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Гончарова Л.Ю. - The History of the Ancient World - Практическое пособие по английскому языку. Часть 1-Изд-во ВГУ (2004)
Гончарова Л.Ю. - The History of the Ancient World - Практическое пособие по английскому языку. Часть 1-Изд-во ВГУ (2004)
РО ССИ Й СК О Й Ф Е Д Е РА Ц И И
В О РО Н Е Ж СК И Й ГО СУ Д А РСТ В Е Н Н Ы Й У Н И В Е РСИ Т Е Т
ч асть 1
В О РО Н Е Ж 2004
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The first racial types identifiable as similar to modern Whites first appeared in
parts of Europe, southern Russia and the Near East during the time period 30,000 BC
to 15,000 BC, following the end of the last great Ice Age around the year 40,000 BC.
The new arrivals are known as Homo Sapiens (or “ wise man” ) in order to
differentiate them from the other life forms known as Homo Erectus and Neanderthal
man.
These first racial types occurred in two main physical forms: the original
Mediterraneans (“ Old Europeans” ) who had dark or brown hair and dark eyes; and
then what is called the Proto-Nordic or Cro-Magnon racial type – tall, light hair and
light eyes.
The time period known as the Late Paleolithic era is marked by two main
characteristics – the hunter-gatherer stage of early human existence; and the
extinction of Neanderthal man (through conflict with the new arrivals).
The Proto-Nordics of the Late Paleolithic Age lived in a broad band spanning
from modern-day Spain right across Europe all the way to Asia, where skeletal
remains have been found. These people wandered from area to area, never settling for
long and often being driven on by the elements and sometimes following new lands
opened up by the retreating last ice sheets.
As a result of the transient nature of these people, they generally traveled in
family groups, usually varying between five and twenty individuals. Small numbers
of livestock and hunting provided their main means of sustenance.
Material Culture
While no great buildings or fixed structures remain from this period, smaller
day-to-day artifacts are relatively plentiful. Excavations across Europe and Russia
have shown that these early Whites had fire, paint, stone blades and the ability to
fashion animal bones into weapons and tools. Sewing needles were also developed
during this period.
Musical instruments made their first appearance – at sites in southern France,
flutes dating back 27,000 years have been found. Coal was also first used as a fuel at
about this time and fired ceramics was developed, with statuettes and other fired
objects dating from approximately 26,000 BC having been found in the present day
Czech Republic.
Two significant weapons marked a great improvement on the till then basic
spear: the spear thrower and the bow and arrow (which made its first appearance
around 9000 BC).
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It was also this period which produced, across Europe, a number of
voluptuous female figure forms which have become known as “ primitive Venuses” .
It is speculated that these figurines are fertility symbols.
All in all, Late Paleolithic life must have been bare, hard and cruel, with all the
energies of the members of society being put almost entirely into survival. The
transient nature of society at this time was the primary cause of the lack of any great
fixed settlements – this would be a development that would come with the
establishment of agriculture, a feature of the time period after 10,000 BC.
Vocabulary work
Read and memorize the following words and expressions, suggest their
Russian equivalents:
VOCABULARY
Comprehension check
Does it seem possible to you that any written records left by Late Paleolithic
people will ever be found?
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Chapter 2
As the climate improved with the recession of the last great Ice Age, Late
Paleolithic man gradually became more settled and started staying in favorable spots
for longer than previously. These first fixed settlements led to a shift from a food
gathering society to a food cultivating society, and the appearance of crops and the
domestication of animals have become features of their way or life. This change in
culture is called the Neolithic Age.
A regular and continuous food supply created by the establishment of farming
meant that bigger populations could live in settled, more secure, areas, and this
marked the first time that the luxury of non-food producing professions within
society became possible.
This shift from hunter-gatherer to settled agriculturalism occurred in fits and
starts all over occupied Europe and the Near East. The earliest farming sites in
northern Europe are to be found in Ireland, occurring at approximately the same time
as the cultivation of crops in the Mesopotamian River Valley in the Near East. As a
general rule, the first Neolithic settlements can be said to have been established
around 10,000 BC, and the cultivation of edible plants and the domestication of
animals was commonplace all over Europe, the Near and Middle East by 5000 BC.
Vocabulary work
Read and memorize the following words and expressions, suggest their
Russian equivalents:
Old Testament
The Garden of Eden
The Mesopotamian River Valley
The Fertile Crescent
The Balkans
Egypt
The Egyptian civilization
The Indo-Europeans
The Middle East
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VOCABULARY
Comprehension check
1. What factors called forth a shift from a food gathering society to a food
cultivating society and what were the consequences of this shift?
2. Why have traditional history writes to a large degree ignored the existence
of fairly advanced Neolithic societies in Europe?
3. What evidence can prove that the inhabitants of Europe were also quite
developed in terms of their society and culture?
4. What are the main differences between the Late Paleolithic and Neolithic
lifestyles?
5. Do Neolithic burial sites provide any evidence concerning the stratification
of Neolithic society?
6. What effect did the introduction of iron working have upon the process of
human development?
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Share your opinions on the following:
Neolithic megaliths have always attracted people’s attention and aroused their
curiosity. Numerous theories and legends exist as to the process of their construction
and possible functions; some of these even attribute megaliths to aliens, visitors from
other planets. In your opinion, what is the basis for such contemplations?
Chapter 3
Crete
The island of Crete, situated to the south of Greece, was the home to the Cretan
civilization, also known as the Minoan civilization (named after Minos, in legend, the
most powerful of the Cretan kings).
By the year 3000 BC Crete had contact with the budding Egyptian civilization,
and many Cretan religious customs and social habits were taken directly from Egypt.
Being an island state, it would be fairly logical that the Cretans would possess well-
developed seafaring skills.
The Cretans were governed by a priest king who had his residence at Knossos.
This palace rose several stories high and was the ultimate in luxury at the time.
The city of Knossos itself appears to have been destroyed by an earthquake –
the result of the titanic volcanic eruption which destroyed the neighbouring island
civilization of Santorini. However, enough artifacts have survived. Most of the walls
in the palace were of painted plaster, decorated with elaborate frescoes, with the most
famous being of a Cretan national sport, “ bull-jumping” – where brave athletes would
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grab a charging bull by the horns and somersault backwards over the length of
the bull’s body.
Minoan art provides fascinating insights into the nature of the society at the
time – men and women dressed for the warm climate, with women bare breasted and
men beardless. Ancient Cretans followed the Egyptian artistic convention of painting
males with red skins and females with white skins. Flowers, plants, sea creatures and
dolphins feature prominently in their art forms indicating that their society was
advanced and wealthy enough to concern itself beyond just basic survival activities.
One interesting original produced by the Cretan palace of Knossos was a
running water sanitation system – the first “ flushing” toilet in the world.
The exact date of the collapse of the Cretan civilization is unfortunately not
recorded, but it stopped functioning as a cultural unit when the island was invaded by
an Indo-European Nordic tribe, the Mycenaeans, around the year 1500 BC.
In 1900, a British archaeologist, Sir Arthur Evans, rediscovered Knossos and
found baked clay tablets with two types of writing, dating from around 2000 BC.
These are called Linear A and Linear B scripts, possibly the oldest identifiable forms
of European continental writing (if the “ writing stone” found at the Caves of Mes
d’Azil in France is discounted).
The Etruscans
The Etruscans were one of the original Mediterranean and Proto-Nordic
peoples living in the Italian peninsula. Originally called the Villanovans (after a place
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where they lived), the Etruscans appeared to have penetrated Italy from somewhere
north of the Alps and seem to have had close contact with some of the Old European
civilizations in the Aegean Sea, as they adopted Greek characters for writing their
language.
Villanovan grave sites have revealed lots of impressive worked metal armor
and personal artifacts, some dating from 1000 BC, the time when iron working first
became widespread in Italy.
With the advantage provided by iron weapons, the Etruscans quickly subdued
other original Mediterranean peoples in Italy, and established a state running from the
North in the Po River valley to about a third of the way from the end of the Italian
peninsula.
Their most notable achievement was, however, the settlement of some towns
and concentrated urban areas, one of which was later to become the city state of
Rome.
With the arrival of new invading Indo-European tribes – in this case the most
important being the Latini – the Etruscans were absorbed into the new Roman state,
with the last official Etruscan kind being expelled from Rome in 509 BC.
After a few hundred years, the assimilation process between the Etruscans and
the Indo-European Latini tribe – the Romans – had reached the point where the
Romans offered the Etruscans full Roman citizenship by 100 BC. By this time the
Etruscan heritage had been completely taken up into the new power which was to
dominate the known world in a way not seen before: the Roman Empire.
Vocabulary work
Read and memorize the following words and expressions, suggest their
Russian equivalents:
The Aegean
Crete
Troy
Asia Minor
The Etruscans
The Mycenaean culture
The Roman Empire
Classical Greece
Knossos
The Latini
Homer
The Illiad
The Odyssey
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VOCABULARY
Comprehension check
1. What is the crucial difference between the Old European civilizations and
the classical civilizations of Ancient Greece and Rome?
2. How did it happen that many ancient Cretan religious customs and social
habits were similar to those in Egypt?
3. What is known about the system of government and the nature of society in
ancient Crete?
4. When and why did the Cretan civilization collapse?
5. What important archaeological discoveries were made in Crete in 1900?
6. Why was the city of Troy for some time considered to be just a legend? How
did the legend proved to be true?
7. What helped the Etruscans to conquer the original inhabitants of the Italian
peninsula? What heritage have they left?
Chapter 4
Origins of Sumer
The region between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers is commonly called the
Fertile Crescent – because of the closeness of fresh water supplies. However, the term
Fertile Crescent is a misnomer. The region was, contrary to popular myth, never
ideal farming territory. Rainfall in this area has always been sparse, and large parts of
this region are in fact arid desert.
In spite of this, by the year 5000 BC, first settlements were established in the
Tigris and Euphrates river basin. These settlements gradually developed into the chief
cities of the region. This territory lies in the modern day country of Iraq.
These original inhabitants were conquered by a new tribe, the Sumerians,
around 3250 BC. These people gave their name to the region: Sumer. In the centuries
that followed, the country grew rich and powerful. Art and agriculture, crafts,
religious and ethical thought flourished.
Sumerian Culture
The Sumerian language became the prevailing speech of the land and their
system of writing, the Sumerian script, where pictures were used to represent objects,
set the standard for all written languages of the time.
Although initially being very basic – a stick drawing of a fish would represent
a fish and so on – this written language laid the basis for all pictographical languages,
including the later Egyptian and Sanskrit forms. Writing was done on clay tablets
with impressions being made by wedge shaped instruments. This pictographical
writing eventually developed symbols for abstract concepts such as “ love” , “ go” , and
so on. The Sumerian script dominated all writing forms for at least 4000 years until
the Greek script became pre-eminent.
From the very beginning of their settlement in the Tigris and Euphrates basin
the Sumerians possessed metal working facilities (they were particularly good at
copper working) and wheeled vehicles, a significant breakthrough of the time. It is
presumed that the wheel originally developed from the potter’s wheel, which the
Sumerians naturally also possessed.
The most characteristic feature of Sumerian architecture is the construction of
the great step pyramids, called Ziggurats (the most famous of which is the Ziggurat at
the Sumerian city of Ur, built in 2100 BC) which served as temples and community
centers, many of which are still standing today.
Sumerian religion had four leading deities, the creating gods called: An, the
god of heaven; Ki, the goddess of earth; Enlil, the god of air; and Enki, the god of
water. There were three sky deities: Nanna, the good of the moon; Utu, the sun god;
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and Inanna, the queen of heaven. Inanna was also the godded of love, procreation
and war.
The Sumerians also had a reasonably advanced mathematical system with
tables for multiplication, division and even square and cube roots. They also
possessed a knowledge of geometry.
The most famous surviving piece of literature is the “ Epic of Gilgamesh” , a
fictional story of an old king of the city state Erech who sets off in search of
immortality. It also includes a chapter dealing with a flood on the earth, and is clearly
the origin of the Christian and Jewish Old Testament story of Noah and the Biblical
flood.
Vocabulary work
Read and memorize the following words and expressions, suggest their
Russian equivalents:
Sumer
Ziggurat, n (= a step pyramid)
The Tigris
The Euphrates
The Nile
Noah
The Biblical flood
Babylon
The Law Code of Hammurabi
The Assyrian Empire
The Indo-Aryans
The Semites
The Persians
The Scythians
Nineveh
VOCABULARY
Comprehension check
Are the following statements about the text true or false? Say why.
1. The region between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers is called the Fertile
Crescent because it is ideal for farming.
2. The Sumerians were the first inhabitants of the region.
3. The Sumerian pictographical writings could endure fire and rain.
4. The development of the wheel had a strong impact upon people’s lifestyle.
5. Ziggurats had a considerable significance for the Sumerian society.
6. The story of the Biblical flood is deeply rooted in pre-Christian times.
7. Since the beginning of the Sumerian civilization, Babylon was its most
important center.
8. Hammurabi’s Code of Laws is a valuable source of knowledge as to the
nature of the Sumerian society.
9. Iron working played an important role in the course of Indo-Aryan
invasions.
10. The chariot was a more effective weapon of war than anything that had
existed before.
11. The famous library of King Ashurbanipul was collected in his lifetime.
12. One of the reasons that led to the decline of the Assyrian empire was the
process of racial mixing.
Chapter 5
Most modern day Whites are to the greatest part, either direct or part
descendants of a great wave of White peoples who swept into Europe from about
5000 BC till around 500 BC – these peoples had their original heartland in the region
known today as central and southern Russia (hence Whites are often today called
Caucasians – after the Caucasus mountains which are situated in the southern reaches
of the country).
It is still unknown precisely what caused these Indo-European peoples to start
migrating. Recent research indicates that the flooding of the Black Sea Basin from
the Mediterranean – established as a factual occurrence around 5600 BC – was the
probable cause of the first great movements.
Meltwaters from the retreating ice sheets at the end of the Pleistocene caused
the world’s oceans to rise by almost 100 meters. In 5600 BC, the rising waters of the
Mediterranean Sea burst through the narrow neck of the Bosporus, destroying the
civilization ringing the fertile Black Sea Basin. It is this catastrophe which triggered
the great Indo-European migrations and spawned the Biblical legend of the flood,
familiar to the adherents of the Christian faith.
With the aid of the horse, the first Indo-Europeans moved in all directions,
disrupting the slow but steady pace of development everywhere they went. Large
numbers settled in northern Europe, staying there till they later began again to move
south; others moved off to the Middle and Near East; while others ventured west,
crossing into Britain and Spain.
Celtic Heritage
The Indo-European tribes may have had a common root, but this did not stop
them fighting with each other as much as with anybody else, with each tribe being
headed by a king and further divided by class into Druids (priests), warrior nobles,
and commoners.
The Roman Conquest of south-eastern Europe, France and Britain effectively
destroyed the Celtic heritage. The Celts were not as literate as the Romans and thus
had less of the organizational skills or abilities of their conquerors.
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However, the Celts were the inventors of chain link armor, iron horse
shoes and were the first to make seamless iron tires for their chariots. Another
important Celtic innovation is soap. The Celtic art style is marked by a preference for
stylized plant motifs, usually of Greek origin, and fantastic animals, derived from the
Scythians and other Russian steppe Indo-Europeans.
Almost all of the original Indo-Europeans worshiped the sun, and the sun
wheel image – the swastika – dominated many designs. The modern Celtic Cross,
regarded today as a Christian symbol, has been directly copied from its original Indo-
European root and is originally a very pagan symbol.
Today, Celtic as a language, has survived at only the extreme ends of the area
occupied by the Celts – Wales, Scotland and a few areas in Ireland.
- The world itself was the product of the great world-tree, Yggdrasil, which
reached through all time and space. Yaggdrasil was however always under attack
from an evil serpent, Nidhogg. The fountain of Mimir, source of hidden wisdom, lay
under one of the roots of the tree;
- Worship of any of these gods was usually conducted in the open – often near
holy trees or within arrangements of stones, with the Indo-Europeans using and
building even more megalith sites in Europe for this purpose;
- Odin (called Woden by the Anglo-Saxons and Wodan or Woutan by the
Germans) was the kind of the gods. His two black ravens, Huggin (“ Thought” ) and
Munnin (“ Memory” ), flew all over the world to report on the doings of men and gods
alike;
- Odin’s court was in the great citadel of Valhalla, where all brave warriors
went after dying in battle. When Odin himself took to travel he used his eight-footed
steed, Sleipner; armed himself with his spear, Gungnir, and his most precious jewel,
the ring called Draupner;
- Odin was also the god of wisdom, poetry and magic, and he sacrificed an eye
for the privilege of drinking from Mimir, the fountain of wisdom. Odin had three
wives;
- Thor was the eldest son of Odin and the strongest of the gods. He had a magic
hammer, which he threw with the aid of iron gloves and which always returned to
him;
- Frei was the son of the fertility god Njord. Frei was the god of fruitfulness,
prosperity, and peace, and the giver of sunlight and rain. He wakened the earth from
the long sleep of winter, and prayers for a good harvest were addressed to him. Frei
was the patron god of Sweden; his chief shrine was at Uppsala. His sister was Freya;
- Freya was the goddess of love, fertility and beauty, sometimes identified as
the goddess of battle and death. Blond, blue-eyed, and beautiful, Freya traveled of a
golden-bristled boar or in a chariot drawn by cats;
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- Frigg or Frigga, was the goddess of the sky and wife of Odin, the chief of
the gods. She was worshipped as the protector of married love and housewives. A
bunch of keys was her symbol;
- Tiu was the god of war and battles. He is represented as having only one
hand, with some stories having it because he can only give victory to one side, or
because it was bitten off by the wolf Fernis;
- Hel was the goddess of the dead. She dwelt beneath one of three roots of the
sacred ash tree Yggdrasil and was the daughter of Loki, the spirit of mischief or evil.
Odin condemned Hel into the underworld and placed her in charge there, never to
emerge again;
- Loki was a giant who represented evil and possessed great knowledge and
cunning. Loki and Hel, goddess of the underworld, would lead the forces of evil
against the gods, in the final battle between good and evil, the “ Ragnarok” , or end of
days;
- The Valkyries were a band of warrior-maidens, who were sometimes
portrayed as Odin’s own daughters. They helped Odin choose which warriors
deserved to go to Valhalla after dying in battle. At Valhalla, the warriors would spend
their time fighting or feasting until “ Ragnarok” .
Vocabulary work
Read and memorize the following words and expressions, suggest their
Russian equivalents:
The Bosporus
The Caucasus mountains
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The Caucasians
The Celts
The Balts
The Slavs
Celtic
Baltic
Slavic
Herodotus
The Dorics
The Dorian invasion
The Roman Conquest
VOCABULARY
catastrophe, n refuge, n
trigger, n (e.g. to pull the trigger) refugee, n
trigger, v (to trigger the migration) to take refuge
adherent, n worship, v (e.g. to worship gods)
(e.g. an adherent of the Christian faith) asty, n
pace, n (e.g. pace of development) virtually, adv
heartland, n pure, adj
(e.g. Moscow region is the heartland of hammer, n
Russia) The tripartite social structure of the Indo-
to arrive in waves Europeans: priests, warriors and commoners.
derive, v (to derive from smth/smb) chain link armor (=chain mail)
(e.g. The word “ Britain” is derived horse shoe, n
from the Britanni Celts) style, n
penetrate, v stylize, v
in an act of irony stylized, adj
descendant, n motif, n
ancestor, n swastika, n
city-state, n (=polis) (=the Indo-European sun wheel image)
fortify, v pagan, adj
fortification, n paganism, n
fortified, adj (e.g a fortified settlement) underworld, n (the Lord of the Underworld)
acropolis, n array of gods
(=a fortified site in Greek city states) serpent, n (=a huge snake)
inhabit, v raven, n
inhabitant, n fertility, n (=fruitfulness)
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Comprehension check
1. Is it known for sure why the Indo-European peoples left their ancestral
homeland and started their invasions?
2. What heritage did the original Indo-European tribes leave in the world’s
geography, culture and linguistics?
3. What important socio-political phenomenon made its appearance in Greece
in the times of the Indo-European Dorian invasion?
4. What are the characteristic features if the original Indo-European religion?
Does it have any connection with Christianity?