ed b y t he hypercorrec t n e s s i s not ac c ep t ab l e in s t andard
u sage . Thi s hyp ercorr e c t form doe s not b e long t o t he v o c abulary o f
st andard Javane se . For examp l e , knowing t hat t here are p a ir s o f non
c ourt e sy v s . c ourt e s y words such a s d a d i ' b e aome ' : d a d 6 5 ' be a om e ' ,
ka n t i 'patien t ' : k a n t 6 5 ' p a t i en t ' , j a t i ' teak ' : j a t6s ' teak ' , a
s peaker of non - s t andard Javane se may use w E d 6 s ' afra i d ' , whi c h i s never
a c c ep t a b l e in s t andard J avane s e , i n s t ead o f t he c orre c t and c ourt e o u s
word : a j r e h ' afra id ' . T h e u s e o f w E d 6 s ' afrai d ' , or m o r e appropr iat e l y
* w E d 6 s , i s appar ently b a s e d o n t he p r e s e n c e o f � he non- c ourt e o u s word
w E d i ' afra i d ' . Even '� a j r 6 5 , a hyp er c orr e c t ion of a j r e h ' afrai d ' d o e s
o c c a s i onally o c cur in t he s p e e c h o f c e r t a i n sp eaker s , w h o m o s t probab ly
t hink t hat a j r e h ' afra i d ' is not p o l i t e enough .
4.5. T H E V E V E L O PM EN T O F T H E C H I LV ' S C OMMU N I C AT I V E C A PA C I T Y
The h i s t o r i c a l aspe c t s t hat have brought about t he c omp l e x i t y of

t he J avane s e v o c abulary , s t i ll i n t he area in want o f furt her inter
d i s c ip l inary scrutini e s , have b e en s ubj e c t t o expos itory studi e s b y
s c ho lar s o f I ndone s ian c u l t ure ( vide G onda 1 9 4 7 : 3 3 3 - 3 7 6 , par t i c u larly
hi s b i b l iograp h i c al re feren c e s ) .
For t he d e s c r ip t io n of J avan e s e as w e l l as for t he sake of t he
s p eaker s of t he language , mo s t pert inent i s t he f a c t t hat � here are
rul e s t hat have t o b e f o l l owed b eyond ' synt a c t i ca l corre c t ne s s ' in
128
order t hat t he u s e of s p e e c h b e ac c e p t ab l e in a given ccnt ex t . That i s ,

the know l e dge of s u c h a sentence stru c t ur e as X Y Z as may b e r e a l i s e d
in E ng l i s h a s ' The m a n fe e d s t h e dog ' i s n o t suff i c i ent in Javane s e .
A J avane s e c h l l d , in order not t o v io l a t e s p e e c h d e c orum alr eady e s tab
l i s hed in hi s speech c ommun it y , has t o l earn t hat t he s urface form o f
t he struc ture X Y Z i s one , at l e a s t , o f :
X Y -(n) i Z
l l l
and X Y -(n ) i Z
2 2 2
wher e , in t erms o f t h e phono l o g i c a l shap e s , and , as a mat t er of our
a s sump t ion , a l s o in t erms of meaning s , X � X , Y � Y , Z � Z .
l 2 l 2 l 2
In t he early st age s of h i s developme n t , t he Javane s e c hild c ommuni
c at e s rec iproc a l l y b y means o f kowe � a k u relat ions hip w i t h his
paren t s and o t her elder i n t e r l o c u t or s , and a l so w i t h his p e er s . In
t he meant ime , t he c h i l d has a l s o t o l e arn t hat t here a r e subt l e differ
enc e s b e t we e n t al king to one ' s own group and t alking t o out s i der s .
He has t o l earn t hat t here i s more t han one t yp e of relat i o n s hip
b et we e n him and his interlocutor s .
T he c hi ld has t o l earn the appropriate u s e of c ourt e s y word s , whi c h ,
d e sp it e t he ir c omparat ively much smal l er numb er t han t he word s t hat he
can u s e at ease in t he kowe � a k u r el at ionship , r equire a high
degree o f prec i s ion , s o t hat h i s speech may b e a c c e p t ed , part i c u larly
b y his e ld e r s . These kowe � a k u v o c ab u l ary i t ems form p ar t o f what
are t r ad i t ional ly known as Ngoko ( i . e . Fren c h ' tutoyer ' ) word s .
T he known and uncont e s t e d c ount of non-Ngoko wor d s in r e la t i o n t o
t h e b u l k o f t he J avane s e vocabulary i s ab out 1 4 % ( Wa l b e ehm 1 8 9 6 : 3 0 - 3 1 ) .
I t i s under s t andab l e t hat s in c e t he parent s and t he c hi l d s hare NgOko
word s a s t he l anguage o f i n s t ru c t ion , t he e ffort o f t he parent s t o
t e a c h t he c h i l d c ourt e s y word s and t he e ffort of t he c h i l d t o acquire
t hem are mad e e a s i e r .
T he s o - c a l l e d t 6 t 6 k r 6m6 ' d e corum ' i s in fa c t pr imar i l y ana l o g i c a l
t o t he u s e o f r e fined l anguage , and not mer e l y a c omp l ex c o d e of good
p hy s ic a l c onduct t hat is highly valued in a J avane s e so c iet y , where ,
e . g . t he u s e of r ight hand to c ommuni c a t e with o t he r s i s t 6 t 6 k r6m6 ,
wher eas t he u s e o f l e f t hand i s always rud e .
The J avan e s e c h i l d has t o l e arn t hat some words ar e a l o s ' refined '
or a p e q ' g o o d ' , and as s u c h ar e pro p er if u s ed for o t her persons b u t
m a y b e r i d i c u l o u s i f app l i e d t o one s e l f , a n d t hat some ot her wor d s are
k a s a r ' rude ' or e l e q ' bad ' i f app l ie d t o o t hers but not n e c e s s ar i l y
a lway s b a d i f app lied t o one s e l f , and s t i l l t hat some o t her word s are
appropriate in any c o n t e x t and some o t her words ar e i nappropr i a t e in
any c o n t ex t .
129
A s l o ng a s t he c h i l d i s only c apab l e of man ipul at ing t he k ow e �

a k u relat ionship and only Ngoko word s , he i s referred t o as d u r o � b i s 6
b 6 s 6 ' n o t y e t oapab � e of s p e a king proper � y ' , an a t t r i b u t e t hat he w i l l
have t o shed i n order t hat h e may b e ab le t o g e t o n in t he world .
The a c qu i s i t ion o f s p e e c h d e c orum i s c l early arr ived at from some
ext ernal i n f luenc e . Evid enc e s abound t hat t h i s is so . There are c a s e s
wher e maids or s ervant s who c ome from rural areas t o a household i n
Surakarta w i t h mer e l y t he ab i l i t y t o u s e t he kowe � a k u re lat ionship
and probab ly a l s o t he s am p e y a n � k u 1 6 r e lat ionship w i t h t he ir relat ed
vocabular i e s , are finally able t o ma s t e r t he most c ourt e o u s re lat i o n s h i p ,
i . e . the p a n j E n E n a n � k u 1 6 r elat ions hip , or e v e n t he p a n j E n E n a n
� d a l Em re lat ionship , whi c h i s even more preferab l e , w i t h t he r e la t ed
vocabulary of c ourt e s y aft er years of serv i c e in t he hou s e ho l d . There
ar e a l so known c a s e s where p er so n s of s im il ar s it ua t i on s , working in a
hou s e ho l d where only t he K , i . e . kowe � a k u , relat i o n ship and t he
M, i . e. s am p e y a n � k u 1 6 , r e lat ionship are c o n s id ered suff i c i en t ,
e.g. in a l e s s c u l t ivated fam i l y or in many c a s e s in a J avan e s e s p ea king
fam i l y o f Chine s e d e s c ent , w i l l , after y e ar s of serv i c e in t he c it y ,
s t i l l b e in t h e s t age of o r a b i s 6 b 6 s 6 ' n o t oapab � e of s p e a king
p r o p er � y ' , when t hey are to c ommun i c a t e in a c o n t e x t t hat requires
t he u s e o f t he P , i . e . panj EnEnan � k u 1 6 or p a n j E n E � a n � d a l Em
r e l at ionship .
Furthermor e , a l s o due to t he external f a c t or s , part i c u l ary parent s ,
some c h ildren may achieve t he c apa c i ty o f manipulat ing a l l t he t hr e e
r elat i o n s h i p s w i t h d e x t e r i t y a t a younger a g e t han o t her c hi l dr e n .
T hu s in a c er t a i n way within s t andard J avan e s e t here i s a ver t i c a l
s c a l e o f s o c ia l d i a l ec t s , i n whi c h t he paramount value i n t erms o f
s p e e c h d e c orum i s a s c r ib e d t o a c ommun icat ive c omp et e nc e t hat enab l e s
a sp eaker t o u s e t h e K , M , and P r e lat ionships i n t he appropriate
c o n t ex t . The l e a s t valued i s t he capac i t y o f only u s ing t he K r e lat ion
ship , whi c h is not i nfrequent among chi ldren and also those o f t he l e s s
p r i v i leged c l a s s .
4.6. K R E LATI ONSH I P
One o f t he s igni f i c ant featur e s c harac t er i s ing the r e lat i o n s hip

b e t ween a speaker and his interlocutor is forma l i t y . Forma l i t y in
Javane s e i s genera l l y a s s o c i a t e d with r e s p e c t , genuine or c eremonial .
S imu lt aneous w i t h forma l i t y i s invo lved a r igorous e lab orat ion of t he
p hy s i c a l c ondu c t of t he s p e e c h par t i c ipant who i n i t i a t e s forma l i t y .
Informa l i t y , on t he ot her hand , normally invo l v e s more re laxed
p hy s i c a l conduct . Where s t andard kine s i c s may b e involved �n a formal
re lat ionship , s u c h kine s i c s may be involved in a formal r elat ion s hip ,
130
s u c h kine s i c s may b e t o t a l l y ab sent i n an j nformal re l a t i o n ship . For

examp l e , forma l i t y invo lves apparent head and t o r so bowing , whereas
i n forma l i t y d o e s not .
One of t he apparent man i f e s t a t i on s of the t 6 t 6 k r6m6 ' deao rum '
c hara c t e r i s e d as formal i s the p o sture c a l l e d n a p u r a n c a n , where one
puts o ne ' s hand o n top o f ano t her hand , both of whi c h are p la c e d in
front of t he s t oma c h . I n a formal re lations hip , t he p o s t ure c a l l e d
m a l a n k E r e q ' 8 tanding a kimb o ' i s generally c o n s idered q u i t e rud e . In
an informa l r e la t i on s hip , on t he o t her hand , t he t 6 t 6 k r6m6 ' de a orum '
d o e s not o b l igat or i l y require n a p u r a n c a n and m a l a n k E r e q , whi l e in mo s t
c a s e s n o t preferred , i s permi s s i b l e . Moreover , l o oking o ne ' s addre s se e
straight in t he eye may somet imes b e a breach o f d e corum in a formal
r e l at i o n ship . In an informal relat ionship , it is not . Ob j ec t p o i nt ing
i n a formal relat ionship is preferab ly to be done by point ing t he t humb
o f t he r ight hand to the obj e c t , w i t h t he o t her four f i ngers forming a
f i st . The u s e o f t he index finger for s u c h a purp o s e in a formal
re lat i o n s h i p is a bad d e c orum . I nforma l i t y a l lows not only t he u s e
o f t he index f inger , but a l s o point ing t oward t he general d i r e c t ion o f
t he i n t e r l o c u to r ' s fac e w i t h i t . Formal i t y may b e rec ipro c a l o r non
r e c iproc a l . A non-re c ipro c a l formal i t y requires t hat the s p e e c h
p ar t i c ipant t o whom forma l i t y i s ac c orded hav e t he p r i v i l e g e o f b e i ng
a ll owed , or more prec i s e ly reques t e d , t o go first in enter ing a door .
I nforma l i t y al lows e i t her s p e e c h par t i c ipant t o wal k abreast w i t h h i s
s p e e c h c ounterpar t , or p r e c e d e him i n ent er ing a door .
The K r e lat ionship i s c hara c t er i sed by informa l i t y . We may r epr e s e nt
t he s eman t i c structure o f , for exrunp le , a s t a t e verb t hat i s u s e d in
t he K r e lat ionship a s f o l l ows :
V
state V[ 1 state
� formal
4.7. C O NS T R A I NTS O N I N FO R MA L I T V
Forma l i t y and i nformal i t y are indep endent o f any cons ideration o f

s t a t u s s im i l ar i t i e s o r d i fferenc e s . That i s , forma l i t y o r informa l i t y
m a y o c cur b etween equa l s or b e t w e e n s p e e c h par t i c ipan t s o f d i fferent
soc ial statuse s . When informa l i t y invol v e s d i fferent s t a t u s e s , i t is
a lway s e x er c i sed b y t he s p e e c h p art i c ipant who is o f a sup er i or s t a t u s ,
and norma l ly i s not s u s c e p t i b l e t o c ount erbalance o f informa l i t y from
the s p e ec h p art i c ipant who is of a lower s t at u s , unle s s t he l at t er i s
inv i t ed t o r e c iprocate b y t he former . Thu s , for i n s t an c e ,. in a n o f f i c e
or o t her f ormal s i tuat ions where o f f i c ial o r formal mat t er s , s u c h a s
131
bus ine s s o r government a l a f fair s , are t o b e c ondu c t ed , t he sup eriors

are l i ke ly t o exer c i s e informa l i t y in t he i r use o f s p e e c h b y means of
t he K re lat ionship t oward t he lower ranking o f f i c e wor k er s , who normal ly
do not r e c iprocat e .
The superior-inferior cat egor i e s invo l v e , among o t her t hings , in
t h e d e s c ending order o f s ign i f i c anc e , s t a t u s or rank , age , and wealth
or t he app earan c e of i t . A v i l l age mayor speaking t o t he v i l l ager s , an
e x ec u t iv e sp eaking to h i s emp lo y ee s , a m i l i t ary c ommander s p eaking t o
h i s subalt ern s , a n e l d e r memb er o f a family s peaking t o a younger member ,
or a husband sp eaking to h i s w i fe , i s in a p o s i t io n t o e x er c i se inform
ality and p r i v i l eged t o u s e t he K relat ionship . An o l d man u s e s t hi s
r e lat i o n s hi p when sp eaking t o a younger man , i f t he l a t t er i s not
sup erior i n ran k . A wealthy b u s i n e s sman u s e s t hi s relat i o n s hip when
speak ing to a pred i c ab driver , but not to his mayor , a l t hough t he mayor
is younger and probab ly l e s s pro sperous t han he i s .
Anot her s ig n i f i c an t feat ure c harac t e r i s i ng t he K r e l at i o n s hip i s
i n t ima c y . Int imacy alone , however , d o e s no t alway s d i c t a t e t he
p r i v i l eg e of u s ing t he K relat ionship . In a fam i l y , the parent s speak
in t he K re lat ionship t o the c h i l dren . In t h i s s i tuat ion , int imacy i s
a s s ign i f i c ant a s informa l i t y , w h i l e r e s p e c t i s not a s r e l evant a s i t
i s i n a forma l r e lat ionship . The c hi l dren , when t hey ar e s t i l l t o o
young or grow ing up in a l e s s c u l t ivated fami l i e s , m a y s p eak in t he K
r e lat i o n s hip t o t h e ir parent s . But in many fam i l i e s t he c h i ldren are
t aught and r equired t o speak in t he P r elat i o n s hip , which is m o s t
courteou s , t o t h e ir parent s . The u s e o f t he P r e lat ionship in t h i s
k ind o f s i t uat ion i s appar e n t ly n o t so much d u e t o any l a c k of int imac y
on t he p art o f t he c h i l dren t oward t he i r parent s , but rat her t o a
man i f e s t at ion o f good c ondu c t , i . e . r e s p ec t , a feature t hat i s not only
signi f i c ant in a formal relat ion ship , but also inherent in t he n o t i on
o f t6 t6k r6m6 ' d e c orum ' and a r e f l e c t ion of good upbringing .
We may summar i s e t he r e l a t i o n s h i p s t hat o b t a i n b e t ween d i f ferent
generat ions and also b e t w e en memb ers of t he same g enerat ion wit hin a
fam i l y as f o l l ow s ( where Gpa = grandpar e nt s ; Pa = parent s ; E = ego ;
C h = chi ldre n ; A ----- Z = d e s c endi ng hierar c h i c a l s c a l e of seniority
in t erms o f age or r e s p ec t , where husb and i s cons idered senior i n
c omp ar i son t o w i fe ; ====9 = o b l igatory u s e o f re lat ionship , wit h t he
head of t he arrow repres ent ing t he dire c t i o n ; � = = = = = = opt ional u s e o f
t he lab e l l e d r e lat ionship , whic h in t h i s fam i l y - or i ented s ituation may

be replaced b y t he K r e l at ion ship ) :
132
F I GU R E R
Senior Juni o r
K �
P �========================
S e c on d a s c e nding
A Gpa Z
gene rat ion
A
I
Pa Z
F i r s t a s c ending
generation
A E
I Z Ego ' s gene rat ion
A
I
Ch Z
F i r s t de s c ending
generat ion
Out s i de a fami ly , a swi t c h from t he P relat ionship o r t he M relat ion

ship to the K re lat ionship may t ake p la c e with t he increas ing int imacy
b etween t he s p e aker and his interlocut o r . The revers e , howeve r , i s
n o t t rue . F o r i n s t an c e , a s p e aker and h i s interlocutor may s t art t h e i r
s p e e c h c ommu n i c a t i o n b y means o f a re ciprocal P or M re lat ionshi p , and
w i t h t he i n c re a s ing int imacy b etwe e n t hem e ither party i s p r i v i leged t o
i n i t i at e t he u s e of t he K re lationship . However , a non-re c iprocal P
re lat i o n s hip or a non-re c ip ro c al M re lationship , where the addre s s e e
e x e rc i s e s t he K re lat ionship t oward t he speaker , c an swi t c h t o a
r e c i pr o c a l K re l at ionship only on the i n i t iat ive o f the addre s s e e .
T h i s i n i t i at ive may be real i s e d , for e xamp le , by such a cue from t h e
addre s s e e as 6 j 6 b 6 s 6 k a ro a k u ' Do n o t u s e c o u r t e s y w o r d s to me ' .
A swi t c h from the K relat i onship t o the M relati onship or the P
r e l at i o n s hip i s rare . Such a swit c h normal l y takes p lace under ext ra
ordinary p r e s sure . A c a s e i s known where a speake r , b e fore h i s c o n v i c
t io n , s poke in t he K re l at ionship t o o n e o f h i s c l o s e acquaintan ce s ,
who was a p r i s o n warden . 'When t he speaker was s erving h i s t ime i n a
p r i s o n where h i s ward�n acquaint an c e worke d , he had t o speak t o the
latter i n t h e P re lat ionship .
B e i n g s ub j e c t t o re c ip r o c a l i sat ion , the K re lat i onship may b e s a i d
t o b e c hara c t e r i s e d b y t he fe at ure equal i t y . Equa l i t y does n o t
n e c e s s a r i l y mean a feature where e q u a l s t a t u s o r rank , age , o r we a l t h
i s invo lve d . I t i s merely a r e f l e c t ion o f t h e speake r ' s p sy c h o l o g i c a l
d i s p o s i t ion t o neut ra l i s e s t atus d i ffere n c e s t hat a r e l i k e ly t o b e
ove rt ly marked b y means o f a non-re c iprocal relat ionship . As such
e qual i t y i s p r e sent only when the K re lationship i s u s e d rec ipro c a l l y .
Ob viou s ly , equa l i t y never o c curs in s u c h a s t r i c t l y non-re c iprocal
r e l at ionship a s the s a m p e y a n d a l E m � a b d i d a l E m re lat ionship , where
133
the addre s s e e i s G o d , a dei t y , o r a king . A s far a s p raying i s c on

c erne d , t he phenomenon of u s ing highly c ourt eous addre s s referenc e s i s
c ont rary t o what i s pra c t i c e d i n bahasa Indon e s i a and a l s o i n We s t e rn
language s , whe re t h e addre s s referen c e dire c t e d t o God i s t he in formal
form , i . e . the ' t u ' , and not the ' vous ' , form ( vide B rown and G i lman
1968 ) .
Thu s in a given c ontext o f l i n gui s t i c commun i c at i on where there
deve lop in forma l i t y and int imacy in t h e mind o f the s p e aker t oward his
interlo c utor , the s p eaker wi l l s e l e c t t he K relat i on s h i p t o c arry out
t h e c ommun i c at ion . The s emant i c s t ru c t ure of a verb , e . g . one chara c
t eri s ed as S t at e , whi ch i s u s e d in the K re lat i on s h i p may n o w b e re
pre s e n t e d as f o l lows ( where + o p t i onal ) :
V
s t at e
K
V ------�»
- formal
state
+int imate
�equal
Among fami l i ar friend s , where informa l i t y is at t h e highest degre e ,

s p e e c h c ommun i c at i on i s generally c ondu c t e d by means o f the K r e l a t i on
ship r e c i p ro c a l l y . A new membe r o f the group , howeve r , i s not l i k e l y
t o i n i t i a t e t h e use o f the K re lat i on s h i p . Informa l i t y and int imac y ,
whi c h are c harac t er i s t i c of the K r e l a t i o n s hi p , are the privi lege o f
t h e o l d- t imers t o init iate t oward the n e w memb e r , who i s exp e c t e d t o
rec ipro c at e .
In many fami l i e s , the c h i l dren are t aught from the e arly b e gi nning
t he y l e arn t o speak t o manipulate the u s e o f s p e e c h b y t h e K , M, and
P r e l at i o n s h i p s in t he app ropriate way . In s ome c a s e s e ve n t he use o f
t h e e x c l u s i ve l y non-re c ipro c a l re l at ionship , i . e . b y whi c h prayers are
c onduc t e d , is t aught to the c h i l dren when t hey are s t i l l very young .
In rural areas , genera l l y t he chi ldren l earn t o man ipulate the K , M ,
and P relationships mainly in s choo l .
A t the early phase o f s c ho o l - going age , i . e . b e t ween five t o s i x ,
the c h i l dren may s t i l l find it d i f f i c u l t commun i c a t i ng w i t h t he i r
t e acher in t h e proper relat ionship , i . e . P re lat ionship , while t he y
may g e t along we l l w i t h t he i r p e e r in the K re lat i on ship . The t eache r ,
t o whom informal i t y from t he part o f the young s t udent s i s a d e c o rum
v i o l a t i on , wi l l require the p roper u s e of t h e P re lat i onship and i t s
related court e s y words b y h i s s t udent s in addre s s ing him . He i s , on
t he o t he r hand , generally not c o n c e rned with the use o f non- c o urt e s y
words and t he K re lat ionship b y t h e student s among t hems e l ve s .
I n forma l i t y may a l s o re sult from a degenera t i o n o f the re lat i o n s h ip
b etween a sp eaker and h i s i n t e r l o c ut o r . Th i s u s u a l l y involve s a swi t c h
134
from the M o r P relat ionship t o the K re lationship . An evident i l l u s

t rat ion may b e o b s e rved in a squabb le , where the exchange o f s p e e c h i s
e x c l u s i v e l y c arried out i n the K re lationship . Obvious ly , the K
relat i on s hip in t h i s context cannot be s a i d as b e ing charac t e r i s e d as
int imat e . In such a s i t uat i on , informa l it y , part i c u l arly a demon
s t rat ive l a c k of respe c t , is put to the fore . As a mat t e r of fac t ,
one might e ven s ay t hat equality i s pushed aside in favour o f t he
as sump t ion o f sup e r i o r i t y on the part o f the speake r . That i s , e a c h
p art y c o n s i ders the other as o f a n inferior s t atus ent i t l e d t o no
more t h an the K re lat i onship .
In educated c i r c le s , the lower ranking addre s see i s not always w i l l
i n g t o a c c e p t t he K re lat ionship from a h i gher ranking speake r . A
young army o ffi c e r , a graduate of a mi l i t ary ac ademy , for i n s t anc e ,
w i l l not automatj. c a l ly respond in the P re lat ionship t o h i s superio r ,
who , t hinking t hat int imacy w i l l fac i l i t at e commun i c at ion w i t h h i s
subaltern s , speaks t o t he young o ff i c e r in the K re lat ionship . The
r e s p o n s e of the subalt e rn in t h i s s i t uat ion is l i ke l y to be in b ahasa
Indone s i a . The u s e of b ahasa Indone s i a , whi c h i s more egal i t arian
t han Javane s e , i s apparent l y t o neut ra l i s e the marked gap of human
s t at u s e s whi c h t he younger gene rat i on w i l l not ac c ep t re ad i ly .
4.8. T H E J A V A N ES E L EX I C ON
The J avan e s e l e x i c o n i s c hara c t e r i s e d by t he e x i s t en c e of d e corum

o r i e n t e d word s , the u s e of whi c h is alway s re l a t e d to a part i c u lar
re lat i o n s h ip , and a c c ordingly the use of whi c h , alt hough in a very
sma l l numbe r in c ompari s on t o the words t hat are alway s neut ral t o
any re l at ionship , must b e done w i t h pre c i s ion .
The c on ve r s i on o f meaning t o sound on the l e x i c a l level may b e
re c on s t ru c t e d i n t he fol lowing way . The i n i t i a l s t age o f t h e forma t i o n
o f a Javan e s e l e x i c al i t em t ak e s p lace when a general idea o r t hought
deve l o p s in t he mind of a speake r . In Chafe ' s words , t h i s general idea
b e l ongs t o " . . . a huge and mul t i dimens ional c o n c eptual space I I ( 1 9 7 1b : 5 8 ) ,
whi c h may b e p i c t ured as a shape l e s s configurat ion as fo l lows :
F I GU R E 9
135
I n order t hat the general idea c an b e conveyed t o an addre s s e e , it

is ne c e s s ary t hat the feat ure s o f the idea be organi s e d t hrough a
s eman t i c fi l t e r t hat c o n forms t o the s emant i c resources ava i l ab le i n
the l anguage ( Chafe 1 9 7 1b : 5 8 ) . Thi s organ i s at ion o f the feat ure s i s
re spon s i b l e for t h e e s t ab l i shment o f t h e s emant i c s t ruct ure , i . e . the
ab s t ract t heore t i cal c on s t ruc t , o f t he general i de a , a l s o known as
' me aning ' . Sup p o s e the general idea i s ' ho u s e ' , t h e n the f i l t eri ng
pro c e s s as it may apply t o Engli s h may b e shown as fol l ows :
F I GU R E 1 0
��____J--------r c ount
��----L - b i o t i c
-animate
' ho u 8 e '
In Javan e s e , on the other hand , t h e i n i t i a l s t age a l s o i nvo lves an

o b l i gatory c h o i c e of re lat ionship b e t we e n a speaker and h i s addre s s e e .
Due t o an h i s t o r i c al herit age , t h i s relat ionship i s K , M , or P. For
mo s t of the general ideas , i . e . neut ral i deas , t h e c h o i c e o f a re lation
ship has no e ffe c t what s o e ve r . I n other word s , i f a neut ral idea i s
symb o l i s e d a s I , then I I K = I I M = I I P. For examp l e , u w e t ' tr e e '
i s always uwe t ' t r e e ' in the K , M , and P re lat ionship s .
On the other hand , for the d e c o rum- oriented ideas , e . g . ' h o u8 e ' .
' w i fe ' . 'wa � k ' . 'with ' . ' how ' . et c . , the o b l i gatory c h o i c e o f a re l a
t ionship imp l i e s further d i fferent i a t i on s , whi c h are cons equen t l y t o
b e re fle c t e d i n the surface s t ru c ture b y d i fferent phy s i c al shape s .
I n t h i s sense , 'hou8e ' . I K I ' ho u 8 e ' I M I ' ho u 8 e ' - 1 P. Whi le t he s e
meanings are very s imilar t o e a c h othe r , t hey are by no mean s , i n
t erms o f t h e t 6 t 6 k r6m6 ' de c o rum ' . ident i c a l t o t h e ext ent t hat a free
interchange o f t hem is l i ke ly t o re s u l t in e i ther rudene s s or ab surdit y .
Thus t he s emant i c f i l t e r t hat i s re s p on s i b l e for the e s t ab l i s hment
of the semant i c s t ru c t ure of a me an ing takes p l ace only a f t e r o r con
c omit ant w i t h the re lat ionship fi l t e r . The following s cheme out l i n e s
a s i tuat ion , where a general i d e a s u c h as ' ho u 8 e ' deve l o p s into d i ffer
ent meanings :
136
F I GU R E 1 1
c ount
-b iot i c
-animate
- formal
+int imate
om a h
c ount
-biot i c
-animate
-·formal
- int imat e
9 r i y6
c ount
-biot i c
-animate
+ fo rmal
- in t imat e
9r i y6 t 'I '
c ount
-b iot i c
-animate
+ formal
-int imate
d a l Em t 'you '
The r e l at ionship f i l t e r , as a consequence o f a p ro ce s s of c onvert ing

t he general idea ' ho u s e ' into a surface repre sentat ion , whi c h is shown
in the s c hema b y t he t hree d i fferent symb o l s K , M, and P , is where
app ropriat e addre s s refere n c e s are determine d . The final s t age , whi c h
i s arrived a t t hrough intermediat e s t age s where d i fferent p ro c e s s e s o f
s p e c i fi c at ions take p l ac e , i s where appropriate surface repre sentations
o f the Javane se l e x i c o n are real i s e d .
4.8. 1 . The Lexi con o f the K Rel ati o n s h i p
S i n c e a l arge port i on o f the Javan e s e l e x i c o n may be u s e d irre sp e c

t ive o f any re l at ionship , i . e . the s o - c a l l e d neutral words , a n d s ince
t he de c orum-oriented words consist o f pairs , t ri p le t s , o r e ven quad
rup l e t s of i t ems of di fferent but related meaning s , t here would not
seem to be any j u s t i fi c at ion t o s ay t hat the l e x i c on t hat is exc lus ive ly
used in a c e rt ain re lat i onship forms the b a s i s for the t ot al i t y o f the
Javan e s e vo c abulary . In t radit ional ac coun t s o f Javane s e , howeve r ,
t he re has b e e n a t endency t o c o n s i de r the Ngoko words , whi q h i n our
view are only t he l e x i c on o f t he K re lat ionship , as the b a s i s for the
137
b u l k o f the Javane s e v o c ab ulary s t o c k ( vide e . g . P o e dj o s oe darmo 1 9 6 8 ) .

I t would s e em l o g i c al l y cons i s t ent t o s t a t e t hat the Javan e s e l e x i
con c on s i s t s o f t w o sub s e t s , let u s s ay s u b s e t X a n d s u b s e t Y . I n c luded
into subset X are a l l those words t hat are neut ral with r e fe r e n c e to
any re lat ionship b e t ween a speaker and his addre s see . Sub s e t Y c on s i s t s
o f s t i l l further sub se t s , e a c h o f whi c h c on s i s t s o f words o f d i f fe rent
b ut r e l a t e d meanings t hat result from the e s t ab l i shment of d i fferent
re lat i o n s h i p s a s c o n s t raint s o f d e c o rum .
I f we u s e the lower c a s e x t o s ymb o l i s e the memb ership o f s u b s e t X ,
a l l the memb e r s o f s u b s e t X may b e l i s t ed a3 x " . x ' However , as we
l n
have s e en in 4 . 3 . ( vide pp . 1 1 9 - 1 2 6 ) and a l s o in 4 . 8 . ( vide part i cu l ary
p . 1 3 6 ) , t h e e s t ab l i s hment o f a certain re lat i on s h ip , name ly t he P
r e l at ionship , has an influence on furt her di fferen t i a t ions o f a d e c orum
orien t e d idea or t hought into two , thre e , or e ven four very s imilar but
not i dent i c al meanings , each of whi c h i s ab s t r a c t e d into a d i s t in c t
s emant i c s t r u c t ure , and a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a d i s t in c t surfa c e repre senta
t ion . I f we u s e the lower c a s e y to symb o l i se the memb ership of s u b s e t
Y , we s h a l l have n o t only Y " ' Y as the l i s t o f a l l t he s ub s e t s t hat
l n
1 2 1 2 3 1
are memb e r s o f s u b s e t Y , but a l s o Y ' Y ' and Y ' Y ' Y ' and even Y '
l l 2 2 2 3
2 3 4
Y3 ' Y3 ' Y3 ·
In other words , any x i s always x , i . e . :
l 2
whereas a c e rt ain y may b e , at l e as t , Y or y , i . e . :
The f o l l owing sent e n c e s i l lu s t rate the u s e o f u w e t ' tree ' , a memb e r

o f s u b s e t X , a s i t o c curs in the K , M , and P relationship s :
K (402 ) kowe w E r o h u w e t ' Yo u a e e a tree '
M (403 ) s a m p e y a n s u m E r E p uwe t ' Yo u a e e a tree '
P (404 ) p a n j E n E � a n p e r s 6 uwe t ' Yo u a e e a tree '
In sent e n c e s ( 4 0 2 ) - ( 4 0 4 ) , we have two p a i r s o f t r i p l e t s , i . e . kowe
'you ' s am p e y a n 'you ' : panj EnEnan 'you ' , and w E r o h 'aee ' : s um E r E p
'aee ' pe r s 6 a l l of whi c h are words t hat b e long t o s u b s e t Y
'aee ',
1 2 3 1 2 3
and may b e symb o l i s e d as Y ' ' and Y , Y ' Y resp e c t ive ly .
l ' Yl Yl 2 2 2
While uwe t ' t re e ' i s an X word as are o t t e r words re ferring t o s ome
p art s of a t re e , some Y words are u s e d t o refer to o t h e r p art s o f a
t re e . Under sub set X are 6 y 6 t ' ro o t ' , pa� ' b ra n c h ' , uw6h ' fr u i t ' ,
138
whi le under s u b s e t Y are g 6 a 6 n ' 'l e af ' , r6n ' 'l e af ' , kEmban ' ftowe r ' ,
s E ka r ' ft o w e r ' , kayu 'woo d ' , kaj En 'wood ' .
l 2
I f t he s u b s e t y c on s i s t s o f two words , i . e . y and y , the l e s s
l
c ourt e o u s word , i . e . y , i s u s e d e x c l u s i v e l y in t h e K re l at i onship ,
and t he courteous word i s u s e d in the M and P relat i on s h i p s . The c a s e s
where y c on s i s t s o f t hree or four words are l e s s frequent .
The f o l l owing s e n t e n c e s i l lu s t rate t he use of k E m b a n ' f t o w e r ' and
s E ka r 'ftowe r ' , b ot h of whi c h are members of sub s e t Y and form a p a i r
o f di f fe rent but re l a t e d meanings :
K ( 40 5 ) kowe w E r o h k E m b a n ' Yo u s e e a f t ow e r '
M ( 406 ) s ampe y a n s um E r E p s E k a r ' Yo u s e e a ftow e r '
P ( 40 7 ) panj EnEnan pers6 sEkar ' Yo u s e e a ftow e r '
The fol lowing i n t e r s e c t ing t ri angles summari s e the configurat ion o f
t h e t o t a l i t y o f the Javane s e l e x i c on . The t riangle DHC refers t o the
domai n of subset X, i . e . where t he t hought s o r i deas p a s s t hrough the
s emant i c filters o f relat i onship s e l e c t ion unchange d . The t rap e z o i d s
ABHD , HEFC , and C D G I refer t o t he domain o f t h e words u s e d in the K ,
M , and P re lationships respe c t ively , i . e . t h e words t hat b e long t o sub
set Y .
F I GU R E 1 2
B E
I n our veri f i c at i on o f Walbeehm ' s c ount ( 1 8 9 6 : 3 0 - 3 1 ) , we found t hat

t h e s o - c a l l e d non-Ngoko words are words t hat mo s t l y fall w i t h i n t h e
a r e a o f t he t rap e z o i d s HEFC and CDG I , with t he re s t , e x c ep t f o r the
so-called b 6 s 6 ka s a r ' rude 'languag e ' , be ing c l a s s i fi e d a s Ngoko words .
In t h e tradit ion of de s c rib ing Javan e s e , t h i s p o s i t ion has generally
been a c c e p t e d wit hout que s t ion . I t i s , obvious ly , an arb i t rary de c i s ion
t o c a l l t he v o c ab u lary s t o ck t hat i s shared in a l l the re lat ionships
p lu s the words t hat are u s e d exc lus ively in t he K relat ionship Ngoko
words . By similar arb i t rarine s s one could a l s o have l ab e l l e d the
vo cabulary stock t hat i s shared in a l l o f t he re lat ionships p lu s t he
words t hat are u s e d only in the M and P re lat ionships Krama words , and
t he words t hat are u s e d e x c l u s i v e l y in the K re l a t i on s h i p as Ngoko
word s .
139
A s i n any other re l a t i on s hip , what c o n c e rn s a speaker who speaks in

the K relat ionship i s , on t he level o f the l e x i c on , the manipulation
o f the app ropriate words that b e long t o s u b s e t Y , part i c ularly those
t hat are used exc l u s i v e ly in t he K re lat ionship . Thi s man i p u lat ion ,
however , i s not always corre c t , part i c ularly when the M or P relati on
ship is involve d .
There are two b a s i c t y p e s o f m i s t ak e s o n the l e x i c a l l e ve l . One i s
where a s peaker m i s t ak e s a word t hat b e longs t o s u b s e t X for one t hat
b e l ongs to s u b s e t Y . I n other words , t he m i s t ake i s where a neutral
word is c on s idered t o b e one t hat i s not c ourt eous , and as such needs
a mat c hing with another that i s more c ourt eous . For e x amp l e , in
s t andard Javan e s e p lace names b e l on g t o s u b s e t X, i . e . t h e y are t h e
·
s ame in t he K , M , a n d P re lat ionships . Thus k a r a n a n 6 m ' Karanganom ' i s
k a r a n a n 6 m irre s p e c t ive o f any degree o f c ourt e s y . As has b e e n c u s t omary
is J ava , many p l a c e s are named e t ymo logi cal l y . The name k a r a n a n 6 m
' Karanganom ' might have been named from p l ant ing o f a youn g , i.e. a n 6m ,
c o c onut t re e , i . e . k a r a n in t he new v i l lage . But the words a n 6 m ' y oung '
and k a r a n' ' co c o n u t t r e e ' are words t hat b e l ong t o sub s e t Y , and b o t h
are u s e d e x c l u s i v e l y in the K re l at ionship . In the M relat i on s h i p and
the P re lat ionship , ' y o un g ' is a n em and ' coconut tree ' is k a w e s , in
analogy w i t h a r a n ( a K word ) ' sp a rs e ' : a w e s ( an M or P word ) ' sparse ' .
On t h i s b as i s , t he u s e o f k a w e s a n e m ' Ka ranganom ' inst ead o f k a r a n a n 6 m
' Karangan om ' b y a speaker t o h i s interlocutor t o whom t he M o r P re la
t ionship app l i e s i s not infrequent . This is ob viou s l y a c a s e of hyper
corre c t n e s s , whi c h t o many spe akers o f s t andard Javane s e would be c a l l e d
k r 6m6 d e s 6 ' v i � �age type courtesy ' .
Anot h e r type o f mi st ake i s where mi smat ching o f vo c ab ulary i t ems
w i t h addre s s re feren c e s t ake s p l ac e . I n c e rt ain cas e s , the rule t o
exalt one ' s int erlocutor and u s e humb le t e rms for one s e l f has b e c ome
s u c h a c o n s t raint , t hat t he u s e of certain court esy words for o ne s e l f
i s a breach o f dec orum in any relat ionship . The m i s t ake o f mi smat ching
is c ommon among many speakers in the north c oast o f Java , p art i c u larly
in the areas near the c i t i e s o f Pekal ongan and Tegal . I n t erms of
s t andard Javan e s e , the speech of these speakers i s chara c t e r i s e d b y the
app l i ca t i on o f more court e ous words for one s e l f and less c ourt e o u s
words for the addre s se e , e . g . :
( 408) k u 1 6 b a d e s a r e r u m i y e n ' I w i H s � e ep fi rs t '
( 409 ) p a n j E n E n a n t i l E m p u n d i ' Wh e re do y o u s � e ep ? '
i n s t ead of t he c orre c t s t andard sentence s :
( 410 ) k u 1 6 b a a e t i l E m r u m i y e n ' I wi � � s � e e p fi rs t '
( 411) p a n j E n E n a n s a r e p u n d i ' Wh e r e do y o u s � e ep ? '
The general i deas or t hought s that are s u s c ep t i b l e t o further
140
d i s t in c t i on s i n the relat i onship f i l t e r are mo s t l y re lated t o nouns

( inc l uding first and s e cond p e r s on pronouns ) t hat may b e a f fe c t e d b y
p o s s e s s i on or p e r s o n a l aff i l i at ion , e . g . ' ho u s e ' , ' spouse ' , ' l i fe ' ,
' hai r ' , ' hand ' , ' leg ' , ' fa t h e r ' , 'eyes ', ' a h i l dr e n ' ; verb s t hat are
c lo s e ly re lat e d to l i fe s u s t enan c e , b i o l o g i c a l func t ion , act ion , o r
p e rsonal experienc e , e . g . ' de p a r t ' , ' eat ' , ' s l e ep ' , ' s tand ' , 'work ' ,
'see ', ' a n g ry ' , ' dea d ' , ' s ad ' , ' siak ' . The inve s t igat or b e l i e ve s ,
however , t hat there doe s not seem t o be any fe asib l e way t o make a
genera l i s e d c la s s i fi c at ion as t o what ideas are s u s c e p t i b l e t o furt h e r
d i f fe r e n t i a t ion into t wo , three , o r four meanings b y the f i l t e r o f
relat ionship . T o a Javan e s e speake r , t he o n l y way t o conform t o s p e e c h
dec orum i s b y l earning from h i s s o c i et y .
I n some c as e s , due t o some regular s imilarit ie s , p art i c ularly t h o s e
t hat a r e o b s ervab l e in t he surface repre sentat i on , anal o g i c a l general
i s a t i o n of some s ort may make the l e arning , and conse quent l y , the m i s
t ake , e a s y . I n s ome o t h e r cas e s , s imp ly rot e memori sat ion i s required .
Thi s c o n s e quent l y c a l l s for t he need of making a d i s t i n c t i on b e tween
gramma t i c a l compe t e nc e , whi c h any nat ive speaker of Javan e s e i s supp o s e d
t o have , a n d communicat ive compe t e nc e . In t e rms o f s p e e c h d e c o rum t hat
app l i e s in Surakart a and Yogyakart a , communi c at ive comp e t e n c e can b e
comp l e t e o n l y i n s o far as it imp l i e s t he c ap a c i t y o f man ip u l at ing the
three re l a t i o n s h i p s approp riat e ly .
I n t he areas where Javane s e i s spoken , t he ab i l i t y t o speak in the
K re lat i on s h ip i s t aken for gran t e d . Le s s s o i s the ab i li t y t o speak
in the M relat ionship . The ab i l it y t o speak in the P re lat ionship ,
howeve r , always imp l i e s good manners whi c h may b e acquired only t hrough
good upbringing or a good mi l i eu . A more germane imp l i c at ion o f the
c a p a c i t y of sp eaking in the P re lat ionship is t hat in general t he
speaker i s a l s o ab l e to speak in t he K and M re lat i onship s . The
rev e r s e , howeve r , is not t rue . The c a s e s where a speaker c an only
speak in t he P relat ionship , e . g . those fore igners who are alway s
p o l i t e eve rywhere , are known but e x c e p t i onal . Apparent l y , t h e s e
fore i gne rs learned Javan e s e in the P relat i onship f i r s t , quite p robab l y
on t he b a s i s o f a n idea t hat it i s b e t t e r t o e x a l t one ' s i n t e r l o cut o r ,
t hough unn e c e s sari l y , t han t o insult him b y app l y ing humb l e o r rude
t e rms to him . In rural areas , t he re are known c a s e s where i l l i t e rate
speakers , who have no prob l ems in speaking i n the K and M relat i onship s ,
know very l i t t le , i f at a l l , how t o speak in the P r e l at i onship
prop e r ly .
141
4.8.2. S pe c i me n s o f K Words
The fol lowing l i s t i l lu s t rates a random s amp le o f words t hat are

u s e d e x c lus ively in the K re lat ionship . As a memb e r o f s u b s e t Y , each
o f t he words l i s t e d in the right c o l umn has at l e a s t one counterpart
t hat i s u s e d in t he M and P relat ionship s . For the purp o s e of giving
a general p i c t ure t hat t he r e i s n o general i s e d rule a s t o what meanings
are s u s c e p t i b l e to furt her di fferent i a t i o n b y t he re lat i o n s hip f i l t e r ,
s ome words that b e long t o s u b s e t X , i . e . t h o s e words t hat may b e u s e d
in any re lationship , are l i s t e d in t he l e ft c o l umn .
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = == = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
X Y
uwet ' t ree ' g6d6� ' Z eaf '

6y6t ' ro o t ' kEmba� 'fZower '
pan ' b ra n a h ' kayu 'wood, t i mb e r '
p a y o r'l ' ro o f ' om a h ' ho u s e '
j og a n ' fZ o o r ' l aw a � ' do o r '
cagaq ' p i Z Z ar ' p E n d6p6 ' fro n t room '
l Empo� ' a Z ay ' wa t u ' s tone '
wEd i ' fi n e s a n d ' l Emah I soi Z '
pase r ' s an d ' b a r'l u 'wa t e r '
uwap ' v ap o r ' gEn i 'fire '
u rup , fZame ' ka 1 i ' ri v e r '
b l umban g u non
0 0
'pond ' ' mountain '

g u moq ' hi Z Z ' s E g 6 r6 ' sea '
t 1 6g6 ' Zake ' s rE nene ' sun '
pas i se r ' ao a s t ' udan ' ra i n '
s a mo d r a ' o aean ' mbu l an ' mo o n '
l a�et ' s ky ' wEs i ' i ro n '
Embon ' de w ' w6 j 6 ' s te e Z '
meg6 ' wh i t e a Z o u d ' kun i �an ' a opp e r '
m E n don t Emb6g6
0 0
' b Zaak a Zo u d ' ' b ra s s '

anen 'wind ' 1 E �6 'oi Z '
g r i me s ' s hower ' g E teh ' b Zood '
i n tEn ' diamo n d ' ram bot ' ha i r '
s a 1 6k6 ' si Zver ' s i ke l ' Zeg '
6t6t kupen
0
' mu s a Z e ' , ear '

d age� ,fZe s h ' ca� kEm 'mouth '
garEs ' s hin ' gul u 'neak '
ugE l ugE l wE t E n
0
' wri s t ' , s t oma a h '

k6 n c 6 ' fri e n d ' d6d6 ' a he s t '·
g u ru ' teaah er ' un tu ' tooth '
142
x y
muret , s t udent ' t6ng6 ' n e ighbou r '

dos6 mu�soh ' e nemy '
p a � g ay o h ' a s p i ra t i o n ' boj o , spouse '
rewan
o
t rE s n6 , love ' 'he lper '

gEte� 'hate ' karEp ' in t e n t i o n '
mapan 'settle ' r6s6 ' fe e l i n g '
m l umpat ' j ump ' sEnE� , fo n d of, happy '
m�n�q ' c l imb up ' m l aku ' wa l k '
anj l6k ' j ump down ' manan ' ea t '
ambyo r ' s p l a s h down ' t u ru 's leep '
�Ecap 'print ' n u l es 'write '
�gamb a r ' draw , pain t ' m6c6 ' read '
mE l ar ' expand ' �adEk ' s tand '
b i ru 'b lue ' puteh 'whi te '
wunu 'vio let ' i rE� ' b lack '
j amb6n 'pink ' aba� ' re d '
sok l at ' t an ' kune� ' y e l low '
k l awu 'grey ' ij0 'green '
a l 6n ' s low ' gE l es 'quick '
a l om 'wi lting ' d u wo r ' ta U , high '
l untor ' di s co l o u r e d ' E nd�q ' s hort, low '
r i �keh ' frai l ' kuw a t ' s trong '
E n Em ' s ix ' sij i ' one '
pi tu ' s even ' l o ro ' tw o '
w6 1 u ' e ig h t ' tElu ' three '
s6�6 'nine ' papat ' fo u r '
s�kEt , fifty ' I i m6 'five '
sEwi daq , s ix t y ' s E pu l oh ' te n '
s Ew E l a s 'e leven ' ro I a s ' tw e l v e '
p i tu l as ' seventeen ' patbE l as ' fo u r t e e n '
t a n p6 'withou t ' k a ro 'with '
nanen 'but ' u t 6 w6 'or '
tansah a ran
o
' a l w ay s ' ' s e l dom '

dene� 'by ' iki ' this '
n a I i k6 ' w h en ( past ) ' i ku ' that '
en kae
o
' in, at ' ' t h a t y o n de r '

sanaj an ' a l though ' kene ' h ere '
sabap ' re a s o n ' kono ' there '
kape� ' t im e s ' k6n6 ' y onde r '
= = = = = = = = = == == = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
143
4.9. M R E L A T I ONSH I P
The M re lat ionship , like the K re lat i onship , i s c hara c t e r i s e d as

-Formal . But where as t he K re lat i on s h i p i s a l s o c hara c t e r i s e d a s
+ I nt imat e , t he M re lat ionship i s c harac t e r i s e d as - Int imate . The
d i ffere n c e b e tween the s emant i c s t ru c t ure of K relat i on s hip and the
s eman t i c s t ru c t ure o f M re lat ionship may b e shown as fo llows :
K M
-formal - formal
+ i n t imate - int ima t e
�equal �equal
The lack o f int imac y , 1 . e . t h e l e s s d.i r e c t nat ure , o f t he M re lat i on

ship , which may s t i l l b e traced in the use of s a m p e y a n , l i t eral l y ' Z eg,
fo o t ' , i n s t ead o f kowe 'you ' , i s respon s i b l e f o r i t s b e ing more c our
t eous t han t he K re lat ionship . Thus , for i n s t anc e , an adult speaker o f
a superior s t at u s , e . g . a high-ranking government o ff i c i a l , when intend
ing to b e c ourteous , is more l i k e l y to speak in t he M relat ionship t o
an adu lt i n t e r l o c u t o r o f a lower s t at u s , e . g . a j an i t o r , whom the
sp eaker b are ly knows , t han in the K relat ionship . To t he y oung c h i l d
o f t h e lower ranking addre s see , howeve r , t he s ame speaker i s more
l i k e l y to speak in the K re lat ionship , whi c h is more dire c t in nature
t han t he M re lat i onship , and c o n s e quently + I n t imate is more relevant ly
a mere lab e l for the dire ctne s s t han for int imacy in its real s en s e .
Th i s s i t uat ion may b e s c hemat i c a l l y s hown as fo l l ows ( where -equal
w i t h reference t o B indi c a t e s the non-re c ip ro c a l i t y o f the relationship
due t o a gap o f age as we l l a s o f rank , whereas -equal w i t h reference
t o C indicat e s t he non-re c ipro c a l i t y of the relat ionship due t o a
s o c i a l gap only ) :
F I GURE 1 3
adu lt
superior
� �
1�
s p e aker
[ 1 [
� '------' �
� formal � formal
/ + in t imat e
- equal
- i n t imate
-equal
B C
y oung adu lt
inferior inferior
interlocutor interlocutor
144
Under t he c o n s t raint s o f s p e e c h d e c o rum , b o t h B and C are e xp e c t e d

t o sp eak in t he P relationship t o A , although i n actual i t y t h e y may ,
at the mo s t , be only prac t i c e d in speaking in the M re l at i on s h i p , whi c h
i s a l s o t he relationship more l i k e ly t o b e u s e d b y B t o C .
The M re lat ionship , b e ing informal but wi t h a certain degree o f
p o l i t enes s , i s norma l l y pre ferred b y new memb e r s o f a group o f s peakers
among whom forma l i t y wi l l b e a hindran c e in the long run . For e xamp l e ,
in the b e ginning of a s ch o o l year some new s t uden t s may speak among
t hems e l ve s in t he M re lat ionsh ip . It i s a l s o known , howe ve r , t hat many
new st udent s , s i de - s t epping t he t ran s i t i onal s t age of p o l it ene s s , may
speak among t hems e l v e s dire c t l y in t he K re lations hip . W i t h t he growing
int imacy , the u s e r s of the M relat i on ship wi l l genera l ly swit c h to t h e
K relat ionship .
I n t he same c on t e x t , s peaking to the t e acher in the M relat i on ship
is not c ourt eous enough . The respe c t t h e s t udent s are expe c t e d to
a c cord t o t he i r t eacher in l ingui s t i c commun i c at i on c an only b e properly
expre s s e d in t he P r e l at i on ship . The use of the M relat i onship and
e s p e c i a l l y t he K re lat ionship to t he t eacher is always cons idered rude .
The t e acher , on the other hand , can only speak t o t he s t udent s in the
K re lat ionship . Speaking t o t he s t udent s in the M or P re lat ionship i s
ab s urd . I n s u c h a s i t uation , e x c e pt for t he shared neut ral words ,
many vo c abulary i t ems t hat are u s e d by the speaker are not u s e d by the
addre s see , and v i c e vers a .
The s i t uat i on , however , i s not t o be ident i fi e d w i t h what i s known
as a s i t uat i on where a d i s t i n c t i on b e t ween the s o - c a l l e d Pub l i c
Language-Usage and Formal Language-Usage and Formal Language-Usage
t ak e s p la c e ( vide Berns t e i n 1 9 6 8 : 2 2 3 - 2 3 9 ) . A c c o rding to B e rn s t e i n ,
pub l i c u s age c hara c t e r i s e s the s p e e c h o f the Eng l i s h working c l as s ,
whe reas formal usage charact e r i s e s the s p e e c h o f the middle c la s s
( op . cit . 228-229 ) .
I t i s t rue t hat among the l e s s p r i v i l e ge d Javan e s e , t he i r s p e e c h
i s charac t e r i s e d pre dominant ly b y the u s e o f the K and the M r e l at i on
ship s with t he i r r e s p e c t ive vocabu larie s . But as we have s e e n earl i e r ,
t h e u s e o f s p e e c h i n t he K and M re lat ionships i s n o t t h e monopoly o f
t he l e s s privi leged c lass . Furt he rmore , the fact t hat i n certain s it u
at ions , e . g . where s p e e c h is dire c t e d t oward an addre s s ee of a l ower
s t at u s , a s p e aker of a s uperior s t at us speaks in the K relat ionship
doe s not mean t hat the K relat ionship charact e r i s e s the speech o f his
c l as s , but rather t hat i t i s his privil ege t o speak in such a re lat i on
ship . In the s ame s i tuation , the s peaker of a lower s t atus s p eaks in
the P re lat ionship to an interlocutor o f a h i gher s t at u s as an ob l iga
t i o n , not as a chara c t e ri s t i c o f the s p e e ch of his c la s s .
145
N e verthe l e s s , i n B e rn s t e i n ' s s e n s e , i t i s t rue t hat t h e l a c k o f

pro fi c i e n c y o n t h e part o f t h e speaker o f l e s s privileged c l a s s i n
s peaking in t he P re lat ionship i s due t o t h e l e s s e r n e e d for e laborate
formal i t i e s in his in-group interac t ion .
P o l i t e n e s s as a n e c e s s ary conduct o f s p e e c h is certainly known b y
t he l e s s privilege d c l as s . For the purp o s e of p o l i t ene s s , t h e y speak
i n the M relat ionship , whi c h i s more courteous t han t he K r e l a t i onship .
When t h i s happens when an addre s s e e o f a superior s t at us i s involve d ,
t he t o l e ranc e o f the addre s s e e t oward the i n s u f f i c ient c ourt e s y , i . e .
b y me ans o f the M re l at ionship i n s t ead o f t h e P relationship , o f the
s p e aker is genera l ly due to the forme r ' s unde r s t anding of the s it uat io n ,
where he c annot e x p e c t more t han the use o f k r 6m6 d e s 6 ' v i � �age type
courtesy ' from such a speaker .
A general s umming up o f the d i re c t i on o f the three r e l a t i o n s h i p s may
be s t at e d s imply as fol lows : the K relat i on s hip is u s e d hori z ont a l l y ,
i . e . among equal s , or downward , i . e . t o an addre s s e e o f a lower s t at u s .
I t c annot , however , b e u s e d upward , i . e . t o an addre s s e e o f a h i gher
s t at u s . The M relat ionship , b e ing more c ourte o u s t han t h e K relat i on
ship , may s omet imes be u s e d upward , i . e . t owards an addre s s e e o f a
h i gher s t at u s , who may a c c ept s u c h a us age w i t h a frown . The M re la
t ionship is normal ly u s ed hori z o n t a l l y o r downward . The P re lat i on s h i p ,
b e i ng the mo st court e ous re lat ionship , may be u s ed hori z o n t a l l y o r
upward . I t i s n o t t o b e u s e d downward , l e s t the spee ch b e ab s urd .
Fi gure 1 4 shows a s c hema t hat out l i n e s t he dire c t ion o f t h e K , M ,
and P re l a t i o n s h i p s ( where C = s p e e c h part i c ipant , who may a s s ume the
ro le o f a s peaker or the role o f an addre s s ee ; � = hori z o n t a l dir
e c t ion ; + = downward dire c t i on ; t = upward dire c t ion ; * = unac c e pt e d ;

( * ) = a c c e p t e d w i t h a frown ) .
F I GU R E 1 4
C c
K )
M )
)
*K
(*)M
P
146
Among educated Javan e s e , the M re lat ionship i s not always pre ferred .
A det eriorat ion of s p e e c h communi c at ion in the P re lat ionship , howeve r ,
may b e respon s i b l e for a swi t ch t o the M relat i onship , whi c h may end up
in t h e K re lat ionship , a point j us t a l i t t le d i s t ance form the s e veran c e
o f t h e s p eaking t e rms .
The M re lat ionsh ip , b e ing more c ourt eous than t h e K re lat i onship but
l e s s formal t han the P re lat ionship , i s norma l ly the relat ionship u s e d
b y c i t y dwe l lers when t hey speak t o v i l lagers , part i cu l arly when t h e
lat t e r c ome t o the c i t y t o render t he i r s e rvi c e s t o the forme r .
4.9.1 . T h e L e x i con o f t h e M R e l a t i on s h i p
2 2
Words t hat b e long e x c lusively t o t he M re l at ionship , i . e . Y " ' Y
l n
1 1 2 2 3 3
where there are at least Y · · · Y ' Y " ' Y ' and Y · · ' Y ' c an only b e
l n l n l n
p rop e r l y u s e d in the M relat i onshi p . The numb er of words t hat b e l ong
e x c lu s i v e l y to t he M re l a t i onship i s sma l l .
One i l l u s t rat i ve examp l e may be shown by the n o t i on o f futuri ty ,
whi c h i s di fferent iated b y the re lat ionship f i l t e r i n t o three di fferent
words : a rEp ' wi L L ' , used exc l u s i v e l y in the K relationship , a j E n ' wi L L ' ,
u s e d exc l u s i v e l y i n t h e M relat ionship , and b a d e u s e d exc l u s i ve l y i n the
P relat i o n s hip . Each o f t h e s e words i s u s e d in the re lat ionship c on
cerned i ndependent of the ro l e o f the s p e e c h part i c ipant , t hat i s , each
of them may b e u s ed in c onne c t i on with the speaker as we l l as wi t h h i s
int e r l o c ut or . T h e f o l l owing s en t e n c e s s h o w the use o f the t hree words :
K Re l at ionship
( 412) a k u a r E p l u l1l o ' I w i H go '
(413) kowe a r e p l u no ' Yo u w i H go '
M Relat ionship
( 414) k u 1 6 a j E n k e s a h ' I w i l. L g o '
( 415) s a m p e y a n a j E � k e s a h ' Yo u w i L L go '
P Re lat ions hip
( 416 ) k u 1 6 b a � e k e s a h ' I w i l. L g o '
( 417) p a n j E n E n a n b a � e t i n d a q ' Yo u w i L L go '
The use of a j E � ' w i L L ' and a l s o any other e x c lus ively M word in the
K relat ionship i s ab surd , and the use o f it in t he P relat ionship wou l d
g i v e r i s e t o t he e ffe c t o f k r 6mo d e s o ' v i L Lage t y p e court e sy ' .
In t he examp l e s s hown above , the word k e s a h ' g o ' c annot b e c i t e d as
a word t hat b e longs e x c lus ively t o t he M re lat ionship , since i t i s a l s o
u s e d in the P relationship t o re fer t o t he act i o n o f t he speake r , b u t
not t o t he act ion o f the addre s s e e , whi c h is real i s e d by a more
c ourteous word , L e . t i n d aq ' go ' .
Mu c h o f t he l e x i c on o f the M relat ionship i s derive d , or , more
app ropriat e ly , c o rrup t e d from t he l e x i c o n of t he P re lat ionship . The
147
derivation may involve a redu c t i on o f t he numb er o f s y l lab l e s o f a P

word , a pro c e s s whi c h s e ems s imilar t o what J o o s ( 19 6 7 ) o b s e rved in
Eng l i s h int imate usages where a reduct ion o f redundan c i e s t ak e s p l a c e .
For examp l e : mEn6p6 ' w ha t ' > n6p6 ' w ha t ' , the c ounterp art o f whi c h i s
6p6 ' wh a t ' i n the K re lat i on s h i p ; m E n i k6 ' t ha t ' > n i k 6 ' t h a t ' , the
c ount erpart o f whi c h is kae ' y o n de r ' , or i ku � k u w i ' t h a t ' in t he K
relat i onship ; k e m a w 6 n 'onZy ' > maw6n ' o n Zy ' , t he c ount erpart o f whi c h
is wae ' o n Z y ' i n t h e K re l at ionship .
The derivat ion may a l s o invo lve a delet ion o f an init ial c o n s onant
·
wi t h or w i t hout a change of the i n i t i a l vowe l , e . g . s ampon ' a Z re ady ' >
E�pon ' a Z re ady ' , the c ount e rpart o f whi c h i s u w e s ' a Z re a dy ' in the K
re l at ionship ; w6n t E n ' e xi s t ' > 6ntEn � entEn ' e xi s t ' , t he coun t e rp art
of whi c h is 6 n 6 ' e x i s t ' in the K re lat i o n s hip .
W i t h regard t o affixe s , the d i s t i n c t i on may b e s hown in t h e fo l l ow
ing l i s t s :
r��--��:�;��;��o"�----t�;��;�;�;��;��;��.
taq- . . . ku 1 6 . . . ku 1 6 . . .
Ben e f i c i ary
( vi de p p . 7 9 - 8 0 ) k6q - . . . s ampeyan panj EnE�an
. . -6 s ampeyan pan j E n E n an
0
2. Hortat ory ·
( vide pp · 3 1 ; �
56-5 7 ; 9 5 ) ku 1 6 a t u r i
· . . -En s ampeyan . . . p a n j E n E ii a n
�
ku 1 6 a t u r i
3. Ben e fa c t ive ; . . . - a ke . . . - a ke . . . - akEn
t ran s i t i v i s a t i on
( vide pp . 4 3 - 4 4 ;
56-5 7 )
B. Noun
============================================= 1
K M P
Affixes
r��--�;r;;��:��::�----
2. Po s s e s s ion
( vide p p . 2 4 )
. . . - (n)e
· . . - ku
. . . - (n)e
ku 1 6
. . . - ( n ) i po n
ku 1 6
. . . -mu s ampeyan panj E n En an
�
k a g u l\ a n i p o n . . .
148
The di ffe ren c e s o f the affixes result ing from t h e re lationship

filter may b e i l l u s t rat e d b y me ans o f an X verb , e . g . t u toq 'hit ',
and an X noun , e . g . j ogan ' floor ' , a s f o l l ows :
K M P
o 0 0 0
d i t u toq d i t u toq d i p o n t u t o q ' b ei ng hi t '

0 0 0 0 0
t a q t u toq k u 1 6 t u t o q ' h i t by m e '

o
k u 1 6 t u t oq
0
p an j E n E n a n t u toq ' h i t by you

o
k 6 q t u t oq s ampey a n t u toq
o 0
'
t u t uq E n s am p e y a n t u t oq p a n j E n E n a n t u toq 'Hit (it) ! '
0 0
'V
ku 1 6 at u r i n u toq
n u t uq6 sampeyan n u toq p a n j E n E ll a n n u t o q
0 0
'Hit (it) ! '
'V
ku 1 6 a t u r i n u t o q
n u toq a ke n u toqake n u t o q a k E n ' hi t '
j ogane j og a n e j og a n i po n ' t h e floor '
j og a n ku j ogan ku 1 6 j o g a n k u 1 6 'my f l o o r '
j oganmu j og a n sampeyan j o g a n p a n j E n E n a n ' Yo u r floor '
'V
k a g u ll a n i po n j o g a n
I n t h e l i s t s o f affixes and t heir equival ent s above , t here are pairs ,
1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2
i . e . Y " ' Y and Y " ' Y ' as we l l as t r i p l e t s , i . e . Y " ' Y ' Y " ' Y '
i
l n l n l n l n
3
and y . . . y . I n some c as e s of pairs , the K and M relat ionships s hare
n 1 1
t he non- c o urteous affixe s , i . e . Y " ' Y ' where as t he P re lat ionship
i �
l n
uses t h e c ourteous affixe s , i . e . Y . . . Y , e . g . d i - . . . vs . d i po n - . . . •
. . . - a k e vs . . , . - a k E n . and . . - { n ) e vs . . . . . - ( n ) i pon . In some other

cases o f pairs , the M and P re lat ionships share t he c oureous ful l
2 2
forms , i . e . y . . . y , whereas the K relat ionship u s e s t h e non- c o urt eous
l n
1 1
affixe s , i . e . Y " ' Y ' e . g . t a q - . vs . k u 1 6 - k u vs . ku 1 6 .
l n
. . . . • • . . . . . .
W i t h re gard t o t he t r i p l e t s , the K relat ionship u s e s t h e non-court eous

1 1
affixe s , i . e . Y " ' Y , t he P re lat ionship u s e s t he most c ourt eous ,
l n
3 3
fu l l , forms , i . e . Y . . ' Y ' and the M re l at ionship u s e s t he le s s , ful l ,
i �
l n
forms , i . e . Y . . . Y , e . g . k6q - . . vs . s a m p e y a n vs . p a n j E n E n a n
. . 'V . .
ku 1 6 a t u r i . . . - 0 vs .
• s a m p e y a n + { a ) N s - . vs . p a n j E n E � a n . 'V
. . . . . . .
k u 1 6 a t u r i . . . . . . . - m u vs . , s a m p e y a n vs .. . p a n j E n E n a n 'V k a g u .;'a n i
. . .
k a g u n a n i pon The di fference b etween p a n j E n E .;' a n , and k u 1 6 a t u r i . .
i s t hat the lat t e r , which i s l i t erally ' I r e q u e s t ( t h a t y o u ) ' , i s even

more c ourt eous t han t he former . A s imilar di fference a l s o app l i e s t o
t he p ai r : . . . p a n j E n E � a n vs . k a g � lI a n i p o n . . . , where the lat t e r , whi c h
i s l i t erally ' ( the . . . that is) t h e p r o p e r t y of ( y o u ) ' i s a l s o e ven
more c ourt eous t han the former .
149
4.9.2. S p e c i m e n s o f M W o rd s
The fo l lowing l i s t shows a samp l e o f words t hat are u s e d e x c lu s iv e l y

in the M re lat ionship . The inve s t i gat o r b e l i eves t hat t he re are not
many other e x c lus ively M words out s i de the l i s t . As a memb er of s u b s e t
Y , each o f t h e words has a t least o n e c o un t e rpart t hat i s u s e d in the
K relat i onship . To s how t he contras t , t he re l a t e d words t hat may be
u s e d in the K and P re lationships are also l i s t e d .
======================================================================
K M P
a rEp aj E � baae
' wi l l ( future ) , ' wi l l ( fut ure) , ' wi l l ( future ) ,
p r i ye p r i po n kad6s pu n d i
' ho w ' ' ho w ' ' ho w '
k6n�6 sanJan ma t o r 'I'
• 0
f
'te t t ' ' te t t ' 'tett '
� a n d i k6 f ' y ou '
' te t t '
6n6 6n t E n 'V entEn w6 n t E n
' ex i 8 t ' , exi 8 t ' , e xi 8 t '
wae maw6n kemaw6n
' on t y ' ' on ty ' ' o n ty '
iki niki 'V m E n i ko m E n i k6
' thi8 ' ' this ' ' t his '
i ku 'V kuw i n i ku m E n i k6
' that ' ' t ha t ' ' tha t '
kae n i k6 m E n i k6
' t h a t y o n de r ' ' t h a t yonder ' ' t h a t y o nd e r '
4.10. P R E LAT I ONSH I P
The mo s t p re dominant s eman t i c feature t hat chara c t e r i s e s the P

relat ionship i s forma l it y , which involves a comp l e x s y s t em o f s p e e c h
c onduct , e . g . kine s i c s , a n d a l s o intonat ion , whi c h informa l i t y can d o
w i t hout . Unde rlying fo rmal i t y i s a h i gh degree o f re spe c t , whi c h i s
not s o important i n t he K r e l a t ionship , and whi c h i s o f l e s s degree in
t he M re lat i on s hip .
The feat ure i nt imacy may be irre l evant in the P relations hip , s in c e
t he P re l a t i on s h i p , l i k e t h e K as we l l as t he M relationship s , may b e
u s e d wit hin a fami ly by younger memb ers o f t he family t oward t h e i r
e l ders . The fol lowing s emant i c configurat ions c ompare t h e K, M , and
P relat i on ship s .
150
K M P
- formal - formal ( + formal
+ int imate + int imate + int imate
-re s p e c t + re s p e c t +respect
+horizontal +hori zontal +hor i z ontal
+downward + downward +downward
-upward �upward +upward
The use of the P re lat i onship b y a speaker o f a higher s t a t u s t o an

i n t e r l o c u t o r o f a muc h l ower s t atu s , e sp e c ia l ly one who i s not capab l e
t o re c i p ro c ate in t he P relat ionship , i s ab surd . Neverthe l e s s , the
ab surdity o f this downward u s e o f the P re lat ionship , b e ing c harac t e r
i s e d as + r e sp e c t , i s l e s s und e s i rab l e t han the upward u s e of the K
re l a t i onship . The downward use of the P relat ionship may , as known in
ane c do t a l c a s e s o f the s p e e c h o f non-Javan e s e spe akers , many o f t hem
c l e rgymen , re sult in even great e r deference on the part of the
addre s s e e . To l earners o f Javane s e , adv i c e i s frequent ly given to
u s e t h e s o - c a l led Krama words , which in our view here b e l ong t o the
l e x i con o f t he P relat ionship ( vide Horne 1 9 6 1 : 4 ) .
In cert ain s i t uat ions t he u s e o f speech in the P re lat i onship i s
mandatory t hat t h e su c c e s s o f t he speake rs ' s e n t e rp r i s e depend s on the
reac t i on o f h i s int e r l o c ut o � . For examp l e , if a food vendor , a wa i t e r ,
or a r e s t aurant own e r asks h i s we l l-dre s s e d c u s t ome r , to whom h i s
s p e e c h s h o u l d b e properly c ondu c t e d in the P re lat ionship , in one o f
the fo l lowing que s t i on s :
( 41 8 ) kowe a r E p m a n a n 6 p 6
y o u -w i l l - ea t - what
' Wh a t do y o u w a n t t o e a t ? '
( 41 9 ) s a m p e y a n a j E n n E d 6 n 6 p6
you-wi l l - ea t - w h a t
' Wh a t d o y O U wan t to e a t ? '
instead of
(420) p a n j E n E n a n n E r s a q a k E n mE n6p6
y o u -want-what
' Wh a t w o u l d y o u l i k e to have ? '
t he c u s t ome r , not n e c e s s ar i l y s t a t u s - c on s c ious , may resent the way the
que s t ion is asked and go away , not w i l l ing t o b e addre s s e d in b 6 s 6
kas a t ' rude l anguag e ' , alt hough ( 4 1 8 ) and ( 4 1 9 ) , wh i c h b e long t o the
K and M re s p e c t i ve l y , may b e accepted wit hout fu s s b y some o f t he
sp eake r ' s regular c u s t omers .
As a mat t e r o f fa c t , ( 4 2 0 ) invo l v e s not only court e o u s vocabularie s ,
but a l s o a di fferent s t ruct ure , so that a d i r e c t que s t ion about the
expected act ion o f the addres see may b e avo ided . I n other words , ( 4 20 )
i s more c ourteous than ( 4 2 1 ) b e l ow , whi c h i s quite s imi lar to ( 4 1 8 )
151
and ( 4 1 9 ) :
( 421) p a n j E n E n a n b a de d a h a r m E n6p6
you -wi � � - ea t -what
' Wh a t a r e y o u g o i n g t o e a t ? '
The indire ct nature o f t h e P relat ionship , o f higher degree t han
t hat of the M re lat ionship but wh i c h is ab sent in the K re lat i o n s h ip ,
i s due t o the fact t hat in many c a s e s t he exalt ing o f an addre s s e e i s
s imult ane ous w i t h s e l f- de ference on t h e part o f t h e speake r . I l l u s t ra
t ive e xamp l e s are t h o s e words t hat app ly e x c l u s i ve l y to t he speaker ,
but not t o h i s i n t e r l o c ut o r , and v i c e ver s a . Thu s s u c h a not ion a s
'Bee ' i s d i fferen t i a t e d b y t he P f i l t e r into t wo d i s t in c t meanings ,
i . e . one ' B e e ' in whi c h the s peaker shows h i s s e l f-de fere n c e and
another ' B e e ' in whi c h the speaker exalts his i n t e r l o c ut o r . This
s ituat i on obviously lends i t s e l f t o a s c hemat i sa t i o n in t e rms o f
Chafe ' s framework ( 1 9 7 1a : 1 2 , where W and Y are s ymb o l s as u s e d in
i 1
Chafe ' s c o n t e x t , part i cularly w i t h re ference t o the p age c i t ed ) :
W Y
+ formal
_ +re s p e c t s um E r E p
- -
� 1
_ - - +deference
m ' (I ) B e e '
n ' (y o u ) B e e ' .....
..... ..... ..... +forma l
"
+ re s p e c t pers6
+ e x a l t at ion
The P relat ionship may b e u s ed among equa l s t o whom p o l i t e ne s s i s o f

p aramount importan c e . In and around Surakart a and Yogyakarta ne ighb ours
generally know each other fairly we l l . But l iving next to each other
and knowing each we l l do not always make Javan e s e speakers speak in the
K relat ionship o r t he M re lat i onship . Cas e s are known in whi c h n e i gh
bours l i ving on the s ame s t re e t for y ears speak in t h e P relationship
rec iprocally t o ma intain p o l i tene s s .
The c hain o f re lat ionships which may take p lace in a fami ly may , as
summari s e d in the s c hema on p . 1 4 5 , somet imes b e fairly c omp l e x . For
examp l e , s ervan t s speak among themselves and in many c a s e s also t o t he
younger chi ldren o f t h e i r ma s t e r s in t he K re lat ions hip , a re l a t i o n s h i p
wh i c h i s a l s o u s e d b y the mas t e r s t o t he servan t s a n d t he c h i l dren .
Speaking t o t he senior memb ers of t he fami ly , the s e rvant s and the
c h i l dren u s e t he P relat ionship . To out s i ders who are not o f a
superior s t atus , e . g . vendors , the memb ers of t he fam i l y speak in the
M r e l a t i onship .
152
4.10.1 . The L e x i con of the P Rel a t i o n s h i p
The numb er o f words t hat are u s e d e x c l u s i ve l y in t he P re lat ionship

i s smal l . The re are only a few i deas t hat are s u s c ept i b l e t o d i ffer
ent iat i on by t he relat ionship f i l t e r into t hree di fferent but r e l a t e d
1 2 3
meaning s , i . e . y , y , and y , whi c h are u s e d in the K , M , and P
r e l a t i o n s h i p s resp e c t i ve l y . Even fewe r are those t hat are sus cept i b l e
t o d i f fe re nt i a t i o n into four meaning s .
The fo l l owing s c hema summar i s e s the t y p e s of the l e x i c on t hat
b e longs to sub set Y . Pairs , i . e . meaning s e r i e s c on s i s t ing o f t wo
memb e r s , are indicated by the lower c a s e : a , trip l e t s by the lower
c a s e : b , and quadrup l e t s b y c . The symb o l : I means ' us e d in the
re lat ionship ' ; the symb o l : f means ' only in re feren c e t o ' .
r
I K
a
M
2
y I P
1: :
I K
b I M
Y
I P
1
Y I K
2
y I M
c 3
y I ku 1 6 'I '
I P
4
y f panj E n E na n 'you '
E laborate u s e o f t he l e x i c o n appare n t l y chara c t e r i s e s the P re la

t io n s h ip . A s we have seen in 4 . 9 . 1 . , part i cularly pp . 1 4 7- 1 4 8 , some
gramma t i c a l spe c i fi c at ions whi c h are re f l e c t e d b y affixes in the K
relat ionship are real i s e d in full words or phra s e s in t h e P r e l at ion
ship . Thus inst ead of Verb + . . . - 6 , the c ommand marker in the P re la
t ionship i s e i t her p a n j E n E n a n + Verb or k u 1 6 a t u r i + Verb .
There are s e n t e nc e s , c o n s i s t ing o f words t hat b e l ong t o sub set X ,
whi c h are b y t hems e l v e s neut ral with r e s p e c t t o any relat i o n s hip , e . g . :
( 422) b a p a q n u r a s s u mo r
fa t h e r - c L e an up - w e L L
' Fa t h e r c L e a n s the we L L '
(423) ko t aq p i t u kumamba� e � t 1 6g6
b ox - s e v e n - f L o a t - i n - L a k e
' Th e re are s e v e n b o x e s fL oa ting o n t h e Lake '
153
(424) i bu ma s a � m E s e n
mo t h e r- 8 e t u p - m a a h i n e
' Mo t h e r i 8 8 e t t i ng up t h e 8 e w i n g m a a h i n e '
W e know , however , t hat s e n t e n c e s ( 4 2 2 ) - ( 4 2 4 ) alway s o c cur under
intersentent ial c o n s t rain t s ( v ide Chafe 1 9 7 0b : 9 5 - 9 6 ) invo lving an
ob l i gatory s e l e c t ion of a certain re lat i onship b e t ween a speaker and
h i s int erlocutor . In a l arger context where other sentence s o c c ur ,
and a l s o p rimar i l y i n any context o f s p e e c h use w�ere addre s s re fer
e n c e s are to be s e l e c t e d , any o f the sen�ence s ( 4 2 2 ) - ( 4 2 4 ) can only
b e l ong t o the K, M, o r P re l at ionship .
4.10.2. T h e F o rm s o f C o u r t e s y W o r d s
I n s ome cas e s , the formal di f ferenc e s b e t ween the non- c ourt eous
words , i . e . t ho s e whi c h b e l ong t o t he K re lat i on ship symb o l i s e d in the
l
s chema on p . 1 5 2 as y / K, and the c ourt eous words , i . e . t h o s e t hat
are used in the M relat ionship and the P relat ionship and s ymb o l i s e d
as y
2
/
2
�, 3 3 4
y / M , y / P , y I k u 1 6 / P , and y I p a n j E n E n a n / P ,
seem t o f o l l ow a regu l ar i s e d p a t t ern . In some other c a s e s , howeve r ,
the formal di ffere n c e s are unpre d i c t a b l e t hat t he on l y way t o acquire
t hem is by rote memori s at ion .
In certain c a s e s , the mc s t c ourt eous word in a meaning serie s i s a
l o an word , e . g . Sanskrit . But in some other c a s e s t he reverse i s t rue .
For examp l e , b a � u 'water ' , a word o f Javan e s e origin , i s l e s s c ourt e o u s
than tay6 'wa ter ' . a Sanskrit l oan word . S imi larly , ama h ' ho u 8 e ' is
l e s s c ourt e o u s t han the San s krit l oan w o r d g r i y 6 ' ho u 8 e ' . The l e s s
courteous words are u s e d in t h e K re lat i onship , whi l e t he courteous
words are u s e d in the M and P relationship s . On the other hand , the
word g E n i ' fi r e ' < a g n i ( Sanskrit ) ' fi r e ' i s a non- courteous word , and
u s e d mo st l y e x c l us ively in t h e K re lat ionship , whereas l a t u ' fi re ' <
l a t u ( Ol d Javane s e ) ' 8 park ' i s a c ourt eous word , and u s e d in the M and
P re l a t i on s h ip s .
On t h e b a s i s o f surface di fferenc e s , the forms o f c ourt e s y words in
c omparison t o t he forms o f r e l a t e d non- court e sy words may b e subdivided
into two t ype s : sub st itut ion t y p e and modi f i c a t i o n t ype . The first
type invo l v e s unpre d i c t ab le phon o l o g i c a l di fferen c e s b e tween a non
court eous word and its related court eous coun t e rpart . The s e cond t ype
invo l ve s phono l o g i c a l s im i l ari t i e s t hat are regular i s e d in some way
b e t we e n a non- c ourt eous worj and i t s related court e o u s c ount erpart .
4.10.2.1 . S u� b � �i�u�io n
Many of the c ourt e s y words o f t he sub s t it ut i on t y p e originate from

fore i gn , i . e . Sanskri t , and a l s o l o c a l , e . g . Old Javan e s e or Malay ,
154
s ource s .
Sub s t i t ut ion may somet imes a l s o re sult from a c i rcumlo c ut ion , an
e s s e n t i a l chara c t e ri s t i c of the indire c t nature of court e s y . For
e xamp l e , the P words r o s a n 'V r6san ' s ugar c a n e ' , anaapan ' pi g ' ,
kamba n a n ' duc k ' , and w6 j 6 ' t o o t h ' are c i rcumlocutory words , and
derive d , re s p e c t i ve l y , from r 6 s ' n o de ' + • . . - an ' co l l e c t i o n ' ( v ide
2 . 6 . 3 . 1. ) , anaap ' low ' + . . . -an ' c h a ra c t e r i s e d a s ' , kamb a n ' fl o a t ' -
. . . -an ' c apab l e o f ' , and w6j 6 ' s tee l ' . The c ount erpart s t hat are u s e d
in t h e K relati onship , a n d some t ime s a l s o in t he M relat ionship , are
tEbu ' s u gar cane ' , whi c h is i ndeed c harac t e r i s e d as a c o l l e c t ion o f
node s , c e l e n 'boar ' o r bab i 'pig ' , c harac t e ri s e d a s a sma l l animal ,
bebeq ' du c k ' , c harac t e r i s e d as b e ing ab le t o float on wat e r , and u n t u
' tooth ' , c harac t e r i s e d b y i t s b e ing hard as s t e e l .
The fol lowing l i s t , which exc lud e s many o f the words al ready shown
in the previous l i s t s , i l l u s t rat e s the unp re d i c t a b l e surface c ontras t s
b e tween a non- c ourt eous word and i t s courteous count erpart ( s ) . The
l i s t ing of general glo s s e s in t he right -mo s t c olumn is obvi ous ly for
c onveni e nc e , s ince , on t he b a s i s of our v i e w , a non- c ourt eous word has
a d i f ferent meaning and semant i c structure from i t s c ourt eous c ount er
p art ( s ) .
NON - COURTEOUS COURTEOUS
K M P
i y6 �geh i �geh 'yes '

ora b6 t E n b6tEn ' no '
s6p6 s i n tEn s i ntEn ' w ho ? '
a i seq r i yen rum i yen ' fo rm e r l y '
uwes Empon s ampon ' a l r e ady '
tEmu pangeh pangeh ' fi n d '
ad6 1 s a de sade ' se l l '
t u ku tumbas t u m b a s I- ' I ' ' b uy '
p u n a o t I- ' y o u ' ' b uy '
ma t i pEj ah p E j a h I- ' I ' ' de a d '
s e d 6 I- ' y o u ' ' de a d '
1 6 r6 s a ke t s a k e t I- ' I ' ' sick '
g E r a h I- ' y o u ' ' s i ck '
u rep gEsan g E s a n I- ' I ' ' l ive '
s u g E � I- ' y o u ' , live '
akeh ka t a h ka t a h ' mu c h , many '
s E t i teq s E k E d eq sakEdeq ' l i t t le ( n o t many , mu c h ) ,
c i 1 eq a l et alet ' sma l l '
155
======================================================================
NON-COURTEOUS COURTEOUS
K M p
g E de agEn agEn 'big '

cE ndeq andap andap ' l ow, sma l l '
� uwo r i nge l i nge l ' high, ta l l '
g6d6n r6n r6n ' l eaf '
k E rn b a n sEkar sEkar ' flowe r '
wa t u se 1 6 se 1 6 ' s tone '
( t E ) rn b a ko s6t6 s6t6 ' tobaaao '
4. 10.2.2. M o d� 6 � cat�o n
In c omparison with i t s related non-court e o u s coun t e rp art , a court e s y

word t hat re su l t s from t h e pro c e s s o f t h e relat ionship f i l t e r and sur
fac e modi f i c a t i on shows a surface di ffere n c e in t erms o f t he vowe l s ,
c on s onant s , final s y l l ab le s , or the numbe r o f s y l l ab l e s . The s e d i ffer
e nc e s are arrived at dire c t ly or t hrough an intermedi ary s t2ge , in
whi c h a word , norma l l y only in its re c o n s t r u c t e d form , fun c t i o n s a s a
b a s i s o f modi f i c a t i on . For examp l e , the word a w 6 n 'bad ' , wh i c h i s a
c ourt eous word u s e d in t he M and P relat ions hip s , i s related t o t he
word 6 1 6 'bad ' , a K word , showing mo d i f i c a t ions o f t h e final s y l lable
and t he i n i t i a l vowe l . We may say t hat the surface modi f i c at ion o f
616 ' b ad ' , a s s uming that i t i s the b as i s , into a w 6 n 'bad ' i s a dire c t
one . On t h e other hand , t he c ourt eous word s E g a w6n ' do g ' , whi c h i s
u s e d in t h e M and P relat i on s h ip s , result s from a n indire c t proce s s ,
whi c h init i a t e s not from the word a s u ' do g ' , u s e d in the K r e l a t i o nship ,
but from a word no longer u s e d in modern Javane se , i . e . * s E g6 1 6 <
s r i g 6 1 6 ( Sanskrit ) ' j a a ka l ' . Ob viously in anal ogy w i t h 6 1 6 ' b a d ' v s .
a w 6 n ' b a d ' , we have a s u ' do g ' � * s E g6 1 6 ' do g ' vs . s E g aw6 n .
4.10.2.2.1 . vowel M o d i fi ca t i on
The vowe l mod i fi c at i on that i s invo lve d in t he creat ion o f the

Javan e s e c ourt e s y words i s in general regular . The f o l l owing l i s t
i l l u s t rat e s t he surface c on t ras t s b etween a c ourt e s y word , norma l l y
u s e d i n t h e P and M re lat ionshi p s , and a non- c ourt e s y word , norma l l y
u s e d in t he K relat i on ship but s omet ime s a l s o i n the M relat i on s h ip
( where C = c o n s onant or a sequence of consonant s ; ( C ) = possible
cons onant ) :
156
Type o f Non-Court e s y Court e s y

il'l o d i f i c a t i o n Word Word
. . . 6C6 > . • • aC i t am p 6 tamp i 'ge t '

u t 6w6 u tawi 'or '
r6d6 rad i ' s Hg h t Zy '
ma rg6 ma rg i ' because '
p E n a6p6 pEnaap i ' fro n t room '
�
CuC ( C ) > CiC (C) � mu l 6 mi 16 ' t h e r e fo r e '
kun6 k i n6 ' an c i e n t '
mung ah m i ngah ' g o up '
�
CuC ( C ) > C i C ( C ) � susah s i sah ' s ad '
mu rah m i rah ' c heap '
tu�gu t E ;l g 6 'wai t '

ku ru kE r6 ' thin '
1 ungoh 1 Engah 'sit '
mungoh mEngah 'in case '
r u bo h rEbah ' fa 'll down '
( C ) aC6C > ( C ) aCeC a k6 n a ke n ' comma n d '

t a k6n t a ke n ' i n q u i re '
anon a ll e n 'watch '
pan6n panen ' s h e p e rd '
( C ) oC a C > ( C ) e C a C owa h ewa h ' change '

obah ebah 'mov e '
opah epah ' wa g e '
somah semah ' sp o u s e '
rEbot rEbat ' snatch '

s E bo t sEbat 'mention '
1 Emu l E m6 ' fa t '
I nu i nah
• 0
' t a k e care o f '
r Embok rEmbak ' di s c u s s '
There are two pairs o f words whi c h are not under any o f the pat t e rn s
above , i . e . d u ron 'not y e t ' ( non-court e ous ) vs . deren ' no t y e t '
( c ourt e o u s ) , and a n 6m � E n 6m ' y o ung ' ( non-courteou s ) v s . anem � E nem
' y o ung ' ( c ourt eous ) .
157
4.10.2.2.2. C o n s on a n t Modi fi c a t i on
The c on s onant mod i fi c ation that i s invo lved in t he c reat ion o f

c o urt e s y words i s l e s s regular and l e s s frequent t han t h e vowe l vari
at ion . The fol lowing l i st i l l u s t rat e s t he few c a s e s o f surfa c e c on
t ra s t s b e t ween a word of court e s y and i t s non-c ourt eous c ount e rp art
i nvolving c on s onant mod i f i c at i o n :
NON-COURTEOUS COURTEOUS
b a ,; E t saoEt ' exce s s i v e '

b a r E '; sarEn ' t og e t h e r '
mau wau ' jus t now '
mbu l an wu l a n 'moon '
ban t E r san t E r ' s p e e dy '
cE aaq cE l aq ' near '
aEmEn rEmEn ' fo n d o f '
wa r a s sa ras ' re c up e ra t e d '
4.10.2. 2 .3. F i na l - S yl l a bl e Mo d i fi c a t i on
The mod i f i c at ion o f a word- final s y l l ab le t hat i s invo lved in the

creat ion o f t he Javan e s e words of c ourt e s y i s more vari e d and c o p i ous
than t he vowe l and c on s onant modi f i c a t i on s . The fol l owing l i s t i l l u s
trat e s the final- s y l lab le modi f i c a t i on that i s respon s i b l e f o r t he
surface c o n t rast b e t ween a word o f court e s y and i t s non- c ourt e o u s
c ount erpart ( where X = the f i n a l s y l l able o r part o f t h e f i n a l s y l lab le
o f a non- c ourt e o u s word ) :
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = == = = = =
Type o f Non-Court e s y Court e s y
Modi f i c at ion Word Word
X > -Et ml Ebu ml EbEt 'enter '

ambu amb E t ' sm e � � ,
X > -Et s ambo� sambE t ' conne c t '

l a boh l abEt ' s a c r i fi c e '
ewoh ewE t ' o ccupi e d '
X > -ntEn p i r6 p i ntEn ' ho w many , much '
so r e s6n t E n ' afternoo n '
d i n6 d i ntEn ' da y '

nu 1 i nuntEn ' t hen '
6n6 6n t E n f M ' ex i s t '
en tEn f M
w6n t E n f P
m6 r i m6n t E n ' c ambri c '
k6r i k6n t E n ' do o r '
158
Type o f Non- C ourt e s y C ourt e s y

Modi fi cat ion Word Word
x > - n ton ma r i manton ' r e ao v e r '

pa r i pan ton ' ri a e p l a n t '
ka r i kan ton ' re m a i n b e h i n d '
k i rem k i n t on ' s e nd '
sa l en san ton ' a hange '
p r i yay i p ·r i y a n t o n ' g e n t ry '
x > -jE� kayu kaj E � ' w o o d, t i mb e r '
maj u maj E � ' g o forwa r d '
mb u ru mbuj E� , ahase '
wa l u k u wa l u j E � ' p l o ug h '
mba rEp mbaj E� ' fi r s t a h i l d '
l ayu 1 aj E� 'run '
k l ay u k l aj E � ' e a g e r to go a l o n g '
x > -65 cr i t6 c r i y6 s ' s t o ry '
t l aten t l at6s ' pa i n s t a k i ng '
dad i dad6s ' b e aome '
jat i j at6s ' t e ak '
1 ad i l ad6s ' s e rv e '
aj i a6s ' va l u e '
paj E k pa6s ' t ax '
gan t i gan t6s ' a l t ernate '
r6s6 ra6s ' ta s t e '
s i d6 s i y 6 s .; M ' e v e n t ua l l y '
s a e s t u .; P
m6c6 ma6s ' re a d '
kuw6s6 kuwa6s 'potent '
kuwa t e r kuwa t6s ' fe arfu l '
ba ten ba t6s ' i nner, s p i ri tu a l '
x > -6n 616 aw6n ' b ad '
ka l ah k aw6n ' de fe a t e d '
a s u � * s E g 6 1 6 s E g aw 6 n ' do g '
w a e � * k ew6 1 6 k e m a w 6 n 'onZy '
x > -wes a ran awes , sparse '
l a ra� awe s , exp e n s i v e '
a r'l a � awes ' b argain '
p ra k6r6 p r a k aw e s ' aa s e , ma t t e r '
s aw E t 6 r 6 s a w E t aw e s ' s e v e ra l , some '
ka t6 r6 k a t awe s , app aren t .'
ka ra� kawes ,aoaonu t tree '
159
=====================================================================
Type o f Non- Court e s y court e s y

Modi f i c a t i on Word Word
-- -- - - -- - - - -----
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - -
-- - - -- - -- --- -- ---- ---- - -- --- -- -- -
x > - ca I wu J a� wuca l ' t each '

w i I an
0
w i ca l ' co u n t '
i I a� ic aI ' d i s ap p e a r '
wa l u l a� wacuca l ' "l e a t h e r '
buwa� buca l ' t h row away '
x > - d6 s k6y6 kad6s ' "l i k e , as '
s u p6y6 supad6s ' i n o rde r t ha t '
up6y6 u p a d6s ' s e a r c h fo r '
p i t6y6 p i t a d6s ' b e "l i e v e '
x > -En sEp i sEpEn ' de s o "l a t e '
k .3 k u kakEn ' s t i ff '
�aku �akEn ' c "l a im '
p a s a r 'V *pEkan p E k E n 'mark e t '
o
X > -nsol ta I i ta�sol ' co rd, rope '

ba I i wa � s o l ' re t u rn '
kwa I i kw a � s o l ' earthen p o t '
kEdE l e kEdansol ' s o y b e an '
X > -bEn padu pabEn ' s q u a b b "l e '
adu abEn ' c onfro n t , fi g h t '
ma i do ma i b E n ' di s b e "l i e v e '
mad u mabEn ' honey '
X > - n de s a ron s ande
0
' s a ro n g '
wa ron wande
0
' s ma "l "l s t o re '
wurun wande
0
'abortive '
X > - CV I s Eg6 s E ko l ' cooked rice '
gampan g a mp e l ' ea s y '
X > - den r6t6 raden ' sm o o t h '
X > -mbE� kEpa l a� k!:: p a m b E � ' o b s truc ted '
4. 10.2.2.4. va r i a t i o n of the N um b e r of S y l l ab l e s
In a c ourt eous or formal re lations h i p , whi c h i s c hara c t e r i s e d b y

e l ab o rat ion o f s ome s ort , the que s t ion o f rhythm i s frequent l y e s s en
t i a l and re s p o n s i b l e for t he more d e s i rab i l i t y o f a long phono l o g i c a l
repre sentat ion t han a short one , where abrup t ne s s i s iden t i fied w i t h
rudene s s . There fore , for certain words o f court e s y related t o non
c ourt e ou s one s an e l abora t i on in t e rms of t he phono logical shape b y
me ans o f adding a n e x t ra s y l l ab l e i s ne c e s sary .
160
In wri t t e n docume n t s as we ll as i n s t i l t e d s p e e ch us age , t he

addit i onal s y l l a b l e i s p o n , whi c h in s ome words has now b e c ome m E n .
Thi s e x t ra s y l lab le i s a t t a c he d b e fore , o r , in the c a s e o f an a f fi x ,
a ft e r a non- court e ous form .
The fol l owing l i st s hows t he s urface c on t ra s t s b e tween a l ong
phon o l o g i c a l repre s e n t at i on o f a court eous form and a short er phono
l o g i c a l repre sentation of a non-courteous form :
K M P
6p6 n6p6 * p u n 6 p 6 '" m E n 6 p 6

'what ' 'wha t ' 'wha t '
i k i '" * i k6 niki * p u n i k6 m E n i k6
' t hi s ' ' this ' ' this '
i k u '" k u w i n i ku * p u n i k u '" m E n i k 6
' t ha t ' ' that ' ' t ha t '
k a e '" * i k 6 n i k6 * p u n i k 6 '" m E n i k6
' t ha t y o nde r ' ' t hat yonder ' ' t h a t y o n de r '
End i pund i pund i
' w h e re ' ' w h e re ' 'where '
di- • . . di-. . . d i po n - . . . ' pa s s ive marke r '
. . . - (n)e . . .- (n)e . . . - ( n ) i pon ' de f i n i t e marke r '
4.11 . O T H E R T Y PES O F R E L A T I O NS H I PS
The c o n s t raints o f s p e e c h de c orum , whi c h d e t e rmine t he c h o i c e

o f app rop riate addre s s referenc e s a n d t he i r r e l a t e d vo c abularies and
affixe s , app ly not only to a relat ionship t hat is e s t ab l i shed in an
act ual s p e e ch a c t i vi t y b e tween a speaker and h i s interlocut o r , but
also to a pot ent ial relat ionship b e t ween e i t her of these s p e e c h p ar
t i c ip a n t s and a t h i rd p e rson who is ab sent . A c c o rdingly , e i t h e r party
o f t he speech part i c ipant s i s made aware o f the relationship b e t we e n
t he o t h e r party and the t h i rd person b y the use o f dec orum-orient e d
words t hat are app l i e d t o the t h i rd p e r s on .
On the b a s i s of t he t hree relat ionships we have dealt w i t h , and
from t he viewp o int of a s peaker with reference t o a thi rd p e r s o n , t he re
are nine p o s s i b l e s e t s of relat i o n s h ip s , which may be out l ined as
f o l l ows ( where A = speake r ; B = his addre s see ; C = ab sent t h i rd p e rson ;
h o r i z on t a l ordering and vert i cal ordering refe r t o the r e l at ionships
b e t we en t h e sp eaker and h i s interlocutor and t he third p e r s on r e s p e c -
t iv e ly , which are indicated b y K , M , or P depending on whi c h app l i e s ) :
#l. A K B #2. A K B #3 . A K B
K M P
C C C
161
#4. A M B #5. A M B #6. A M B

K M P
C C c
#7. A p B #8. A p B #9. A p B

K M P
C C C
The f o l l owing are examp l e s o f sentence s i l l u s t rat i ng the s e t s of

re lationships above :
#1. ( 425 ) y e n kowe a r E p m a n a n n E n t e n 6 n 6 t E k a n e a d i m u d i s e q
i f- y o u - w i l l - e a t - wa i t ! - t h e arriva l - y o u r y o u n g e r s i b l i ng - fi rs t
' If y o u w a n t to e a t , w a i t u n ti l y o u r y o u n g e r b ro t h e r c om e s
fi rs t '
#2 . ( 4 26 ) y e n kowe a r E p m a � a n n E n t e n 6 n 6 t E k a n e p a q s o p e r d i s e q
i f- y o u - w i l l - ea t - wa i t ! - t h e a r ri v a l - t h e dri v e r - fi r s t
' If y o u wan t to e a t , wai t unti l t h e dri v e r c o m e s fi rs t '
#3. ( 4 27 ) y e n kowe a r E p m a n a n � E n t e n 6 n 6 r a w u h e b a p a q d i s e q
i f- y o u - w i l l - e a t - w ai t ! - t h e a r r i v a l - fa t h e r - fi r s t
' If y o u w a n t t o e a t , wa i t u n t i l fa t h e r c o m e s fi r s t '
#4. (428) y e n s a m p ey a n a j E n n E d6 s ampeya n n E n t 6 s i d u g i n e a d i s ampey a n
r i yen
if-y o u - w i l l - e a t - y o u -wai t - t h e arri v a l - y o u n g e r s i b l i n g - y o u
fi rs t
' If y o u w a n t to e a t , wa i t u n t i l y o u r y o u n g e r b r o t h e r c o m e s
fi rs t '
#5. (429 ) y e n s a m p ey a n a j E n n E d6 s ampeyan n E n t 6 s i d u g i ne p a q s o p e r r i y en
i f- y o u - w i l l - e a t - y o u - w a i t - th e arriva l - t h e dri v e r - fi rs t
'If you wqnt t o e a t , wai t unti l t h e dri v e r c om e s fi rs t '
#6. ( 4 30 ) y e n s am p e y a n a j E n n E d6 s a m p e y a n n E n t6 s i rawuhe b a p a q r i ye n
i f- y o u - w i l l - e a t - y o u - wa i t - t h e arri v a l - fa t h e r - fi r s t
' If y o u w a n t t o e a t , w a i t u n t i l fa t h e r c om e s fi rs t '
#7. ( 4 31 ) m a n aw i pa n j E n E n a n b a de d a h a r k u 1 6 a t u r i n E n t6s i d a t E � i po n
ray i p a n j E n E na n r um i y e n
i f- y o u - w i l l - e a t - I - re q u e s t -wai t - t h e arri v a l - y o u n g e r s i b l i n g
y o u - fi r s t
' If y o u w a n t to e a t , p l e a s e wa i t u n t i l y o u r y o u n g e r b ro t h e r
com e s fr i s t '
#8. (432 ) m a n aw i p a n j E n E � a n b a � e d a h a r k u 1 6 a t u r i n E n t 6 s i d a t E n i p o n
paqsope r rum i yen
i f- y o u - w i l l - e a t - I - re q u e s t - w a i t - t h e arri v a l - t h e dri v e r- fi r s t
' If y o u w a n t to e a t , p l e a s e wai t u n t i l t h e dr i v e r c o m e s
fi rs t '
#9. (433 ) m a n aw i p a n j E n E n a n b a d e d a h a r k u 1 6 a t u r i n E n t 6 s i r a woh i p o n
bapaq rum i yen
i f - y o u - w i l l - e a t - I- re q u e s t - wa i t - t h e a r r i v a l - fa t h e r - fi r s t
162
The u s e o f r a w u h e ' t h e a r ri v a L ( o f) ' in # 3 ( 4 2 7 ) i n s t ead o f t E k a n e

' t h e arri va L (of) ' a s used i n # 1 ( 4 2 5 ) and # 2 ( 4 2 6 ) i s due t o the
great e r de fere nce on the part o f the speaker t o ward t he t h ird p e r son
t o whom t he s peaker would speak in the P re lationship . A similar
re a s o n unde r l i e s t he use of r a w u h e ' t h e arri va L (of) ' in #6 ( 4 3 0 ) .
The u s e o f 3 a t E n i p o n ' t h e a rri v a L ( of ) ' in # 7 ( 4 3 1 ) and # 8 ( 4 3 2 ) i s
due t o t h e fact t hat t h e speaker would speak t o t he �b sent t h i rd p e r son
i n t h e K o r M re lat i on s h i p , and h i s d e ference t oward h i s c urrent inter
locutor t o whom he speaks in t he P re lat ionship n e c e s s i t a t e s him t o use
3 a t E n i pon ' t h e arri v a L (of) ' , and not t E k a n e ' t h e a rr i v a L (of) ' , whi c h
c on s i s t s o f a non-c ourt eous word , i . e . t E k6 ' aome ' , a n d a non- courteous
affix , i . e . . . . - ( n } e , nor d u g i n e ' t h e a r ri v a L (of) ' , whi c h c o n s i s t s o f
a c ourt e o u s word , i . e . dug id u m u g i ' aome ' , and a non-c ourt eous affix ,
�
i.e. . . . - {n}e. The use o f t E k a n e ' t h e a rr i v a L ( o f ) ' i s a l l owed in

#1 ( 4 2 5 ) , # 2 ( 4 2 6 ) , for the reason t hat the speaker would speak t o t h e
a b sent t h i rd p e r s o n e it her in the K relat ionship or i n the M r e l a t i on
ship . The use o f a comb inat ion of a c ourteous word , i . e . d u g i � d um u g i
' a ome ' , and a non-courteous affix , i . e . . . . - { n ) e , in # 4 ( 4 2 8 ) and # 5
( 4 2 9 ) i s chara c t e ri s t i c o f the M relat i on ship , whi c h i s more courteous
t han t he K relat ionship , b ut not as c ourt eous as the P re lat ionship .
Should t h e speake r , however , refer t o t he a c t i o n o f arriving o f h i s
c urrent interl o cutor in # 7 ( 4 31 ) , # 8 ( 4 3 2 ) , and # 9 ( 4 3 3 ) , h e c an only
u s e t he court eous word r a w o h ' a ome ' .
A s a mat t e r o f fac t , s p e e c h dec orum in Javan e s e i s more fluid and
vari e d t han t h o s e summari s e d b y the K , M, and P re l a t i o n s hip s . Among
adul t s , ,wh o s e sense of d e c o rum is as sume d t o b e generally more
s op h i s t i c at e d t han c h i l dren ' s , addre s s relationships o t her t han the
K , M, and P re lat ionships are known . The s e other addre s s re lat ionship s ,
whi c h a l s o imp ly t he c h o i c e o f appropriate vocabulari e s , deve lop from
t he same b a s i s underly ing s p e e c h dec orum , i . e . to exalt one ' s i n t e r
l o c ut o r . The f o l l owing are t y p i cal , alt hough not e xhaus t ive , addre s s
r e l a t i o n s h i p s other t han t he K , M , and P re l a t i onship s , whi c h di ffer
from t h e K, M, and P re lationships at least with re s p e c t t o t he u s e o f
t h e addre s s reference f o r one ' s interlo cut or :
5 a m p e y a n ++ a k u ( E ) re lat ionship ;
a w a q m u ++ a k u ( W ) re lationship ;
5 1 i r a m u ++ a k u ( R ) relat ionship ;
p a n j E n E n a n ++ a k u ( J ) re lat ionship ;
k E n 5 1 i r6 ++ k u 1 6 ( G ) re l at ionship .
163
4.1 1 . 1 . The E Rel a t i ons h i p
The use o f s p e e c h i n the E re lat i on s hip , although re c orded in

Surakarta and Yogyakart a , takes p la c e mo s t ly whe re at l e a s t one o f t h e
s p e e c h part i c ipant s c ome s from out s i de Surakarta a n d Yogyakart a . In
s ome cas e s , the use o f s p e e c h in E relat i ons hip i s lab e l le d as c 6 r 6
j 6w6 w e t a n ' i n t h e mann e r as known in Eas t Ja v a ' .
The u s e o f s p e e c h in t he E re l a t i onship i s cons i dered more c ourt e o u s
t han t hat in the K re l at ionship , b u t l e s s formal a n d more int imate t han
t he u s e of s p e e c h in the P relat ionship . Th i s i s overt ly s hown by the
use o f s a m p e y a n ' y o u ' , whi c h i s more c ourt e o u s t han kowe 'you ' , and b y
t he u s e o f a k u ' I ' , whi c h i s not a s d e fe rent a s k u 1 6 'I ' .
The E re lat ionship i s norma l l y u s e d hori zontal ly , alt hough in rare
c a s e s a downward u s e may a l s o b e o b s e rve d , but it is never u s e d upward .
The seman t i c s t ru c t ure o f t he E re lat ionship may b e summari s e d as
fol l ows :
E
- fo rmal
+ int imate
+po l i t e
+ho r i z on t a l
+ downward
-upward
The a f f i x e s u s e d in the E re lat ionship are t h o s e whi c h are shared

b y t he K and M re l a t i o n s h i p s ( vide 4 . 9 . 1 . " part i cularly pp . 1 4 7 - l 4 8 ) .
There are , however , two di fferent choi c e s for the r e s t o f t he l e x i con .
The s e two t y p e s o f cho i c e s are d i c t a t e d by the degre e s o f p o l i t e n e s s
( le t u s c a l l t hem P o l i t e 1 and P o l i t e 2 ) whereby a speaker i s t o c on
duc t h i s s p e e c h c ommuni cat i on w i t h h i s i n t e r l o c ut o r .
P o l i t e 1 i s n o t a s court e o u s a s P o l i t e 2 . T o hims e l f , t h e speaker
app l i e s vocabulari e s t hat are used in the K relat ionship , irre s p e c t i ve
o f any degree of p o l i t e n e s s . To h i s int e rl o cutor , however , the words
t hat are app l i e d are t h o s e t hat b e long to the K relat ionship if P o l i t e
1 i s intende d , o r t he words t hat b e l ong t o the P r e l at i o n s hip ( vide
4 . 10 . 2 . ff. on pp . 1 5 3 -l 6 0 ) , if P o l i t e 2 i s int ende d . Thu s except for
t he u s e of s a m p e y a n 'you ' , everything e l s e i n the E p o l i t e 1 re lat i on
ship i s ident i c a l with t h o s e in the K relat ionship .
The E P o l i t e 1 relat i on s h i p and t he E P o l i t e 2 relat ionship may b e
u s e d hori z o n t a l l y . B u t only the E P o l i t e 1 re lat ionship may b e u s e d
downward . The di fference may b e summar i s e d in the f o l l owing s eman t i c
s t ru c t ure s :
164
E E
- formal - formal
+int imat e +int imate
+po l i t e 1 +polite 2
+horizontal +hori zontal
+ downward - downward
-upward -upward
The f o l l owing s en t e n c e s s how s e n t e n c e s t hat are u s e d in the E

r e l at ionship :
Polite 1
( 4 34 ) s am p e y a n 6p6 wes w E roh oma h k u
y o u - ? - a Z re a dy - s e e - my h o u s e
' Ha v e y o u s e en m y h o u s e ? '
(435 ) d e q s a m p e y a n l u � 6 a k u l 6 r6 t E l o n d i n 6
w h e n - y o u - g o - I - s i c k - t h re e - day
' Wh e n y o u w e r e away , I was s i c k for t h r e e day s '
Polite 2
( 4 36 ) s am p e y a n 6 p 6 w e s p e r s 6 om a h k u
' Ha v e y o u s e e n my h o u s e ? '
(4 3 7 ) d e q s a m p e y a n t i n d a q a k u l 6 r6 t E l o n d i n 6
w h e n - y o u - g o - I- s i c k - t h re e - day
' Wh e n y o u w e r e away, I was s i c k for t h r e e days '
4.11 .2. T h e W Re l a t i on s h i p
The W relationship i s i dent i c a l w i t h t he K relationship e x c ept for

t he use of a w a q m u ' y o u ' inst ead of kowe ' y o u ' for t he referenc e of
one ' s i n t e r l o c utor . S i n c e , howeve r , a wa q m u , l i t erally ' y o u r b o dy ' ,
i s l e s s d i r e c t t han kowe ' y o u ' , t he W relat i onship i s more c ourt eous
t han t h e K relat ionship . I t i s , howeve r , l e s s c ourteous t han t he E
r e l at ionship , and a c c ordingly l e s s s u s ceptable t o the u s e of words
t hat b e long to the P re lat ionship . Furt hermore , M words are never
used in t h e W relat ionship .
Unl ike the E relat ionship , the W relat ionship s e ems nat i ve t o
Surakar t a and Yogyakart a . The W re lations hip i s u s e d hori zontally o r
downward , but never upward . I f we c a l l the degree o f c ourt e s y
chara c t e ri s ing the W re lat i on s hip P o l i t e 3 , w h i c h i s l e s s t han t hat
chara c t e ri s ing P o l i t e 1 , the seman t i c s t ruc t ure of the W relationship
may b e shown as f o l l ows :
165
W
- formal
+int imat e
+polite 3
+ho r i z on t a l
+downward
-upward
The W re lat i on s hip may b e ob serve d in the s p e e c h of an u n c l e or

aunt t o a n adult nephew o r n i e c e , a t e a c her t o h i s adu lt former s t udent ,
a paren t - in- law t o a son-in- law , a wi fe or a hus b and t o an adult younger
b ro t her- i n- law . The fol lowing e xamp l e s show s e n t e n c e s c harac t e r i s ing
the W re lationsh ip :
( 438) a w a q m u 6 p 6 w e 5 w E r o h om a h k u
' H a v e y o u s e e n my h o u s e ? '
( 4 39 ) n a l i k 6 a w a q m u l u n 6 a k u 1 6 r6 t E l o n d i n 6
w h e n - y o u - go - I - s i c k - t h re e - da y
' Wh e n y o u w e re away , I was s i c k f o r t hr e e days '
4.1 1 .3. T h e R Re l a t i o n s h i p
The R relat ionship i s very s imi lar t o t he E re lat ionship . One

s ign i f i cant di fference is shown b y the u s e of the word 5 1 i r a m u 'you '
in the R relat ionship i n s t e ad o f 5 a m p e y a n 'you ' .
I n the mean i ng s e ri e s : awaq ' b o dy ' vs . badan ' b o dy ' vs . 5 a r i r6 �
5 1 i r6 ' b o dy ' , the word 5 1 i r 6 ' b o dy ' i s the mo s t c ourt e ou s , and u s e d t o

r e f e r t o t he b ody o f one ' s i n t e r l o c u t o r in the P relat i onship . Thus
t he word 5 1 i r a m u ' y o u ' but l i t erally ' y o u r b o dy ' c on s i s t s of a q u i t e
c ourt eous word : 5 1 i r6 ' b o dy ' and t he suffix . . . - m u ' y o u r ' , whi c h
b e longs t o t h e K relationship ( vi de p . 1 4 7 ) . The addre s s re ference
5 1 i ramu 'you ' i s c learly more court eous than a w a q m u 'you ' , a l t hough
b o t h are l i t erally ' y o u r b o dy ' . The addre s s reference 5 1 i r a m u is
obviously a l s o more court eous t han kowe 'you ' , whi c h is dire c t .
The R r e l at ionship share s the u s e of t he same set o f affixes w i t h
t he E relat i on s h i p . The R re lat ionship , however , di ffe rs from the E
relat ionship in t hat the lat t e r i s never u s e d w i t h i n a fami ly c i r c l e ,
whe reas the former may b e o b s e rved i n s i de as w e l l as out s i de a fami l y
circle . For e xamp l e , a parent- in- law may u s e the R relationship t o a
chi ld-in-law . But the use o f the E relat ionship i n s u c h a s i t uation i s
out o f the que s t ion . We may a c c o rdingly u s e +Re lat ive t o c hara c t e ri s e
t he R relat ionship , a n d -Relat ive t o c hara c t e r i s e t he E relat ionship .
The de gre e o f p o l i t e ne s s o f t he R relat ionship seems qu + t e similar
t o P o l i t e 2 of the £ re lat ionship . The di ffe ren c e b e t ween t he E P o l i t e
166
1 r e l at i on s hip , t h e E P o l i t e 2 relat ionship , and t h e R re lat i on s h i p may

b e s hown by the fo l l owing seman t i c s t ru c t ure s :
E E R
� formal - fo rmal - formal
+ i n t imate +int imate +int imate
+polite 1 +pol1te 2 +pol1te 2
+horizontal +hori zontal +hori zontal
+downward -downward + downward
-upward -upward :!.upward
-relat ive - re lat ive +relative
The R relat ionship may b e o b s e rved in the s p e e c h u s e d by fianc e e s ,

a pare n t - i n - l aw to a son-in- law but not · vi c e versa , nor norma l l y to a
daught er- in- law , t o whom the speech i s in t he K relat ionship , a hu sban d
t o h i s w i fe and v i c e vers a , a n d a l s o b y o ff i c i a l s o f h igh s t a t u s among
t hemse l ve s .
The fo l l owing examp l e s s how senten c e s t hat are u s e d in the R rela
t i on ship :
( 44 0 ) s l i ramu 6p6 w e s pe r s 6 oma h k u
y o u - ? - a Z r e a dy - s e e - my h o u s e
' Ha v e y o u s e e n my h o u s e ? '
( 441) n a l i k6 s l i r a m u t i n d a q a k u 1 6 r 6 t E l o n d i n 6
w h e n - y o u - g o - I - s i c k - t h re e - da y
' Wh e n y o u were away , I was s i c k f o r t hr e e day s '
4.11 .4. T h e J Re l a t i o n s h i p
I n t he J re lat i on s h ip , one ' s interlocutor i s re ferred t o as

p a n j E n E n a n ' y o u ' , t he mo s t court eous in t he meanir.g seri e s : kowe 'you '
v s . s am p e y a n ' y o u ' vs . p a n j E n E n a n ' y o u ' .
The affixes u s e d in the J re lationship are exac t l y t ho s e t hat are
a l s o u s e d in the K and M relationship s . The re s t of the l e x i c on ,
e x c ep t for t h o s e t hat apply t o the addre s see , whi c h are i de nt i c al with
those app l i cab l e e x c lus ively t o one ' s interlocutor in the P relat i on
ship , are those that are also used in the K re lationship .
In c ompari son t o t he E , W , and R relat i onship s , t he J i s the mo s t
court eous b u t i s s imilarly int ima t e . The J re lat ionship may b e u s e d
h o r i z on t a l l y o r upward , but not downward . The fol lowing i s t h e
s eman t i c s t ruc t ure o f the J re lat ionship :
167
J
- fo rmal
+ i nt imate
+pol1te 2
+hori zontal
+upward
- downward
+re lative
I n t he J re lat ionship , i nt ima cy and r e s p e c t g o hand in hand . It i s

c ommonly obs erved i n t h e s p e e c h u s e d b y a wi fe t o he r husband , b ut not
v i c e versa , a government o ff i c i a l t o anot he r , c lo s e friends o f the same
high s t at u s , and t he l ike .
The fol lowing examp l e s show s e n t e n c e s t hat are u s e d in t he J
re l a t i on s hip :
( 442) p a n j E n E � a n 6 p 6 w e s p e r s 6 om a h k u
y o u - ? - a l r eady - s e e -my h o u s e
'Have you s e en my house ? '
( 44 3 ) n a l i k6 p a n j E n E � a n t i n d a q a k u 1 6 r 6 t E l o � d i n 6
w h e n - y o u - g o - I - s i a k - t h r e e - day
' Wh e n you were away, I was s i a k for t h r e e da y s '
4.11 .5. The G Re l at i on s h i p
The G relat ionship i s derived from the P re lat i onship b y me ans o f

u s i ng t h e phrase k E � s 1 i r 6 'you ' or ( k E n ) s 1 i r6 p a n j E n E n a n 'you ' in
st ead of p a n j E n E � a n ' y o u ' as the addre s s re fere n c e for one ' s inter
l o cut o r . Being l e s s dire c t t han p a n j E n E � a n 'you ' , k E � s l i r 6 , l i t erally
' t h e b o dy ' or k E n s 1 i r 6 p a n j E n E n a n , l i t erally ' t h e b o dy of y o u rs ' , is
a c c ordingly more court e ou s .
The l e x i c on and affixes u s e d in the G r e l at i onship are , in addit ion
t o the neutra l l e x i c on o f s u b s e t X, those t hat norma l l y b e l ong t o t h e
P relat ionship .
The G re lat ionship i s chara c t e r i s e d as highly forma l and unint imat e ,
and a s such , unlike t h e P re l at ionship , may not b e u s e d w i t h i n a fami l y
circle . A c c o rdingl y , the G re lat i on s h ip may b e charac t e r i s e d as
- Re l at ive , whereas t he P r e l at i onship may b e charact e r i s e d as �Relat ive ,
s in c e it may a l s o b e u s ed o u t s i de a fam i l y c i rc l e .
The G r e l a t i on s hip may b e u s e d hori zont a l l y or upward , but never
downward .
The fo l lowing s eman t i c s t ru c t ure s show the di fferen c e s b e t we e n the
P relat ionship and t he G relat ionship :
168
p G
+ formal + fo rmal
+ i n t imate -int imate
+hori z on t a l +hori zontal
+ downward -downward
+upward +upward
+relat ive -relat ive
The use of s p e e c h in the G re lat ionship i s limi t ed , and in s ome

c a s e s it may s ound s t i l t e d . It may chara c t e r i s e the s p e e c h o f
o ffi c i a l s o f high rank , who are genera l l y n o t in frequent c on t a c t
w i t h e a c h o t he r . T h e s p e e c h u s e d among n e i ghbours w h o do n o t v i s i t
e a c h other frequent ly may a l s o b e chara�t e r i s ed by t he G relat i on s hip .
The f o l l owing are sent e n c e s that are u s e d in the G relat ionship :
( 44 4 ) k E � s l i r6 m E n 6 p 6 s a m p o n p e r s 6 g r i y 6 k u 1 6
t h e - b o dy - ? - a l pe a dy - s e e - h o u s e - I
' Ha v e y o u s e e n m y h o u s e ? '
( 445) n a l i k6 k E n s 1 i r6 t i n d aq ku 1 6 s a ke t t i g a � d i n t E n
w h e n - t h e - b o dy - g o - I - s i a k - t h re e - day
' Wh e n you w e r e away, I was s i a k for t h � e e da y s '
CON CLUD I N G REMARKS
An a t t empt at c l o s e s c rut iny of Javane se , fo l lowing t he b a s i c mode l

sugge s t e d by Chafe , has been made in t h i s st udy . The fo c u s o f the
s t udy has been on the de s c r i p t i on of the grammat i c a l and communi c at ive
asp e c t s of the language . The i dent i fi ca t i o n o f t h e regulari t i e s o f t h e
s t ruct ural e l ement s a n d c o n s t ru c t s has b e e n made in the f i r s t three
chap t e rs , whi c h are based on a c e rt ain communi cat ive u s age of the lan
guage , gene r a l ly known as Ngoko . Part i c u l ar at t en t i o n to the wider
a s p e c t s o f d i f fe rent c ommuni c at ive usage s has b e en deve loped i n the
l a s t c hapt e r , i . e . Chap t e r 4 .
The influence o f Javan e s e on the deve lopment o f Baha s a I ndone s ia ,
the s t a t e l anguage o f Indone s i a , has b e en known to be q u i t e not i c e ab le
( Adnan i 1 9 7 1 : 5 ) , and has b e c ome a f o c u s o f s e rious s t udy ( Poedj o s oe darmo
1970 ) . Whi l e it is true that many J avan e s e loans may be t r a c e d furt her
t o o l de r s ource s such as Sanskrit and Kawi , it i s also t rue that many
o t h e r loans have been t aken from t he realm of mode rn Javane s e context s .
Th i s has freque nt ly given r i s e t o c ontroversie s . Some puri s t s are
s t i l l around and l ike to p o int out , s omet imes not incorre c t ly , t hat
many o f - Baha s a I ndone s i a ' s forms are Javani s e d , and c on s e quent l y deviant
or even wrong . The i r lamentation o f the Javane s e ' p o l l ut i on ' o f b ah a s a
Indo n e s i a i nd i c a t e s t hat there i s a s t rong c arry-over o f l ingui s t i c
feat ure s from Javane s e t o bahasa Indones i a .
The st udy p r e s e n t e d i n t he previous chap t e r s shou l d b e s u f f i c ient
i n d i c at ion , that the u s e of language i s more t han a mere manipulat ion
of s urface lingu i s t i c forms . The p ri n c i p l e o f dec o rum t o exalt the
addre s s e e i s also known in b ahasa I ndone s i a , where d i f fe rent addre s s
refere n c e s a r e t o b e u s e d a c c ording t o the degree o f re l a t i o n s h ip
b e tween t he speaker and h i s interlocut or . There are , however , known
i n s t an c e s where Javan e s e words are u s e d in bahasa In done s i a not me r e ly
as t o t a l l y l oaned words , but part i c ularly as more co urt e o u s s ub s t it u t e s
f o r a l re ady e x i s t ing Indone s i an equivalent s . A r e c e nt c o n t roversy o f
169
170
t he ' wrong ' use o f a c ourteous Javan i s e d word p i r s a w a n i n s t e ad o f

p e n o n t o n for ' v i ewer ' i s but a n e xamp le o f a lack o f understanding o f
the need for a c l ear-cut boundary between grammat i c a l corre ctne s s an d
c ommun i c at ive c o rre ctne s s .
The d i s cu s s ion presented in Chap t e rs 1 - 3 , whi l e obviou s l y not
exhaus t i ve , shou l d p o int out c learly the areas from whi c h a s t ru c t ural
compari s on may b e made b etween Javan e s e and bahasa Indone s i a , part i c u
larly w i t h re fere n c e to gramma t i c a l corre c tne s s . Many p o i n t s s t i l l
n e e d further e x p o s i t ory studie s . To the b e s t o f the inve st igat or ' s
know l e dge , no re s e arc he s have b e e n done on the vowel vari ation and
c hange in Javane s e .
The b a s i s for t he n e e d of a c omp rehens ive s t udy of Javan e s e derive s
not mere ly from the c l o s e relations hip between Javan e s e and bahasa
I ndone s i a p e r s e , but part i c u l arly from the ro le of J avan e s e a s a
maj o r source of loan s , and a l s o of inte rferenc e s , for t h e deve l opment
of baha s a Indon e s i a . It may even be c laimed t hat any e ffort at
s t andard i s ing bahasa Indone s i a t hat ignore s t h i s kind of s t udy i s b ound
to be an unrea l i s t i c undertaking . Thi s work , whi c h is not d i r e c t l y
c on c e rned w i t h such a c la i m , i s a part ial a t t empt at s u c h a s t udy .
B I B L I OG R A P H Y
1. WORKS ON LANGUAGES AND LINGUISTICS
BACH , E . and R . T . HARMS , eds
1968 Universa.ls in linguistic theory . New York : Hol t , Rinehart and Winston .
BERNSTEI N , B .
1968 Some sociological determinants o f perception . An inquiry into sub

cultural differences . In Fi shman , 1968 : 2 2 3- 2 39 .
BLOOMF I ELD, L .
1933 Language . New York : Hol t , Rinehart and Winston .
BROWN , Roger and Albert GILMAN
1968 The pronouns of power and solidarity . In Fishman , 1968 : 2 52 - 2 7 5 .
CHAFE , W . L .
1970a A semantica l l y based sketch of Onondaga . Memoir 2 5 , Interna tional

Journal of American Linguis tics . Baltimore : waverly Pre s s .
1970b Meaning and the s tructure o f language . Chicago : University of Chicago

Press .
1 9 7 1a Directionality and paraphrase . Language 4 7/1 : 1- 2 6 .
1 9 7 1b Linguistics and human knowledge . In O ' Brien, 197 1 : 57 - 7 7 .
CHOMSKY , Noarn
1965 Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge : The M . I . T . Press .
CHOMSKY , Noarn and Morri s PALLE
1968 The sound pa t tern of Engl ish . New York : Harper and Row .
COOK, Walter A .
1969 Introduction to tagmemi c analysi s . New York : Hol t , Rinehart and Winston .
1972 A case gramma r matrix. In O ' Brien , 1972 : 1 5-47 .
1973 Covert case rule s . In O ' Brien , 19 7 3 : 52-81 .
FANT , Gunnar
1968 Analys i s and synthesis of speech processes . In Malmberg, 1968 : 17 3- 2 7 7 .
F I LLMORE , Charles J .
1968 The case for case . I n Bach and Harms , eds , 1968 : 1-88 .
171
172
FISHMAN , J . A . , ed .
1968 Readings in the sociology of language . The Hague : Mouton .
HJEMSLEV , Louis
1969 Prolegomena to a theory of language . Madison : The University of

�isconsin Press .
INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC ASSOCIATION
1949 The principles of the Interna tional phonetic Assooi ation . London .
JOOS , Martin
1967 The five clocks . New York : Harcourt , Brace and World .
KATZ , J . J . and J . A . FODOR
1963 The s tructure of a s emantic theory . Language , 39 : 1 7 0- 2 1 0 .
KATZ , J . J . and Paul M . POSTAL
1964 An integrated theory of linguistic descriptions . Cambridge : M . I . T . Press .
LEECH , Geoffrey N .
1969 Towards a semantic description of Engl ish . B loomington : Indiana

University Press and London .
1970 On the theory and practice of semantic testing. Lingua , 2 4 : 3 4 3 - 3 64 .
MALMBERG , Berti l , e d .
1968 Manual o f phonetics . Amsterdam : North-Hol land.
MILLER, G . A .
1963 Language and Communication . New York : McGraw-Hill .
MULDER , J .W . F .
1968 Sets and rel ations in phonology . London : Oxford University Press .
O ' BRIEN , Richard J . , ed .
19 7 1 Monograph no . 24 , Report of the 22nd Annual Round Tabl e , Linguis tics :

developments of the sixties - viewpoints for the seven ties . washington ,
D . C . : Georgetown University Press .
O ' BRIEN, Richard J . , e d .
1972 Languages and linguistics : working papers , no . 6 . Washington , D . C . :

Georgetown University Pres s .
1973 Languages and linguistics : working papers , no . 7 . Washington , D . C . :

Georgetown University Press .
PIKE , Kenneth L .
1971 Crucial ques tions in the development of tagmemi cs--the sixties and
seventies . In O ' Brien , 1 9 7 1 : 79-9 8 .
REIBEL , David A . and Sanford A . SCHANE , eds
1969 Modern s tudies in Engl i sh : readings in transforma tional gramma r .

Englewood Cli ffs : Prentice-Hal l .
RUBIN , Joan
1968 Bil ingual usage in Paraguay . In Fi shman , 1968 : 51 2 - 5 3 0 .
RICE , Frank A . , e d .
1962 Study o f the role of second l anguages in Asi a , Africa and Latin Ameri ca .
washington , D . C . : Center for Applied Lingui stics.
SAUSSURE , Ferdinand de
1959 Course in general l inguistics . New York : McGraw-Hi l l .

173
SEBEOK , Thomas A . , ed.
1967 Curren t trends in l inguistics, vol . 2 : Lingui s tics in E a s t A s i a and South

Eas t Asia . The Hague : Mouton .
SMITH , Carlota S .
1969 Ambi guous sentences with and. In Reibel and Schane , 1969 : 7 5- 79 .
STUART , Don Graham and Matthew M . HAITOD
1957 The phonology o f the word in modern standard Mongol ian . Word, 1 3 : 65-100 .
UHLENBECK, E . M .
1967 Linguistics in South East As i a : Indones i a and Malaysia . In Sebeok , ed . ,

196 7 : 847-89 8 .
ZANDVOORT , Reinard Willem
1966 A handbook of Engl ish gramma r . 4 t h edn. London : Longman s .
2. WORKS ON JAVANESE GRAMMAR AND USAGE
BERG , C . C .
1937 B i j drage tot de kennis der Javaansche werkwoordsvormen . ( Reprint from

De bi jdragen tot de Taa l - , Land- , en Volkenkunde van Nederlands-India 95) .
The Hague : N i j ho f f .
FAVRE , Pierre E . L . , l ' abb�
1866 Grammaire Javanaise . Paris : Imprimerie imp�riale .
GONDA , J .
1947 The Javanese vocabulary of courtesy . Lingua , 1 : 3 3 3- 3 7 6 .
HAAG , Karl
1939 Der Ausdruck der Denkordnung im Javanischen . Heidelberg : C . Winte r .
HORNE , Elinor M .
1961 Beginning Javanese . New Haven : Yale University Press .
1964 Intermedia te Javanese . New Haven : Yale University Pre s s .
PADMASUSASTRA , Ki .
1883 Paramabasa . In Javanese script . Batavia (Jakarta) , n o publisher ( the

writing was suggested by a Mr . D . F . van der Pant ) . Deposited at the
library Radya Pus taka Museum , Surakar t a , listed under no . 81 3 ( 19 7 2 ) .
1898 Sera t Warnabasa . Manuscript in Javanese characters , dated October 1 5 ,

1 89 8 , no publisher. Deposited at Radya Pus taka Museum , Surakarta , l isted
under no . 10 2 ( 19 7 2 ) .
1912 Sera t Patibasa . Semarang : H . A . Ben j amins Semarang Drukkerij en

Boekhandel .
PADMOSOEKOTJO , S .
1958 Ngengrengan kasusas tran Djawa I . Yogyakarta : H ien Hoo Sing . 4th edn .
POEDJOSOEDARMO , Soepomo
1968 Javanese speech leve ls . Indonesi a , 6 : 56-6 1 . Corne l l University , Ithaca ,

Modern Indonesia Pro j ect .
1970 Javanese influence on Indonesian . Doctoral dissertation . Ithaca ,

Cornell Uni �ersity . Published as
1981 Javanese influence on Indonesian . PL, D- 3 8 .

174
PRIJOHOETOMO , M .
1937 Javaansche spraakkuns t . Leiden : E . J . Bri l l .
PURBATJARAKA , Prof . Dr .
1958 Sambutan pa da pasarasehan bahasa dan kesusas teraan Djawa . Yogy'akarta:

Tj abang Bagian Bahasa D j awetan Kebudaj aan Kemen terian .
RONGGOWARSITO, P . Ng .
1866 Serat Paramasastra . Manuscript in Javanese characters . No publ isher.

( e stimated Deposited at Radya Pustaka Museum , Surakarta , listed under no . 81 1 ( 19 7 2 )
date)
ROORDA , Taco
1906 Beknopte Javaansche gramma tica . Zwo l le : W . E . J . Tj eenk W i l l ink . 5th edn .
SAMSURI
1962 Javanese phonemes and their distinctive feature s . Medan ilmu pengetahuan ,
2/4 : 30 9 - 3 2 1 . Jakarta : MIPI .
SUMUKTI , Rukmantoro Hadi
1971 Javanese morphology and morphophonp.mics . Doctoral dissertation , Ithaca ,

Corne l l University .
UHLENBECK, E . M .
1949 De s tructuur van het Javaanse morpheem . Bandoeng : A . C . Nix .
1966 The structure of the Javanese morp:1eme . In Eric Hamp , et a1 . , eds ,

I I , 2 4 8- 2 7 0 .
Readings i n linguis tics Chicago : The University o f Chicago
Pres s .
WALBEEHM, A . H . J . G .
1896 D e taalsoorten in h e t Javaansch . Balavia ( Sakarta) : Albrecht and Rusche .
1897 De woorden als zindeelen in het Javaansch . Batavia (Jakarta) : Boekhandel

Visser .
1905 Javaansche spraakkuns t . Leiden : E . J . Bri l l .
WIRAPUSTAKA ( alias PADMASUSASTRA)
1917 Serat Aribasa . Manuscript in Javanese characters . Dated January 1917 ,

no publisher . Deposited at Radya Pustaka Museum , Surakarta , l i s ted
under nO . 1 03 ( 197 2 ) .
3. OTHER MATERIALS RELATED TO JAVANESE
ADNAN I , Dahni l
1971 Minangkabau sentences and their constituents . Doctoral dis sertation .

Washington , D . C . : Georgetown University .
EMBASSY OF INDONESIA: INFORMATION CENTER
n.d. The Geography of Indonesi a . Washington , D . C .
KOENTJARANINGRAT , R . M .
1957 A prel iminary description of the Javanese kinship system. New Haven ,
Yale University Southeast Asia Studie s , Cultural Report Series .
LEKKERKERKER, Cornel i s
1938 Land en volk van Java . Groningen-Bata-via : J . B . Wolters .
LEMBAGA BAHASA NAS IONAL
1972 Peta bahasa-bahasa d i Indonesia . D j akart a : Lembaga Bahasa Nasional ,

Direktorat Dj endral Kebudaj aan , Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudaj aan .
175
RAFFLES , Thoma s Stanford
1965 The Hi s tory of Java , vol . l . Kuala Lumpur/New York : Oxford University
Press .
SALZNER, Richard
1960 Sprachcna tlas des Indopa zifischen Raumes . Wiesbaden : o. Harrassewi tz .
4. DICTIONARIES
P IGEAU D , Theodoor
1938 Javaans-Nederlands handwoordenboek . Groningen-Batavia (Jakarta ) :

J . B . Wolters .
1948 Nederlands-Javaans en Javaans-Nederl ands Zakwoordenboekje . Groningen :

J . B . Wolters .
POE RWADARMINTA, W . J . S .
1939 Baoesastra Djawa . Batavia (Jakarta ) : J . B . Wolters .
1940 Katerangan tegesing temboeng-temboeng . Batavia (Jakarta ) : J . B . Wolters .

D-45, xiv + 189 pages. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1982. DOI:10.15144/PL-D45.1

Pacific Linguistics Series D - No.: D-45 CC BY-SA 4.0

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

Pacific Linguistics Series D - No.: D-45 CC BY-SA 4.0

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Pacific Linguistics Series D - No.: D-45 CC BY-SA 4.0

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

PACIFIC LINGUISTICS

A DESCRIPTIVE STUDY OF JAVANESE

(MATERIALS IN LANGUAGES OF INDONESIA No.ll)

W.A.L. Stokhof, Series Editor

Research School of Pacific Studies

THE AUSTRALIAN NATIONAL UNIVERSITY

Suharno, I. A Descriptive Study of Javanese.

SERIES A - Occasional Papers

EDITOR: S.A. Wurm

B.W. Bender John Lynch

All correspondence concerning PACIFIC LINGUISTICS, including

Copyright 0 The Author

First Published 1982

National Library of Australia Card Number and ISBN 0 85883 258 5

CHAPTER 1 - THE JAVANESE PHONEMES 1

CHAPTER 2 - THE STRUCTURE OF THE WORD 11

2.5.6. The State-Experiential Verb 33

CHAPTER 3 - THE STRUCTURE OF THE SENTENCE 75

CHAPTER 4 - SPEECH DECORUM AS A MEANING MARKER 111

CONCLUDING REMARKS 169

Bi b.t..i.o gltap hlj 171

Thi s i s a de s c ri pt i ve s t udy o f Javane s e . The p rob lem unde r

l i n gu i s t i c s cholars . Whi l e a great numbe r of nat ive l an guage s in

Wel l-wri t t en ac coun t s of t h e st ruct ure s o f Javan e s e s en t e n c e s and

system. Chap t e r 2 deals w i t h t he s t ruct ure o f t he word . Chap t e r 3

O f great intere s t , w e have found , i s the fea s i b i l i t y o f app l y ing

Suharno, I. A Descriptive Study of Javanese.

THE JAVANESE PHONEMES

1 .1 . S O UNVS AS THE E L E ME NTS OF J A V A N ES E WO RVS

The primary b a s i s of the c las s i fi c at ion of the Javan e s e s oun ds a s

Suharno, I. A Descriptive Study of Javanese.

1 .2. S T R U CTUR A L C LASS I F I C ATI O N O F TH E J A VA N E S E S O UNVS

Un l ike the vowe l s , which may oc cur as the nuc leus of a s y l l ab le , t he

Front Cent ral Back

The art i c ul at o ry c las s i fi c at ion o f the c onsonant s may be pre s en t e d

the nasal c avit y ; the o c c lu s i ves p, t, t, c, b,

where the air s t ream that b u i l d s up in t he st oppage s omewhe re in the

of t he t o ngue i s art i c ulated against the b ac k of t he upp er t ee t h . The

As for t h e nasal n, s i n c e t here i s only one func t i onal n in

1 .3. P H O N O TA C T I CS O F THE C O N S O NA NTS A N V T H E V O W ELS

The c o n s onant s b, d, 9, c, j , t , d, �, y , and w do n o t o c c ur i n

The t yp e s o f c o ns onant c lu s t e rs wh i c h o c c u r i n word i ni t i al po s i t i o n

b. Plain o r i f i c e c o n s o nant e x c ept t ,

The e xamp l e s g i v e n b e l ow are l i s t e d in pa i r s w i t h words i n whi c h

b ramban 'onion ' r a m b a � ' s e l ect b y floating '

n raj a� 'to t r e sp a s s ' raj a� ,

'b e h a v i o u r ' 's lice '

d r i yo 'mind ' r i yo ' o l d r a n k i n g o v e rnm e n t '

he t e 1 ' loose ' r ewe 1 ' fu s s y '

d randa� ' r e s o u n d r e pe a t e d l y ' r a ndu ' J a v a kapo k '

j r a n kb � ' s k e l e t on ' ra�ko l ' embrac e '

' t o comp o s e ' ' sma l l i s h '

k r i yaq ' crunch ' r i yaq ' s l im y s a l i v a '

g r a y ah ' g rope ' r a y ah ' to loo t '

5 rab i 'pancake ' rab i ' t o g e t mar r i e d '

b. m l an k ah ' to s t r a dd L e ' l an k ah ' 8 t ep '

c. m y a yi ' a ris t o c ra c ti c a L L y ' y a yi ' da r Ling gir L '

d. hw e w e q ' t o grima c e ' weweh ' t o giv e '

A s imp le word contains one l ex i c a l unit only . In surface re