Introduction to microgrid

&
Review of PV generation

Course : Photovoltaic and wind off-grid

Content developed and presented by Dr Nima Khoshsirat, Solar panel. [Photography]. Retrieved from https://pixabay.com/illustrations/house-
All Rights Reserved by Conestoga College Institute of Technology and Advanced Learning off-grid-solar-panels-2470256/

1
 1 - Generation
Course Content Overview

Discussion question:

What is a Microgrid?

2 - Storage
3 - Load

4-
Microgrid

2
 Course Content Overview
Discussion question:
What is a Microgrid?
• Microgrid systems link one or multiple distributed power generation sources into a small network serving some
or all of the energy needs of participating users.
• It provides local power sources for local consumers
• It is highly flexible and efficient because it includes multiple and various power generation sources

Microgrid size:
It may range from residential size to municipal regions

3
Course Content Overview
In this course you will learn about:
• Off-grid photovoltaic system and a wind
system using appropriate terminology.

• Analysis of the AC and DC loads in an

electrical system to determine the design
requirements for a microgrid system.

• Applying regulations and guidelines from the

Canadian Electrical Code and other relevant
regulatory agencies to the design of a
microgrid system.

• Photovoltaic and wind generator calculations,

and battery sizing based on load
assessments.

• Designing a model of a microgrid system

incorporating photovoltaic or wind power using
industry best practice techniques.
 Let’s get started
Course Content Overview
We will begin with a review of photovoltaic resource and site assessment

 Photovoltaic site and resource assessment refers to the analysis of a prospective solar energy production
site with the objective being an accurate estimate of site annual energy production (AEP). Initial
assessment steps are:

 Resource assessment:
 Evaluate environmental conditions of the site (Solar irradiation, temperature, average sunlight hours)
 Evaluate available options for solar modules, inverters, batteries, etc.
 Calculate your electrical-generation requirements
 Determine a suitable, unshaded area for installing the PV array. Eliminate/avoid shading as much as possible
 Assess the type and condition of roof or other mounting surface for the array and determine the appropriate structural
attachments. Decide whether to rack or track
 Identify safety hazards, logistical and materials handling issues associated with conducting the system installation

5
Off-grid (stand alone) PV system

[Photography]. Retrieved from Purasol.co.cr

6
Today’s Lesson (what we hope to achieve)
By the end of today’s lesson, you will
understand how to:

1. Describe the energy that the PV module

will capture
2. Interpret definitions pertaining to solar
insolation
3. Use specific equipment for the
measurement of solar energy
4. Find solar insolation for a particular
location
Sun reflected in a solar panel. [Photography]. Retrieved from Encyclopædia
Britannica ImageQuest.
https://quest.eb.com/search/132_1294344/1/132_1294344/cite

7
In order to better understand the solar energy
that can be captured with a PV module, we will
consider the following:

• Where Solar Energy comes from

• How to quantify Solar Energy
– Solar Irradiance, Solar Insolation
• Factors that impact the Solar Energy at the
Earth’s surface

Solar flare. [Photography]. Retrieved from Encyclopædia Britannica ImageQuest.

https://quest.eb.com/search/132_1294687/1/132_1294687/cite

8
Where does Solar Energy come from?
• Sun, the star at the centre of the solar system
• Large hot ball of glowing gas
• Electromagnetic radiation released in the form of photons

Photon: Particle of light containing electromagnetic radiation

The energy contained by a photon “E” is given by following equation:

ℎ𝑐
𝐸 , ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 6.626 10 𝐽. 𝑠
𝜆
𝑐 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚 2.988 10 𝑚/𝑠)
𝜆 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑚
The solar radiation that reaches the earth’s surface can be
quantified as either Solar Irradiance or Solar Insolation 9
 Solar Radiation
• The earth's atmosphere receives energy from the sun in the form of light or solar radiation.
• The atmosphere absorbs some of this energy however, so the amount reaching the earth
is reduced and is approximately 1000W/m2.
• 1000W/m2 has been defined as full sun power, or one sun, and is used as a universal
reference.

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Why Quantify Solar Radiation?

Understanding how much solar energy is available at a location allows us to:

• Understand how a PV system will perform at that location

• Consider how to design a PV system to maximize efficiency

• Make important decisions

Solar Power. [Photography]. Retrieved from Encyclopædia Britannica

ImageQuest.
https://quest.eb.com/search/139_2007113/1/139_2007113/cite
11
What is Solar Irradiance?
Solar Irradiance is the amount of from solar radiation received on a surface
.

The typical unit of measurement for solar irradiance is /

Peak Solar Irradiance = 1 kW/m2

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What is Solar Insolation?
Solar Insolation is the amount of cumulative from solar radiation received on a
surface , over a defined .

Typically measured in / / (or week, or year)

𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑑𝑡

For a period of time where Solar Irradiance is constant,

the Solar Insolation is the product of the Irradiance (in
kW/m2) and the time (in hours).

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Factors impacting Insolation

Some factors that have impact on the amount of solar insolation reaching the Earth’s
surface are as follows:

• Sun angle
• Air Mass (length of path through atmosphere)
• Day length
• Cloud Coverage

To understand these a little bit better, let’s consider some basic astronomy, from the
perspective of North America:
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Earth’s orbit
• The orbit is not perfectly circular, instead it is
elliptical.

• Ecliptic surface is the plane of Earth’s orbit

around the sun.

• The angle between the Earth equatorial plane

and ecliptic plane is fixed and is around 23.5o.

• The Earth is tilted on its axis as it rotates, and it

is this that gives rise to the changing seasons.
Ecliptic Plane. [Photography]. Retrieved from American Technical Publication (atp).
Photovoltaic systems, third edition

• When the North Pole points away from the Sun it

is winter in the northern hemisphere, and when it
points towards the Sun it is summer in the
northern hemisphere. 15
Summer vs Winter

Sun Day
Season Air Mass
Angle length
More
Summer Shorter Longer
direct
Greater
Winter Longer Shorter
angle

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 Air Mass ratio

• The length of path taken by the sun’s rays as they pass through the atmosphere,
divided by the minimum possible path length , which occurs when the sun is directly
overhead, is called the air mass ratio.

ℎ 1 1
𝐴𝑀
ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

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 Calculating Zenith Angle

• The sun’s zenith angle for air mass

calculations can be determined at any
time by using a vertical stake or ruler
of known height and measuring the
𝐿
length of the shadow cast. The ruler,
shadow and rays of the sun form a
𝐿
triangle.

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 Time of Day and Year
• The earth's rotation causes the amount of radiation at a point on the Earth's surface to charge during the day.
Also, the earth's tilt changes the amount of solar radiation received at a given location throughout the year.

• Solar Window is known as the area in the sky between the sun path in summer and winter.

• The solar noon, by definition, is when the sun is at its highest position. The distance that solar radiation must
travel through the atmosphere is at a minimum at this time. A surface on earth receives its highest intensity of
direct solar radiation at "solar noon".

Solar window. [Photography]. Retrieved from American Technical Publication (atp). 19

Photovoltaic systems, third edition
 Radiation and Latitude
• The amount of energy reaching a particular location is strongly dependent on latitude.
As latitude increases north of the equator or decreases south of the equator:
- summer days become longer but the sun is lower in the sky at solar noon
- winter days are shorter and the sun at solar noon is even lower

Solar window. [Photography]. Retrieved from American Technical Publication (atp). 20

Photovoltaic systems, third edition
 Zenith
• In finding the sun position the azimuth
angle is the compass direction from which
the sunlight is coming, and it varies
throughout the day.

• Solar azimuth angle is defined as the

clockwise angle between the north line
and projection of sun’s beam on horizon.

• Knowing the altitude angle and azimuth

angle we can find the sun position in the
Zenith  sky.
angle Altitude  
angle
N E

W
S 21
 Zenith
• Similar to sun position, panel orientation
is also defined by two angles.

• The panel tilt angle that is a vertical

angle between horizontal surface and
the panel surface

• Azimuth angle that is horizontal angle

between a reference direction (either
north or south) and the direction that
panel surface faces. Here in this figure
the reference direction is north.

N E
Altitude  
angle
Tilt 
angle

W
S 22
 Step 4: Identifying site specific obstructions
How to evaluate the shadow caused by an obstruction at different time of day during a year:
2)
• Solar path diagrams have been designed to indicate the range of sun position for a particular location.
• It helps to measure the obstruction severity throughout the year. 1 PM Noon
11 AM

8 AM
7 AM
6 PM
6 AM

N E
Altitude angle
Altitude angle

W S
Sun Path chart for 45o N. [Photography]. Retrieved from American Technical Publication (atp). 23
Photovoltaic systems, third edition
 Solar Radiation and atmospheric effects
• Direct radiation is the solar radiation
directly from the sun that reaches the
earth surface.

• Diffused radiation is radiation that is

scattered by atmosphere, clouds, etc.

• Albedo radiation is radiation that is

reflected back up from the earth
surface and is not useable by
monofacial PV panels. Bifacial panels
use this radiation Atmospheric Effect. [Photography]. Retrieved from American Technical Publication (atp).
Photovoltaic systems, third edition

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Measuring Solar Irradiance

• Sun data is collected using an instrument called a pyranometer.

• Pyranometer measures the direct and diffused radiation
• In order to obtain statistically significant insolation data, the solar-radiation must be
recorded continuously at a site for a long period of time.

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Measuring Solar Irradiance
• Pyrheliometer is an instrument for measurement of direct beam solar irradiance.
• Since it only measure the direct beam it should be pointed directly toward sun and
must be installed on a sun tracking device.

Pyrheliometer. [Photography]. Retrieved from American Technical Publication (atp). 26

Photovoltaic systems, third edition
 Insolation Tables and Charts

• The PV designer must understand that insolation data is statistically based.

• There is no guarantee that the insolation value for a given time period will be
achieved, although there is a high probability that the insolation will be
approximately the stated value.

• Sources for charts and data can be found at:

• Natural Resources Canada
• NASA
• Private Companies
27
Insolation Data
• Solar insolation data for a given area
are contained in tables and maps.

• The insolation can be recorded in peak

sun hours, kWhr/kW, or kWhr/m2.

• Natural Resource Canada (NRCan)

has a resource map for Canada, see
figure below.

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 Using Insolation Data
• The data needs to be processed from the resource to the end use.

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 Using Insolation Data (2)

• Ensure you determine any potential conditions that could impact solar radiation
including:

 shading by trees, towers, poles, chimneys, hills, mountains, utility wires, buildings, etc.
 topographical features such as water bodies (ponds, lakes, streams, etc.) and ground
cover (sand, dirt, snow, ice, grass, shrubs, etc.)
 localized fog, mist, haze, etc.
 other site characteristics that could impact solar radiation such as nearby buildings that
could reflect light.

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Solar Gain at Site
• Due to local influences on radiation, these basic calculations fall short of optimum performance. 
• The data may suggest tilt being adjusted to for these local conditions.
180
80%-100%
165
60%-80%
150
40%-60%
135
20%-40%
120
0%-20%
105

90 Aspect (from South)

75

60

45

30

15

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90
Roof angle (from horizontal) 31
Problem:
At the latitude of 45 degrees north, from below figure with normal radiation assumed. The positioning of the PV
panel would be optimal if it were pointing +/-15 degrees from south and at a tilt angle from the horizontal
between 17-90 degrees. According to the chart how many percent of the insolation do you expect using these
angles?
180
80%-100%
165
60%-80%
150
40%-60%
135
20%-40%
120
0%-20%
105

90 Aspect (from South)

75

60

45

30

15

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90
Roof angle (from horizontal) 32
Solar Gain at Site 
• The data may suggest tilt being adjusted to for these local conditions.
• Figure demonstrates that if the radiation were known to be either 100% direct or only 10% direct, the tilt
angles would show different results from the normal. If the PV system is to be installed in areas with
consistent fog conditions or has large amounts of cloud cover, the tilt due south is still best, but the tilt
from the horizontal is reduced to capture more of the available insolation.

33
 Adjusting Horizontal Insolation Data for Tilted Surface

• Some insolation tables and charts list radiation data only for a horizontal surface.

• This data can be used to estimate the global radiation on a surface tilted at the same angle as
the latitude using the following equation:
𝐻
.
Hθ is an estimate of the global insolation on a surface tilted at an angle of to the horizontal and
facing due south for sites above the equator and due north for sites below the equator
HD is the global radiation falling on a horizontal surface
 𝜃 is the site latitude and the angle between the tilted surface and horizontal
34
 Classification of solar cells

PV cells

Second  Third 
First Generation 
Generation  Generation 
(Wafer based)
(Thin film) emerging PV 

dye 
Organic  Quantum 
Crystalline Si GaAs a‐Si CdTe CIGS CZTS Perovskite sensitized 
solar cells dot PV
PV

Mono‐ Poly‐
Crystalline crystalline

Khoshsirat, N. (2019). Investigation of the doping effect on Cu2ZnSnS4 thin film properties for
35
photovoltaic applications (Doctoral dissertation, Queensland University of Technology).
Current‐Voltage characteristic (I‐V Curve)

36
Power‐Voltage characteristic (P‐V Curve)

𝐼
𝑃

37
Fill Factor
• The "fill factor", more commonly known by its abbreviation "FF“ is a measure of the "squareness" of
the IV curve that is used to determines the maximum power from a solar cell.

𝐼
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑀𝑃𝑃
𝐼

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐼 𝑉
𝐹𝐹% 100
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐼 𝑉

𝑉 𝑉
38
Fill Factor
• The "fill factor", more commonly known by its abbreviation "FF“ is a measure of the "squareness" of
the IV curve that is used to determines the maximum power from a solar cell.

𝐼 𝐼 𝑉
𝐼 𝑀𝑃𝑃 𝐹𝐹% 100
𝐼 𝑉
𝐼

𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐹

𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
39
Efficiency
• Efficiency is the ratio of the output power over input power.
• PV cell efficiencies vary considerably among different PV technologies, and for the
same material and technology, efficiencies vary widely between laboratory
samples and commercial devices.
• Efficiency is expressed as a percentage and is calculated with the following
formula:

• = Efficiency
• P = Maximum power (in W) 𝑃 𝐼 𝑉 𝑃
• E = Solar irradiance (in W/m2) 𝑃 𝐸 𝐴 𝐸 𝐴
• A = Area (in m2) 40
Effects of Insolation on the I-V Curve
• The I-V curve characteristically shifts up as the level of insolation increases as shown
below.
• The maximum power point also shifts, moving to a point where both the current and
voltage are higher.

41
 Effects of Temperature on the I-V Curve
• The operating voltage decreases as temperature increases. While the current slightly increases.

• The exception to this is the amorphous panel, which is unaffected by the higher temperatures.

42
Equivalent Circuit of a solar cell:
𝐼
𝐼 𝐼 𝐼

𝐼 𝐼 𝑒 1
𝐼

𝐼 𝐶𝑇 𝑒 →𝐼 ∝𝑇

𝑘 𝑇 𝐼
where 𝑘 is the Boltzmann constant, 𝑉 ln 1
T is the absolute temperature, 𝑞 𝐼
𝑞 is the electron charge,
V is the voltage at the terminals of the cell.
𝐼 is well known as the diode saturation current, serving as a reminder that a solar cell in the dark is a diode.
𝐼 is the photogenerated current, closely related to the photon flux incident on the cell, 43
 Equivalent Circuit of a solar cell:
𝐼
𝐼 𝐼 𝐼

𝐼 𝐼 𝑒 1
𝐼

𝐼 𝐶𝑇 𝑒 →𝐼 ∝𝑇
𝑘 𝑇 𝐼
𝑉 ln 1
𝑞 𝐼
• 𝐼 Is sensitive to the temperature and increases by increase of temperature. For silicon solar cells near room
temperature, it approximately doubles for every 10 0C increase in temperature.

• The temperature sensitivity of a solar cell depends on the open circuit voltage of the solar cell, with higher
voltage solar cells being less affected by temperature. 44
 More realistic Equivalent Circuit of a solar cell:
𝐼

+ 𝐼
𝑀𝑃𝑃
𝐼 𝐼 V
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑
- 𝑠ℎ𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟

𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑
𝐼 𝐼 𝐼 𝐼 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟

𝑉 𝐼𝑅
𝐼 𝐼 𝐼 𝑒 1
𝑅 𝑉

• 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑅 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑅 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒.
• 𝐿𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑅 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑅 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑙𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦. 45
What have we learned so far
Let’s summarize:
• What is microgrid?
• The source of Solar Energy
• Sun path and solar window
• Irradiance, Insolation
• Factors that impact Insolation
• Adjusting horizontal insolation data
• Solar cells, types, technologies and characteristics

46